1619928933892forensic Science UNIT - VIII PDF

Forensic Science
UGC-NET/JRF Syllabus (UNIT- VIII)

Biometrics
Archana Singh
Forensic Science UGC-NET/JRF Syllabus UNIT- VIII
Contents
Fingerprint 2
History of Fingerprint ................................................................ 12
The Fingerprint Analysis Process .............................................. 14
Detection And Development Of Fingerprints ............................ 15
Powder Method For Latent Print Development: ....................... 16
Fingerprint Classification System ............................................. 47
Detection of Blood Print............................................................ 49
Digital Imaging of Fingerprints ................................................ 56
Fingerprinting the Deceased ..................................................... 60
Lip Print 71
Classification .............................................................................. 71
Collection Of Lip Prints ............................................................. 73
Processing And Developing Of The Lip Prints .......................... 73
Developing the Latent Lip Prints .............................................. 74
Ear Prints 76
Footwear 78
Principles of Footwear Examination ......................................... 78
Analysis of Shoeprints ............................................................... 79
Methods of Recording of Footwear Impressions .......................81
Footprints 88
Types of Footprint ..................................................................... 88
Collection of Footprint .............................................................. 92
Voice analysis 94
Reference: 106
1 Edited by forensicfield (Archana Singh)

Fingerprint
Fingerprints are the distinctive ridges appearing as
corrugated lines on the tips of fingers and thumbs.
The corrugation results due to rising of a portion of
the upper layer of fingertip skin slightly above the
normal level. Since the upper layer of skin is called
epidermis, the finger ridges are also referred to as
epidermal ridges. The depression between two
ridges is called a furrow or a valley. The ridges and
valleys form a complex, curved pattern on the
fingertips.
 Fingerprint ridges are formed during the third to

fourth month of fetal development and their
formation completed by the sixth months.
Functions of Finger Ridges
Finger ridges have an average width of 0.48

millimeters in males and 0.43 millimeters in
females. These perform the following two functions.
1. They increase security of contact with objects.

The ridges are studded with small holes, called
sweat pores through which perspiration is exuded.
The perspiration acts as a lubricant and ensures
firmness of grip.

2. They enhance the sense of touch. For this reason,

epidermal ridges are also called friction ridges.
Fundamental Principles of Fingerprinting
The science of identification by screening and

comparing fingerprints is called dactyloscopy. This
science is based on the following three principles.
1. No two persons and no two fingers of the same

person have identical ridge design on the
fingertips.
2. The fingerprints remain unchanged throughout

life.
Fingerprint Patterns
Fingerprint patterns, or ridge formations, are
grouped in three categories.
The three basic pattern forms are the following:
1. Arch — An Arch pattern is identified by the ridges

flowing in on one side, forming a gentle ―arch,‖ and
flowing out on the other side.

A. Plain Arch---this pattern has a steady flow of

ridges. It begins from the one side of the finger, and
then the ridge flows upward marginally, almost like
a wave. The plain arch then continues its trip along
the finger to the other side.
B. Tented Arch---this pattern is similar to the plain

arch, it begins on one side of the finger and glides
out in a similar manner to the other side. However,
the dissimilarity lies in the ridges. In a plain arch,
the ridges are continuous while in tented arch these
are not. The ridges, which connect each other in the
center, meet and thrust upward, giving the imprint
the shape of a tent.
2. Loops
Loops are the most common patterns. The

frequency of occurrence of such patterns is 60-65%.
A Loop is a type of pattern in which one or more

ridges enter either side, recurve, touch or pass an
imaginary line between delta and core, and tend to
exit from the same side as the ridge entry.
The imprint on the fingerprint card is similar to the

opposite image that we see when we look in the
mirror at ourselves. Loop pattern has got two focal
points: a) Delta and b) Core. Henry has identified
two categories in this group:
A. Radial Loop - these are loops that drift towards

the radius bone of the hand or, in other words,
when the downward slope/ opening of the loop is
from the direction of the little finger toward the
thumb of the hand, it is referred to as a Radial Loop.
B. Ulnar Loop - are loop pattern that stream

towards the ulnar bone of the hand or, when the
descending slope/ opening of the loop is from the
direction of the thumb toward the little finger of the
hand, it is denoted to as Ulnar Loop.
3. Whorls
The existence rate of such pattern is 30-35%.

In whorls, generally have more than two deltas

(delta is the first ridge adjacent to the divergence
point of two type lines) and there exists a recurve
before reaching each delta.
There are four sub-categories of whorls:
A. Plain Whorl - A plain whorl pattern possesses

type lines and at least two deltas. It also has at least
one ridge that makes a complete trip. This ridge may
be in the form of a spiral, oval, circle or variant of a
circle. The plain whorl is the most common form of
whorl and the mostly found. For a pattern to be a
true Whorl, it must be composed of two deltas
comprising of recurve in each front.
B. Central Pocket Loop - in these whorls, one or

more of the simple recurves of the plain whorl
recurves a second time.
C. Double Loop - A Double Loop pattern is made up

of two loops joint into one fingerprint. It comprises
of two separate loop developments with two

individual and different groups of shoulders and

two deltas.
D. Accidental - These are certain composite pattern

inside the whorl group as they arise infrequently
and their existence is purely by chance or by
accident. In these, the combination of the pattern is
derived from two diverse kinds of forms with at
least two deltas.
Common types of Fingerprints Characteristics
A closer scrutiny reveals that the parallel trend is

interrupted by irregularities, known as fingerprint
characters or minutiae. The seven common types of
fingerprint characters are:
(a) Ridge termination or ridge ending – when the

ridge flow abruptly ends.
(b) Bifurcation – when the ridge splits into two,

making a ‗Y‘.
(c) Lake – when there is an enclosed area in

between the ridge.
(d) Island or ridge dot– when there is a small dot or

circle within the overall pattern.

(e) Short independent ridge – when there is a

relatively small ridge within the overall pattern.
(f) Hook or spur – when a small curved ridge is

attached to a regular ridge.
(g) Crossover – when two parallel ridges are joined

by a small ridge.

The common characteristics that make up these

patterns are known as pattern area, type lines, delta
and core.
Pattern area is a part of a loop or a whorl where

appears the core, deltas and ridges that are
primarily responsible for classifying fingerprints.
Type lines are the ridges that determine the pattern

area of loops and whorls. The arches lack presence
of type lines. These may be well-defined as the two
inner most ridges starting parallel or run parallel to
each other then, diverge and tend to covers the
Pattern Area.
Delta is formed when a ridge bifurcates and two

arms of the bifurcating ridge diverge or when two
adjacent ridges running side by side diverge causing
an interspace within which the pattern lies.
Core is the central point of the pattern. The core is

approximately the center of the finger impression.
Fingerprints Impression Categories:
1. Latent fingerprints (hidden).
2. Patent fingerprints (visible).
3. Plastic fingerprints (3D).

1. Latent Fingerprint: Latent friction ridges are

typically comprised of chemicals secreted by the
eccrine and sebaceous glands plus miscellaneous
contaminants. The pores of the eccrine glands are
located directly on the friction ridges, whereas the
sebaceous materials are transferred to the fingers
by frequent contact with the face, neck, and scalp
where the sebaceous glands occur in high density.
Subsequently, friction ridge residues are comprised
of the chemicals contained in the sweat and sebum.
The composition of eccrine sweat is in excess of 98%
water but it also contains a wide variety of inorganic
(e.g., salts and trace elements such as magnesium
and zinc) and organic (e.g., amino acids, proteins,
and lipids) material. For friction ridge detection, the
compounds of primary interest within sweat are
amino acids such as serine, glycine, ornithine, and
alanine, which react with ninhydrin, 1, 8-
diazafluoren9-one (DFO), and 1,2-indanedione to
produce colored and/or fluorescent reaction
products that can be visualized and recorded.
Sebum composition shows much variation between

individuals but the major lipid components have
been identified as fatty acids (37.6%), wax esters

with diglycerides (25%), triglycerides with

monoglycerides and cholesterol esters (21%),
squalene (14.6%), and cholesterol (3.8%).
These sebaceous components are valuable for latent

friction ridge detection because they persist, even in
the presence of water, and can be detected by a wide
variety of physical and chemical techniques such as
powders, physical developer, iodine, small particle
reagent (SPR), and cyano-acrylate (CA).
The chemical reactivity of these friction ridge

components has been exploited by crime scene
examiners who utilize optical, physical, and/or
chemical means to develop visible images of latent
friction ridge impressions.
2. Patent Fingerprint: A patent Fingerprint is a

visible image of fingerprint. These prints can be
made by blood, grease, oil, ink or dirt, etc.
3. Plastic Fingerprint: Plastic fingerprints are three-

dimensional impression which can be made in wax,
soap, tar, or fresh paint, etc. these prints are easily
visible to human eye.

History of Fingerprint
 Dr Nehemiah Grew was the first European to
publish friction ridge skin observations.
 Dutch anatomist Govard Bidloo‘s 1685 book,

―Anatomy of the Human Body,‖ also described
friction ridge skin (papillary ridge) details.
 Marcello Malpighi noted fingerprint ridges,

spirals, and loops in his treatise.
 John Evangelist Purkinje published his thesis

discussing nine fingerprint patterns.
 1788-The first recorded reference to the modern

use of fingerprints as a means of identification
appeared- J.C.A. Mayer wrote, ―Although the
arrangement of skin ridges is never duplicated in
two persons, never the less the similarities are
clearer among some individuals.In others the
differences are marked, yet in spite of their
peculiarities of arrangement all have certain
likeness.‖
 1858- Sir William James Herschel, a British

official in India, began requiring a thumbprint of
his subjects when they received goods and
supplies.
 1880—Dr Henry Faulds—devised methods for the

taking of inked fingerprints that are still in use
today.
 1892—Sir Francis Galton—defined the five ridge

detail types, now referred to as the Galton
details.
 1892—Juan Vucetich—the first recorded use of

fingerprints for criminal identification
(Argentina).
 1901—Sir Edward Richard Henry—developed the

Henry System of classification, a very intricate
method for filing fingerprints so they may be
located by means other than a subject‘s name.
 1904—Fingerprints are officially introduced in

the United States at the World‘s Fair in Saint
Louis.
 1911—Jennings versus Illinois—the first time

fingerprints are allowed to be admitted as
evidence in the US.
 1924—The FBI Identification Division was

formed.

The Fingerprint Analysis Process

Fingerprint examiners use the ACE-V (analysis,
comparison, evaluation and verification) method to
reach a determination on each print.
Analysis involves assessing a print to determine if it

can be used for a comparison. The analysis may also
uncover physical features such as recurves, deltas,
creases and scars that help indicate where to begin
the comparison.
Comparisons are performed by an analyst who

views the known and suspect prints side-by-side.
Evaluation is where the examiner ultimately decides

if the prints are from the same source
(identification or individualization), different
sources (exclusion) or is inconclusive. Inconclusive
results may be due to poor quality samples, lack of
comparable areas, or insufficient number of
corresponding or dissimilar features to be certain.
Verification is when another examiner independently

analyzes, compares and evaluates the prints to either
support or refute the conclusions of the original
examiner. The examiner may also verify the suitability of
determinations made in the analysis phase.

Detection And Development Of Fingerprints

Crime Scene Investigators Often Follow A Two-
phase Process:
 First- They Look For Patent And Plastic Prints

Since They Are Visible. Often Times, A Flashlight
Is Used During This Phase.
 The Second Phase Involves A Blind Search For

Latent Prints.
Basically, there are two types of surfaces:
1.) Nonporous (nonabsorbent) like glass, metal, or

plastic and,
2.) Porous (absorbent) like paper.

1.) Porous Surface:

Crime Scene Investigators often use chemical
methods to locate the print such as iodine fuming,
silver nitrate, or ninhydrin.
When one of these chemicals comes into contact

with the chemicals present in the fingerprint
residue (natural oils, fats), the print become visual.
Powder Method For Latent Print Development:
The application of finely divided material and the

sub-sequent removal of the excess power by
brushing, blowing or tapping has been the universal
method of intensifying fingerprints on non-
absorbent surfaces since the early days of
fingerprint technology.
The technique relies on the mechanical adherence

of fingerprint powder to the moisture and oily
components of the skin ridge deposit.
Formulation containing ferric oxide and rosin,

manganese dioxide and rosin, titanium and kaolin,
lamp-back and fuller‘s earth are some of the
common examples of inorganic-based fingerprint
powders. The working performance of the
composition may be improved by coating the power
onto fine quartz or plastic particulates. A black

powder containing iron oxide, quartz, kaolin and
carbon soot is an example of coated dusting
formulation.
Formulation containing fluorescein, eosin Y and

rhodamine B are some of the common examples of
organic based fingerprint powers.
Metallic Powders, Powder formulations containing

meshed metals have been in use for a considerable
time.
Their advantage is that they have longer shelf lives

as compared to the organic-based powers. Their
disadvantage is that the metallic components elicit
toxic effects to the users.
Silver powder, containing aluminum flake and

quartz powder; gold powder, containing bronze
flake and powdered quartz; and gray powder,
containing meshed aluminum and kaolin are some
of the examples of metallic dusting compositions.
Further, fine lead powder has been used for latent
detection with X-ray electronography and
autoelectronography.

Luminescent powders containing lanthanide

complexes in place of organic derivatives have also
been formulated. Lanthanide complexes offer
several advantages, including benefits from large
stokes shifts, long luminescence lifetimes, narrow
emissions, ability of sequential assembly of
complexes and chemical variability of ligands.
Moreover, such powders are suitable for detection
of latent fingerprints on difficult surface such as
wood, masking tape and polythene.
 Iodine Fuming Method
Iodine fuming develops both fresh and relatively old

prints. Iodine fuming is one of the techniques,
which can develop fingerprints on human skin. The
area of skin suspected to be impinged with latent
print is treated with iodine vapors. Once the
impression appears, these are pressed on to a silver
plate. Exposure of the plate to light reveals
permanent fingermarks.
Iodine fuming takes place in a fuming chamber. The

process works by heating up solid crystal iodine
which creates vapors that adhere to the oily residue
of print, producing a brown colored print.

It must be photographed quickly because Print fades

quickly after the fuming takes place
Latent fingerprints may be developed by iodine

fuming technique by one of the following
experimental procedures:
a. Fuming Gun Method
b. Fuming Cabinet Method
c. Powder Dusting Method
Fingerprints developed by iodine are not permanent

in nature. These tend to fade out on standing. In
presence of air the fading of prints is accelerated.
For this reason the iodine developed prints have to
be photographed immediately. Nevertheless, it is
possible to fix the prints by using iodine in
conjunction with other chemical reagents.
Iodine is known to react with starch giving a stable,

deep blue complex. Thus, post-treatment of iodine-
developed fingerprints with starch solution gives
long-lasting blue impressions. The fading problem
may also be avoided by pressing a silver foil onto the
iodine-developed fingermarks. The interaction of
iodine, absorbed on the fingerprint residue, with
silver produces yellow colored silver iodide. The

latter, on exposure to light decomposes into finely

divided silver, revealing the ridge pattern as a
stable, black deposition.
Iodine exposed fingerprints by may be fixed post-

treatment with a solution of N,N,N‘,N‘-tetramethyl-
4,4‘-diaminodiphenylmethane in 1,2,2-
tricholorotrifluoromethane.
Iodine-developed fingerprints on thermal paper

may also be fixed by spraying with a hexane solution
N,N,N‘,N‘-tetramethyl-4,4‘-
diaminothiobenzophenone or phenothiazine. With
former, the color of developed prints changes to
blue, while with latter, reddish impressions are
obtained.
The most common reagent for fixing iodine-

developed prints is 7,8-benzoflavone. A mixture of 2
ml of 10% 7,8-benzoflavone solution in
dichloromethane and 100 ml of 0.1% iodine solution
in cyclohexane is used for this purpose.
Iodine in combination with 7,8-benzoflavone

reagent may be used for developing old latent
fingerprints on porous surface, such as bond paper,
newsprints and facial tissue paper. The composition

is non-destructive and the documents remain

unaltered.
Sublimable or low boiling organic reagents may also

be made to interact with and fix iodine absorbed on
the latent fingerprints used in vapor state. For
example, iodine interacts with α-naphthyl amine to
form a red colored charge-transfer complex.
Although free iodine does not possess a natural
dipole moment, yet in concert with an aromatic
system, it acquires an induced dipole. The
combination of electron-rich aromatic compounds
and dipolar iodine results in charge-transfer
complexation. The charge transfer complex is non-
volatile in nature and hence it does not evaporate
from the frictional ridges. As a result, the developed
prints do not fade out with passage of time.
 Silver Nitrate
Silver nitrate technique is one of the oldest methods
of detecting latent fingerprints on porous items like
paper, cardboard and wood. The method is based on
the reaction of silver ions with the chloride content
of sweat residue. The reaction product, silver
chloride, is relatively unstable and, when exposed to

ultraviolet radiation or sunlight, decomposes into

finely divided silver, visualizing the ridges as a dark
hue, usually black or brown.
The concentration of silver nitrate in test solution

may vary from 1-10%. However, a 3% solution (w/v)
is considered to be the best choice. The latent
fingerprint-bearing item is treated with the test
solution either by dipping or by spraying. The finely
divided black or brown colored metallic silver
adheres to the ridges and visualizes the fingerprint.
Silver nitrate, when exposed to latent prints, reacts

with the chloride of the salt molecules found in print
residue, forming silver chloride. When it‘s exposed
to ultraviolet light, silver chloride turns black or
brown, which make the print visible.
The ninhydrin and iodine fuming methods of

fingerprint detection do not interfere with the silver
nitrate technique. Thus this method may be used as
a final step to reveal fingerprints when the other
conventional methods do not yield results. In fact, if
the fingerprints developed by ninhydrin on a
particular surface are weak and faint, the item may
be post-treated with silver nitrate to give a better
contrast.

The main demerit of the silver nitrate method is that

although the developed prints are of intense color,
the background is stained and, over a period of
time, the contrast is lowered. The staining may be
delayed by either post-treating the background area
with a stopping solution or by preserving the
developed prints in a dark chamber. Silver nitrate is
a costly and a toxic chemical. On coming in contact
with skin, it produces a black mark which persists
for several days.
 Ninhydrin Test
The object on which the print is located can be

dipped in or sprayed with a ninhydrin solution,
which reacts with the oils in the print‘s residue to
create a bluish print.
The amino acid content of sweat residue may be

fixed by treating the latent fingerprint with a
solution of ninhydrin reagent. The amino acid-
ninhydrin reaction produces a purple compound,
called Ruhemann‘s purple, which becomes
deposited along the ridges, making the latent prints
visible.

Ninhydrin is particularly useful for developing

fingerprints on porous and absorbent surfaces like
paper, paper products, cardboard and wood.
Whereas the inorganic ions and most of the organic
ingredients of sweat deposit tend to interact with
the cellulose content of paper or wood, the amino
acids remain inert. Moreover, with passage of time
the amino acids do not migrate within the
capillaries of the substrate.
Therefore, the ninhydrin method makes it possible

to develop fingerprints that are many years old.
Ninhydrin was first used as a fingerprint reagent in

1954, when two Swedish scientists, S. Oden and Von
B. Hofsten developed latent imprints on paper,
cardboard and similar materials with its aid. A year
later, Oden patented the procedure.
Broadly, the procedure for developing latent

fingermarks involves spraying the ninhydrin
solution on the surface containing the impression,
from a distance of about 6 inches.
After the solvent evaporates, the solution is re-

sprayed. The surface is then heated for a short time,
without allowing it to come into contact with the

heat source. If quick development is not required,

the item may be allowed to dry at room
temperature. Better results are obtained by natural
drying.
Freon-113 (also called fluorisol) proved to be the

most remarkable solvent for dissolving ninhydrin. It
does not interact with ink.
The NFN develops fingermarks on a wide range of

paper items. It provides a minimal amount of
background effects. Moreover, it is effective on
surface-coated papers, such as currency notes, as
well as the gummed side of postage stamps.
 DFO
The amino acid content of sweat residue may be

fixed by treating the fingerprint with a host of
chemicals. The most commonly used is ninhydrin.
However, where the latter fails to give prints of
optimum quality, other derivatives, such as 1,8-
diazafluoren-9-one or DFO may be called into
action.
DFO (1,8-diazafluoren-9-one) is an amino acid

sensitive reagent, which develops latent fingerprints
on porous surfaces like paper and wood. On

reacting with the fingerprint residue it gives a pale

pinkish-purple product. The reaction proceeds
through the formation of intermediate yields, and is
similar to that between ninhydrin and the amino
acid content of sweat deposition. However, while
the reaction of amino acids with ninhydrin yields a
non-fluorescent product, the corresponding
reaction with DFO gives a luminescent derivative.
The mechanism of reaction between DFO and amino

acid residue, leading to fluorescent product.
The fluorescent nature of the amino acid-DFO

reaction product helps in developing weak, chance
prints that are often encountered at crime scenes. It
also assists in detecting fingerprints on
multicolored and glossy papers.
The spectral characteristics of the fluorescence

produced by DFO-developed fingerprints have been
investigated. It has been inferred that the
fluorescent excitation wavelength occurred at about
470 nm, while the corresponding emission
wavelength was centered at about 570 nm. When
illuminated with green light, the developed
fingerprints show strong fluorescence, which is
viewed or photographed through an orange or red

filter. The enhancement afforded due to

fluorescence.
Some printing inks fluoresce under these conditions

and, therefore, interfered with fingerprint
detection. However, the optical brighteners present
in paper do not hinder the visualization of prints.
Fluorescent fingerprints visualized by DFO method
normally reveal more details and clarity than those
shown by ninhydrin-developed imprints.
 LASER ILLUMINATION
Laser Illumination Creates A Contrast Between The
Print And The Surface Which Exposes The Print.

2.) Nonporous Surfaces

A powder technique is usually used to identify latent
prints on nonporous surfaces such as glass, marble,
metal, plastic, and finished wood.
Physical Developer Method

The physical developer technique is a means to
detect fingerprints on porous items, including
paper articles, clay-based products and adhesive
tapes. One of the ingredients of the physical
developer composition is silver nitrate, which,
during processing of fingerprints, is reduced to
finely divided metallic silver. The physical developer
reveals the fingerprints as dark gray or black images
due to the adsorption of metallic silver particles on
the fatty acid and lipid components of sweat residue.
Mechanism of Physical Developer Method
The physical developer composition is a mixture of

the following four components:
a) An aqueous solution of silver nitrate.
b) An iron(II) and iron(III) redox couple.
c) An acid buffer, usually citric acid.

d) A cationic detergent, usually n-dodecylamine

acetate.
 Magnetic Powder Technique

Often times, to avoid smudging the print, a magnetic
powder technique is used in which the powder is
poured on the surface and then spread evenly over
the surface using a magnetic force.
 Superglue Fuming
Superglue fuming is a chemical process that exposes
and fixes fingerprints on a nonporous surface.
In the lab, an airtight tank, known as a fuming

chamber use to heat up superglue (liquid
cyanoacrylate) which releases gases that adhere to
the oily residue of print, thereby creating an image
of the fingerprint.
At the crime scene, investigators may use a

handheld wand that heats up superglue and a
florescent dye.

3.) Human Skin:

Locating and identifying fingerprints left on human
skin is incredibly difficult. According to Scientific
Evidence, the first major obstacle is finding the
print since the oily residue left by fingers that
creates the fingerprint itself is often present on
human skin, making it difficult to create a contrast
between the surface (skin) and the print.
Two hours is the maximum amount of time that a

print on skin may be viable.
 Amido Black
Amido Black, a non-specific protein stain that reacts
with any protein present, is typically used for
developing or enhancing bloody impressions on
human skin.

4.) Textured Surfaces

Surfaces that are not flat or have a rough surface,
such as a painting with brush strokes or a golf ball
will make the process of identifying and collecting
fingerprints more difficult, but not impossible.
 Accu Trans
Accu Trans, a liquid casting compound, can be used
to lift powdered latent prints from rough, textured
or curved surfaces.

Other Methods For Development of

Fingerprints
 Laser Luminescence
Involves the illumination of fingerprints due to
fluorescing particles picked up during everyday life
from paints, inks and oil.
It can be used on painted walls, metals, plastic,

rubber, cloth and wood.
 Metal Evaporation
The fingerprint is developed by first evaporating a

thin layer of gold onto the specimen, followed by a
layer of Cadmium which fills in the print and
provides a contrast.
 Bacteria
Certain bacteria, for example ―Acinetobacter
Calciacatieus”, can be used to develop prints on
valuable oil paintings.
The bacteria in a nutrient gel are pasted onto the

surface of the painting, making the print visible as
they multiply. The gel can then simply be wiped off,
leaving the painting unaffected.

 Autoradiography
Radioactive atoms are incorporated into the
fingerprint by placing the piece of fabric into a
container containing radioactive gases, such as
Iodine or Sulphur Dioxide, at a humidity of less than
50%. The fabric is then put into contact with
photographic film, and the radioactive atoms cause
a picture to become clear.
 Alternate Light Source (ALS)
These are laser or LED devices that emit a particular

wavelength, or spectrum, of light.
For example, investigators may use a blue light with

an orange filter to find latent prints on desks,
chairs, computer equipment or other objects at the
scene of a break-in.
 Phase Transfer Method
One of the recent methods of fingerprint detection

involves the use of phase transfer catalyst in concert
with a xanthen dye. The commonly employed phase
transfer catalyst is t-tetrabutylammonium iodide.
The following dyes, belonging to the xanthen

classification may be used to prepare the fingerprint

formulation: Eosin Y, eosin B, phloxin B, erythrosin

B or rose Bengal. The quality of developed prints is
comparable to other chemical development
methods.
The formulation is prepared by dissolving a mixture

of t-tetrabutylammonium iodide and any one of the
aforementioned xanthen dye in minimum quantity
of water. The contents are stirred for about 30
minutes. Small pieces of paper, lamination sheet,
gift paper, adhesive tape or polythene, bearing
sample latent fingerprints, are dipped in the test
solution for about one minute. The paper samples
are then immersed in distilled water for about 30
seconds. Other surfaces are dried with a hair dryer.
For larger objects, such as polythene bottles,

bakelite switches, glassware and steel utensils, the
test solution is sprayed on to the area containing the
fingerprint impression.
The surface is then dried with a hair dryer.
The phase transfer method of fingerprint detection

offers the following advantages-
1. The reagents used are cost-effective and non-

toxic.

2. The test solution is prepared in water. In

ninhydrin method, the solution is prepared in
organic solvents, which are invariably inflammable
and/or explosive. Moreover, when these solvents
are sprayed over a document, the calligraphic script
gets despoiled.
3. The formulation develops sharp and clear

fingerprints.
4. It takes just 2 minutes to develop latent

impressions. In contrast, ninhydrin and
cyanoacrylate methods take 1-2 hours to develop
fingerprints.
5. The method has broad-based application. It

detects fingerprints on a wide spectrum of objects,
absorbent (for example, paper) and non-absorbent
white and colored; and smooth and rough.
6. The formulations develop fingerprints on a wide

variety of adhesive tapes, including doctor‘s tape,
packaging tape, cello tape and duct tape.
7. It is possible to develop fingerprints on wet items

with the aid of such formulations.

8. The technique does not require costly equipment

or a sophisticated instrument and hence is suitable
for a developing country like India.
 Oil Red O Method for Detection of

Fingerprints
Oil red O, also called solvent red 27, is a lipophilic

dye, which means that it stains fat and lipid
components in biological samples. It is also used to
stain oil and waxes to a red hue.
Oil red O is used to detect latent fingerprints on dry

and wet porous items like paper and cardboard.
Although the physical developer can also lift latent
impressions from wet porous surfaces, the method
is a multistep one and requires immersion of
delicate, paper-like articles in a sequence of working
solutions.
Compared to that, the operational steps of oil red O

method are simple. The reagent develops clear,
stable, red colored fingerprints which may be
discerned in natural light.
The oil red O reagent develops optimum quality

fingerprints on different varieties of paper,

including kraft paper and corrugated cardboard, the

latter two being brown in color.
Latent impressions impinged on thermal papers,

followed by immersion in water for 2 hours could be
developed even after 30 days with oil red O.
Likewise, imprints deposited on photocopier paper,
followed by soaking in water for 24 hours could be
developed after a lapse of 30 days.
Oil red O technique may be used after all routine

amino acid specific reagents have been tried out
without success.
Oil red O outperforms physical developer so long

the latent impressions are fresh or at the most 4
weeks old. For more aged impressions, physical
developer performs better.
 Laser detection
Laser detection of latent fingerprints is an
extremely sensitive technique with a wide range of
applicability. The methodology is based on the
principle that a luminescent fingerprint, impinged
on a non-luminescent surface, produces laser-
excited fluorescence. The fluorescence so produced
provides intrinsically such high sensitivity that

fingerprints may be detected on difficult and

unusual surfaces. The method also ensures
detection of weak, as well as old latent fingerprints.
Laser technique is often used as a supplement to

conventional procedures of fingerprint detection.
Application of Lasers to Fingerprint Detection
The most common device used for the detection of

latent fingerprints on difficult surfaces is the argon
laser (Ar-laser). The surface impinged with the
fingermark is illuminated with the blue-green beam
from the Ar-laser. Before it strikes the surface, the
beam is made to pass through a lens. This serves two
purposes; Firstly, it enlarges the area of coverage of
the beam, so that the whole fingerprint impression
becomes exposed to the laser light. Secondly, the
expanded beam protects the surface from burning.
The imprint is observed through a safety filter. Such

filters absorb the short wavelength components and
transmit the longer ones, thus protecting the
observer‘s eyes. After the fingerprint is identified, it
is photographed through the same filter. The
identification of the fingerprint, as well as its
photography is carried out in a dark room.

However, the luminescent components in the sweat

deposit are present in trace amounts and, therefore,
the method had limited utility.
It thus became evident that laser technique can be

used for resolution of ridge pattern only after the
latent imprint is given a post-treatment. Two broad
post- treatment procedures may be used.
1. The latent fingerprint may be treated with a

luminescent material.
2. The latent fingerprint may be treated with a

chemical reagent which reacts with a sweat
component to form a luminous reaction product.

 Nanotechnology
Semiconductor materials such as CdS, CdSe, CdTe,
InP, and InAs, which normally are not luminescent,
can become intensely luminescent when particles,
typically in crystalline form, become very small (i.e.,
of nanometer order in size). Such nanoparticles can
be quite robust.
CdS Nanocrystals in Fingerprint Detection
Photoluminescent semiconductor nanocrystals may

be expected to be used for fingerprint detection in
various ways, namely by incorporation into dusting
powder in a manner akin to fluorescent dye
blending with magnetic powder by staining,
especially once fingerprints have been exposed to
cyanoacrylate ester; or by chemical bonding to
constituents of fingerprint residue. In
photoluminescence detection of fingerprints, the
staining approach generally tends to be more
effective when applicable to the article under
examination, than dusting.
Dendrimers are polymers of tree-like structure that

have lately begun to command intense attention in
many areas of science, especially in connection with

their incorporation with nanoparticles of various

kinds for purposes of applications that include
cancer drug delivery, catalysis, waste clean-up,
optical devices, etc.
Use of Cadmium Selenide Nanocrystals
The fabrication of cadmium selenide nanocrystals

involves high-temperature chemistry that must be
performed under an inert (Ar) atmosphere — which
comes with considerable difficulty and hazard. At
present, these nanocrystals are not commercially
available, except perhaps in research (milligram)
sample quantity (at high price).




AFIS (Automated Fingerprint Identification System)
It is a system that uses digital imaging technique to

obtain, store and analyze fingerprint data. It
originally used by the FBI in criminal cases.
Automatic fingerprint-matching algorithms work on

the result of fingerprint feature-extraction
algorithms and find the similarity or dissimilarity in
any two given sets of minutiae. Automatic
fingerprint matching can perform fingerprint
comparisons at the rate of tens of thousands of
times each second, and the results can be sorted
according to the degree of similarity and combined
with any other criteria that may be available to
further filter the candidates, all without human
intervention.

Lifting of Fingerprints:
Latent developed with powder can be preserved by
placing a piece of clear cellophane tape over the
dusted latent, causing the dust to adhere to the
adhesive side of the tape. This tape is then lifted
from the object and placed on a card or backer,
which has a contrasting color to the powder used,
resulting in a print that is in the same alignment as
an inked fingerprint.
Casting of Fingerprints:
fingerprints left in soft putty, drying paint, or blood

can be cast using tool mark recovery methods, such
as commercial silicone rubber casting material,
which may include, but is not limited to,
Duplicast™, Mikrosil™, or Accutrans™
(polyvinylsiloxane).

Fingerprint Classification System

Dr. Juan Vucetich, an Argentinian Police Officer
worked out a concept in the year 1891. Although, the
classification system devised by Vucetich has been
refined over the years, is used by many Spanish
speaking countries.
Another fingerprint classification system was

proposed by Sir Edward Richard Henry in the year
1897 which was adopted by the Scotland Yard, four
years later.
Today, the United States and many English-speaking

countries rely on Henry‘s system of classifying
fingerprints for the filing purposes.
In the Henry System, sets of fingerprints were given

a primary classification, based on the distribution of
patterns in the fingers.
These patterns have been divided for classification

based upon their general shapes including:
 Henry System: This was developed in India and is

used in most part of the world.
 Roschler System: This was developed in Germany.
 Vucetich System: This is used in South America

1. Extensions were added to the Henry system of

classification by the FBI.
2. Thus, in the Ten-Digit classification system, the

Ten-Digit fingerprint slip is analysed under the
following seven classification system:
1) Primary classification
2) Major division classification
3) Secondary classification
4) Sub-secondary classification
5) Second sub-secondary classification
6) Final classification
7) Key classification
A visible print is left by a finger that has touched

colored material such as blood, paint, ink, grease,
chalk, mud, or sometimes even dust.
A latent print is essentially invisible and must be

developed by chemical or physical means. These
prints result from deposits of perspiration and body
oils.

Detection of Blood Print

Blood stains are often found on weapons, victims‘
bodies and other articles removed from the scene of
crime.
When fingerprints impinged on a bloodstained

article are to be detected, the method of choice
depends on the nature of the surface and, more
importantly, on the state of the coagulated blood.
On coagulation, the serum content of blood

separates out from the cellular content. The blood
cells usually form a solid red mass, which is
surrounded by a layer of straw-colored serum
fraction. The serum portion is rich in soluble
proteins. The blood cell fraction is rich in heme.
Detection of Blood Fingerprints with Heme-

reacting Reagents
Subsequently, however, benzidine was found to be

carcinogenic and the fear of occupational exposure
prompted the health authorities to ban its use a
fingerprint reagent.
The following heme-reacting reagents have proved

useful and safe for detection of blood fingerprints.

A.) 3,3‘,5,5‘-Tetramethylbenzidine:
The reagent, 3,3‘,5,5‘-tetramethybenzidine, is a non-

toxic and very effective in detecting blood
fingermarks.
A buffer solution containing 10% by weight of

sodium acetate and 80% by volume of glacial acetic
acid is prepared. To 100 ml of this solution, 2 g of
3,3‘, 5, 5‘-tetramethylbenzidine reagent is added.
This is designated as solution (A). A mixture of
colloid (30 ml), ethanol (15 ml) and diethyl ether
(120 ml) is separately prepared. This is designated
as solution (B). The working solution is prepared by
dissolving 6 ml of solution (A) and 0.5 g sodium
perborate in 120 ml of solution (B). The surface is
impinged 2-3 times with the working solution from
a distance of about 6 inches, using a spray gun. On
drying it at room temperature, the fingermarks are
rendered visible.
B.) Phenolphthalein:
A mixture of phenolphthalein (2 g), potassium

hydroxide (20 g) and powdered zinc (20 g) is placed
in distilled water (100 ml). The contents are
refluxed for 2-3 hours until the formulation

becomes colorless. This solution is kept in a dark

colored bottle and care is taken that it remains in
contact with zinc powder.
Immediately before the fingerprints are to be

developed, 20 ml of this solution is mixed with 80
ml of ethanol and 0.5 ml of 3% hydrogen peroxide.
The test solution is applied to the article containing
blood prints. On drying, the fingerprints become
visible.
C.) Leucomalachite Green:
An acidic solution of leuomalachite green reagent is

quite effective in developing blood fingerprints.
To a mixture of diethyl ether (70 ml) and glacial

acetic acid (1 ml), leucomalachite green (1g) and
hydrogen peroxide (0.5 ml, 20%) are added. This
working solution is sprayed on to the surface
impinged with blood fingermarks. On drying, the
fingerprints are visualized.
Detection of Blood Fingerprints with Protein-

reacting Reagents
A good number of organic derivatives bind to the

protein moiety in the blood to yield colored
complexes. However, blood proteins are soluble in
water. Therefore, before the article under

examination is dipped in the test solution, it is
baked in an oven for appropriate time, depending
on the reagent being used. As a result, the proteins
get denatured and become fixed on the surface.
Thereafter, the item is sprayed with the test solution
of the reagent.
The following protein-reacting reagents have proved

efficient in detecting blood fingerprints.
Amido black
While using amido black reagent three solutions

need to be prepared. Solution (A) contains amido
black (0.2 g) dissolved in a mixture of methanol (90
ml) and glacial acetic acid (10 ml). Solution (B) is
mixture of glacial acetic acid (10 ml) and methanol
(90 ml). Solution C also contains a mixture of glacial
acetic acid (5 ml) and methanol (98 ml), but in a
different proportion.
The surface to be examined is baked in an oven at

100º C for about 30 minutes. It is then immersed
successively in solution (A) and (B). Finally it is
washed with solution (C). The surface is allowed to

dry naturally whereupon the fingerprints are

rendered visible.
Crystal Violet
The working solution is prepared by dissolving 0. 1 g
crystal violet in 100 ml distilled water. The pH of the
solution is adjusted to nearly 8 by adding a few
drops of 1:1 aqueous ammonia.
The article to be examined is heated to about 100º C

for about 30 minutes. It is then sprayed with the test
solution. After 2-3 minutes, it is rinsed with distilled
water. On drying the fingermarks are rendered
visible.
Coomassie Brilliant Blue R

Two solutions are required for developing blood
fingerprints with coomassie blue reagent. The
staining solution is prepared by dissolving 0.2 g
coomassie brilliant blue R 250 dye in a mixture of
glacial acetic acid (20 ml) and methanol (100 ml).
The de-staining solution contains all the ingredients
(in the same proportion) of staining solution except
the dye.

The article to be examined baked at 100º C for 30

minutes. It is then immersed in staining solution for
3 minutes and subsequently rinsed with the de-
staining solution. On drying, the fingermarks are
rendered visible.
Coomassie blue reagent may also be used in concert

with cyanoacrylate method of fingerprint detection.
Cyanoacrylate method is based on the principle that
when alkyl 2-cyanoacrylate is allowed to vaporize, it
undergoes polymerization. The polymerized ester
has a tendency to get adsorbed on the sweat residue,
imparting a white color to the ridge pattern. The
color contrast may be improved by various post-
treatment methods.
The surface impinged with blood prints is first

baked in an oven for 5 minutes. It is then suspended
from the roof of a cabinet in which is placed a china
dish containing cyanoacrylate ester. The item is
exposed to the vapors for about 2 hours until
whitish colored fingerprint pattern develops.
Thereafter, it is successively treated with the
coomassie brilliant blue R staining and de-staining
solutions. On drying, fingerprints appear.

Crowle‘s reagent
Crowle‘s reagent is prepared by dissolving a mixture
of coomassie brilliant blue R dye (0.15 g) and
crocein scarlet 7B (2.5g) in glacial acetic acid (30
ml), tricchloroacetic acid (30 ml) and distilled water
(920 ml).
After the article is baked at 100ºC for 30 minutes, it

is immersed in the test solution for about 5 minutes
with constant agitation. It is then repeatedly washed
with water until the test solution background
coloration disappears. The surface is then allowed
to dry, upon which the fingerprints
Ninhydrin: (Discussed above)

Digital Imaging of Fingerprints
For photographic purposes, there are two important

types of digital images—color and black and white.
In case of colored images, color pixels are found
whereas black and white images are formed from
pixels having various shades of gray.
 Black and White Images
A black and white image is made up of pixels each of

which holds a single number corresponding to the
gray level of the image at a particular location.
 Color Images
A color image is made up of pixels each of which

holds three numbers corresponding to the red,
green, and blue levels of the image at a particular
location. The primary colors for mixing light i.e.
red, blue, green also abbreviated as RGB colors or
the additive primary colors are different from the
primary colors used for mixing paints (cyan,
magenta, and yellow).
 Binary or Bilevel Images
In case of binary or bilevel images only a single bit is

employed to represent a single pixel.

 Indexed Color Images
Generally by employing 256 various colors, the

colored images can be created using a limited
palette of colors.
Resolution
The more points at which we sample the image by

measuring its color, the more detail we can capture.
The density of pixels in an image is referred to as its
resolution. The higher the resolution, the more
information the image contains.
Fingerprint Imaging Using CCD Camera
ImaScope is our 12 bit, 4096 levels of gray CCD

camera, for C-mount lenses and our dual filter slide
assembly.
ImaQuest Fingerprint/Palmprint processing

solution allows the removal of fluorescent
backgrounds, boosts prints and removes periodic
backgrounds with FFT, and features a broad range
of digital filters to process the prints. This system
keeps a check to all the changes that have been made
automatically and shows an exceptional format that

records the mathematical treatments done to the

image and also the original image.
Steps of Image Enhancement Technique

At first, the fingerprint enhancement step was
carried out with the help of canny edge detector. But
when used, it turned out that the results given by
this detector was an image of the print with their
ridges highlighted. The image enhancement
technique involves two steps, firstly the histogram
equalization and secondly, the Fourier
Transformation.
Histogram Equalization
In case of histogram equalization, the value of pixel

distribution of the image is expanded so that there is
an increase in the perceptional information.
Fourier Transform
In this the obtained image is divided into small sized

processing blocks of 32x32 pixels and then carries
out the Fourier transformation. In order to enhance
a specific block by its dominant frequencies, we
multiply the FFT of the block by its magnitude a set
of times.

Fingerprint Image Enhancement by MATLAB
The power that MATLAB brings to digital image

processing is an extensive set of functions for
processing multidimensional arrays of which
images (two-dimensional numerical arrays) are a
special case. It is has various features which are
capable of the MATLAB numeric computing
environment. The expressiveness and the functions
pertaining to the MATLAB language makes the
operations required for image processing easy to be
written in a clear and compact form thereby acting
as a best software prototyping environment.

Fingerprinting the Deceased

Depending on the circumstances leading to death, as
well as the extent of post-mortem changes like rigor
mortis, deterioration and dehydration the friction
ridge details of a corpse are less clear as compared
to those of a living person. Hence post-mortem
fingerprinting is more cumbersome than ante-
mortem fingerprinting.
The post-mortem fingerprinting should be carried

out only after the pathological examination of the
dead body is over. Otherwise, the scrapings from the
fingernails become contaminated with ink or
powder, rendering their analysis difficult.
In case the hands are coated with dirt, debris or any

other contaminant, the fingers are first cleansed.
The hand is dipped in soapy water or alcohol,
depending on the nature and extent of adhering
material. The fingers are then carefully dried to
eliminate moisture on the ridges. This step is
necessary since there is no body heat to aid the
drying.
To achieve this, the fingers are blotted with a clean,

lint-free paper towel or cotton. Wipes impregnated

with isopropyl alcohol may also be used. At times,

the hands may be immersed in hot water for a few
minutes. This not only enables the skin to dry
quickly, but also makes the fingers more flexible.
Alternately, a hair dryer may be used to eradicate

moisture on the fingertips. Thereafter, mid-range
photographs of the hands and close-up of each digit
are taken.
Next the method of recording the fingerprint has to

be decided. This is dictated by the state in which the
dead body is found. In context of post-mortem
fingerprinting, three different stages of the corpse
need be considered:
1. Recent death stage;
2. Rigor mortis stage; and
3. Decomposition stage
4. Stage-I: Recent Death
In case a corpse is found within 4 to 7 hours of

death, the external organs, including the fingers, are
quite flexible. In such cases it is possible to secure
the fingerprints of the corpse by any of the following
three methods:

A. Fingerprint Pad Method
As in case of ante-mortem fingerprinting, the

imprints of a corpse may be recorded using a
fingerprint pad. In ante-mortem fingerprint
recording, the finger is rolled over the pad, whereas
in post-mortem fingerprinting, it is the pad which is
rolled over the finger. For this purpose, it is more
convenient to use a single digit fingerprint pad,
rather than a large, conventional one.
The inked finger is then rolled over the appropriate

box of the fingerprint index card. This method may
be tried out only if the fingers are sufficiently
flexible.
B. Fingerprint Ink Method
If the fingers of the corpse are only moderately

flexible, the fingerprint ink method is adopted for
recording impressions. A drop of fingerprint ink is
placed over a spatula and spread out using an ink
roller. A horizontal roller is preferred over a vertical
one.
The spatula is then used to apply ink evenly to the

fingertip.

C. Fingerprint Powder And Tape Method
If the fingers are quite rigid, the fingerprint powder

and tape method is commonly used.
In this method, black fingerprint powder is applied

on the fingertip with the aid of a camel hair brush.
The quantity of the powder should be sufficient to

cover the entire pattern area. Any excess is blown
off. A piece of fingerprint lifting tape is pressed
firmly against the fingertip.
The tape piece is removed and pasted over the

appropriate box of the index card. Since the tape is
quite elastic in nature, it readily confirms to the
shape of the finger. Hence, the entire ridge pattern
is reproduced by this method.
5. Stage-II: Corpse in Rigor Mortis State
If the onset of rigor mortis begins, the fingers need

to be straightened before recording the imprints.
This may be done by pressing on the finger just
above the knuckle zone.
Another method is to bend the wrist in direction of

the forearm and press each finger close to the palm.

If these methods fail then a finger straightener may

be used to unclasp the digits.
If the body has remained in a state of rigor mortis

for a long duration, the skin of the fingers become
shrunken and wrinkled. In such cases a suitable
fluid must be injected beneath the skin, so as to
remove the wrinkles and to restore the fingers to
their original shapes. Hot water, melted paraffin
wax, and oils may be used for this purpose.
However, a mixture of gelatin and glycerin in the
ratio 1:7 (v/v) has been found to be most effective.
The heated mixture is hypodermically injected
beneath the finger tissues.
Air too may be injected hypodermically to flatten the

shrunken fingers. The needle is inserted at the
extremities of the longitudinal axis of the finger,
about 4-5 mm below the fingertips. About 1-1.5 ml of
air is injected to inflate the tissue. The needle is
quickly withdrawn and massaging closes the
perforated spot.
If the dead body has been exposed to hot climate for

a long time, the fingers become very hard and dry.
In such cases, the digits are amputated. This is
generally done with the aid of a bone spine.

The amputated fingers are soaked in an aqueous

solution of potassium hydroxide. Each finger is
immersed in a separate vessel. The strength of the
solution may vary form 1.5-3%, depending on the
condition of the corpse. Once the fingers have been
restored to their original lengths, these are removed
from the solution. This may take 4-10 hours.
The amputated fingers are then washed with

distilled water and then soaked in 1% formaldehyde
solution.
Concentrated alkali solutions should be avoided for

re-hydrating the fingers since these tend to damage
the ridges. Therefore, it is better to soak the fingers
in a weaker alkali like ammonium hydroxide than in
a stronger one like potassium hydroxide. The digits
are immersed in a 50% solution of ammonium
hydroxide for 24 hours; in 75% solution for the next
24 hours; and in 100% solutions for further 24
hours. Using this method it was possible to identify
a man who had been killed three months earlier and
whose body had been dumped in a rubbish heap.
Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA), a

chelating reagent, may also be injected to inflate the
fingers. The reagent, is dissolved in a saturated

detergent solutions and the pH is adjusted to 7.5.

The method works even in the absence of pH
adjustment, but takes a much longer time. In either
case, it gives satisfactory to good fingerprint
patterns.
Dehydrated fingers may be softens injecting two

commercially available formulations, Metaflow and
Restorative. The former is an embalming pre-
injection fluid that is used to restore permeability to
the cell membrane, while the latter is a biopolymer
that is used to re-hydrate desiccated tissues. The
mixture is beneficial in that it neither damages the
ridge details nor requires extensive monitoring.
Leaving the digits immersed in the test solution,
even after optimum level of softening has occurred,
does not impair the ridge characteristics. By this
method it was possible to identify a 14 years old girl
child whose body was recovered in a wood almost 2
months after she died.
Irrespective of the manner in which fingers are

restored, the prints are recorded by the fingerprint
pad method or fingerprint ink method or
fingerprint powder and tape method.

These methods have been enumerated in the

previous section.
6. Stage-III: Corpse in a State of Decomposition
Cases in which the skin of a corpse has started

decaying are the most difficult ones to handle, as far
as retrieving of fingerprints is concerned. In such
cases, normally only a small part of the ridge
pattern persists. The pattern-bearing skin of
fingertips is peeled off and placed in a solution of
formaldehyde. The skin fragment of each finger is
immersed in a separate container. Formaldehyde
not only retards further decomposition of the skin
fragment, but also hardens it, so that subsequent
recording becomes easier. The person authorized to
take fingerprints wears gloves and places skin
pieces on his own fingers.
Thereafter, the rolled impressions are recorded

using fingerprint pad method. In some cases the
outer surface of epidermis is broken down and the
ridge characteristics are blurred. However, the
ridge design on the under surface of the skin may
still persist. In such cases, the skin is first loosened
from the flesh by boiling in water.

Thereafter, the skin is peeled off and placed on a

cardboard with inner surface turned outward. The
ridge pattern is now reverse of the original. A better
way is to take a cast of the underneath skin and then
print from the mould.
In extreme cases, the tissue may be decomposed so

badly as to preclude removal of skin. X-ray
photographs of the fingertips often reveal the ridge
pattern in such cases. An opaque material, such as
barium sulfate or lead carbonate is injected in the
inner surface of the fingers, which are then X-rayed.
The photographs display the bony structure of the
fingers in addition to the ridge details. The latter are
sufficiently clear as to identify the deceased.

Detection of Fingerprints on Evidence

Removed from Arson Sites
All arson examinations should begin with a
thorough visual inspection since the action of heat
and soot can develop friction ridge impressions on
exhibits. The development may be due to
preferential soot deposition onto ridges, heat
development of friction ridges on paper, and
impressions being "baked" onto metal surfaces.
Black or white powder suspensions proved to be the
best treatment for nonporous surfaces exposed to
temperatures up to 200°C. These methods were also
effective for adhesive substrates. For nonporous
substrates above 200°C, superglue fuming was most
effective, providing the surface was dry and VMD
was the technique of choice if the surface had been
wet. For porous substrates, DFO was the best
performing method, providing the surface had not
been exposed to water.
Physical developer was the reagent recommended

for porous substrates that had been wet.

Near-infrared imaging using a near-infrared-

sensitive camera and filter (cut-on wavelengths of
715 nm or above) proved useful for charred paper.

Lip Print
The study of lip prints is called Cheiloscopy. An
individual‘s lip prints are distinct features same as
fingerprints. There are two ways of possibly using
lip prints:
1. Print patterns for identification
2. Chromatography to match lipstick marks
The lip crease shape exist on the vermilion border of

the lip, which is relatively moveable and lip prints
may vary in form as per the pressure, direction and
method used in making the print.
CLASSIFICATION
In 1967 Santos was the first person to classify lip
grooves. He divided them in to four types namely:
1. Straight line
2. Curved line
3. Angled line
4. Sine-shaped line
Suzuki and Tsuchihashi, in 1970, devised a

classification method of lip prints, which follows:

Suzuki and Tsuchihashi classification
1. Type I: A clear-cut groove running vertically

across the lip.
2. Type I′: Partial-length groove of Type I.
3. Type II: A Branched groove.
4. Type III: An intersected groove.
5. Type IV: A Reticular pattern
6. Type V: Other patterns.
This classification is the most commonly used for

recording the pattern on the lips.

Collection Of Lip Prints

1. By Photography the suspect′s lips.
2. On a non-porous flat surface such as a mirror

they can be photographed, enlarged and overlay
tracings made of the grooves.
3. Applying lipstick, lip rouge, or other suitable

transfer mediums to the lips and then having the
individual press his or her lips to a piece of paper
or cellophane tape or similar surface.
4. Using a finger printer, preferably a roller finger

printer.
5. In case of latent lip prints against a suitable

surface processing can be either with
conventional finger print developing powder or
with a magna brush and magnetic powder.
Processing And Developing Of The Lip Prints
 Crime Scene Investigators Often Use Chemical

Methods To Locate The Print Such As;
 Iodine Fuming [must be photographed quickly

because Print fades quickly after the fuming
takes place],

 Silver Nitrate (Agno3) [works well on

impressions left in cardboard and paper-like
surfaces],
 Ninhydrin, [reacts with the oils in the print‘s

residue to create a bluish print],
 Lysochrome Dyes (Sudan 3 Dye And Oil Red ‗O‘

Dye/ Red ‗O‘ Dye),
 Small Particle Reagent (SPR).
Basic Latent Print Dusting
Following Powder Method Can Be Used To Develop

Lip Print-
Aluminum Powder Method
Magnetic Powder Method
Plumb Carbonate Powder (White Powder)
Developing the Latent Lip Prints
To record lip prints using the magna brush method,

the person should impress his or her lips against a
glossy porous surface or a smooth nonporous
surface.

These lip prints should then be subjected to a heat

source until they solidify or should be allowed to air
dry.
These prints should then be powdered using a

magna brush and magnetic powder.

Ear Prints
The outer ear is constituted of a cartilaginous bone
structure covered with teguments. The cartilage
lamina is folded in on itself, forming protuberances
and depressions that give the outer ear its
characteristic shape, which has been only too well
described in anatomical texts.
Bertillon made a purely descriptive analysis of its

parts. Schwalbe described the form of the helix, the
lobe, and six variants of Darwin‘s tubercle, besides
the tragus, antitragus, and the angle of the outer ear
to the brain. He designed five imaginary lines on the
basis of which he spoke about the morphological
index and the physiognomical index. Iannarelli used
a system of four lines centred in the tragus for the
radial partition of the outer ear into eight areas for
comparative purposes.
The ear print is a two-dimensional reproduction of

the parts of the outer ear that have touched a
specific surface, and that are usually the most
prominent regions of the same, that is to say, are
most commonly the helix, antihelix, tragus, and
antitragus. These types of prints, like fingerprints,

are produced by the remains of desquamation,

sweat, and grease that the skin leaves on contact
with a surface. They are not visible to the naked eye,
but are recovered very easily with physical or
chemical developers.

FOOTWEAR
Footwear can be deposited on almost any surface,
from paper to the human body. Prints are divided
into three types:
 Visible,
 Plastic, And,
 Latent Prints
Principles of Footwear Examination

To do this, examiners use three main characteristics
to analyse the imprints and impressions:
 Class,
 Individual, and,
 Wear
Class characteristics result from the manufacturing

process and are divided into general and limited.
 General class characteristics include those that

are standard for every item of that make and
model.
 Limited characteristics refer to variations that
are unique to a certain molds.
For example, two shoes of the same brand, model

and size will have identical tread design and

dimensions, but may have slight differences due to

imperfections in the molds used during
manufacturing.
Individual characteristics are unique aspects of a

particular shoe or tire that result from use, not the
manufacturing process. These could be from
damage such as a cut, gouge or crack, or a
temporary alteration like a stone or twig stuck in the
shoes.
Wear characteristics result from the natural erosion

of the shoe caused by use. Specific wear
characteristics include the wear pattern; the wear
condition, the amount Or depth of the wear; and
where extreme, the damage to or destruction of the
tread.
Analysis of Shoeprints
Two types of markings are present on the shoes-
primary and secondary. The primary markings give
the information about the maker of shoe or it‘s sole
while the secondary markings are due to wear and
tear of the sole associated with use. If there is an
incidental finding it will be useful because of its
uniqueness and it is desirable to find its

corresponding shoe before that feature gets lost

with time or damage.
The information from shoes can be obtained in

three different ways-
(A) Outer Impressions,
(B) Inner Impressions And,
(C) Other Evidence From Shoes.
(A) Outer impressions
They are the impressions left on an object that was

caused by contact with footwear. They can be found
on the floor, doormats, carpet, doors or even the
body of victim (eg: due to kicking).
Their detection may require the use of additional

specialized light sources such as portable ultraviolet
lighting. Recovery typically includes photography as
well as lifting with "gel" or "electrostatic" dust
lifters.
(b) Inner impressions/imprints
They are imprints left in the inside of shoe by

contact from the person‘s foot. Analysis of the insole
impressions can be used to link a person(s) to a
piece of footwear.

(c) Other evidence from shoes
It is in the form of body hair, body fluids, skin tags,

dust particles, glass fragments that may be found on
the shoes. The study of this trace evidence could be
used to link the footwear to a location or owner.
DNA can be one of the contributing factors in
forensic evidence from shoes.
Methods of Recording of Footwear Impressions

There are four basic methods of recording footwear
impressions at the crime scene.
1. Photography
2. Documentation/Sketching
3. Casting
4. Lifting
1. Photography
The location containing the footwear impressions

should be photographed accordingly wherein each
and every minute detail should be photographed
with proper guidelines.
If the photographs are not taken at a 90° angle to the

impression, then the true size cannot be produced

in order to compare to the actual shoe. In the case of

impression evidence, general photographs of the
evidence location in relation to the rest of the scene
are taken, along with high-resolution images of the
individual imprints or impressions.
Examiners may use alternate light sources or

chemical enhancers to capture as much detail as
possible, especially with latent imprints.
In tracking, which is the process of following the

footprints of an individual, photograph the scene as
you found it and then lace numbers next to each
impression. Photograph the scene showing the
impressions' numbers, this way you can come back
later and relate where each impression was found.
Then the quality examination photographs can be
taken.
2. Documentation/Sketching
3. Casting
All three dimensional impressions should be cast

with the help of dental stone. Dental stone like
plaster is a gypsum product. But dental stone unlike
softer plasters set much harder and have a higher

compressive strength and provide a quicker and

easier way to recover impressions.
Dental stones having a compressive strength of

around 8000 pounds per square inch or greater are
sufficiently hard to be cleaner without loss of detail.
Although Dental stone can be mixed in a bucket, it
has become more popular to prepare and have on
hand several Ziplock bags of Dental Stone in 2-
pound portions. The proper amount of water for the
2-pound portion can then be added to the bag at the
crime scene. A dental stone having a consistency of
30 and a compressive strength of 8000 pounds per
square inch requires approximately 9.5 ounces of
water. The exact amount of water will depend on the
powder to water ratio. The casting material can be
carefully poured next to the impression and allowed
to flow quickly into the impression. The dental stone
material will harden in approximately 20 minutes,
after which it can be lifted and placed where it can
dry further. Impressions in snow can also be cast
with special methods and materials such as snow
print wax.
Casting of Footprint in Snow:
Dental stone
One of the two casting methods utilizes gypsum-

based products, including dental stone which has
been in use the longest.
Sulfur cement
Another common method used is sulfur cement. It‘s

hot when it‘s a liquid, then you let it cool until right
when it‘s about to harden and you pour it in then
sulfur hardens and makes a shell.
Snow stone
―With dental stone, you mix it and pour it and it

takes about 5 minutes or so. It is a new gypsum-
based product from Kjell & Jens Carlsson. Snow
Stone starts to gel in about 45 seconds and does its
initial set in about a minute.
4. Lifting
For the lifting purposes contact or adhesive paper

can be placed over the impression present in dust or
very light dirt. Thus, this allows the dust or dirt to
get transferred to the contact paper or adhesive side
of the paper. Once this procedure is completed, it is
than peeled off and photographed for future
references. This sheet can then also be treated with
a mixture of 0.05g of crystal violet and 500mL of

distilled water so that the obtained impression gets

stained and hence produces a reversed image on
collection.
Once this is completed a piece of clear acetate is

placed over the print in order to preserve it for
impounding and later examination purposes.
Latent fingerprint powders and lifting tapes can be

used on various surfaces for contrast and recovery.
For shoeprints and tire tracks that cannot be

picked up, various lifting techniques are used to
recover the evidence. These include:
• Adhesive lifter –
A heavy coating of adhesive lifts the imprint from

smooth, non-delicate surfaces such as tile or
hardwood floors, metal counters, etc. It is usually
used in conjunction with fingerprint powders.
• Gelatin lifter –
A sheet of rubber with a low-adhesive gelatin layer

on one side that can lift prints from almost any
surface, including porous, rough, curved and
textured surfaces. It is less tacky and

more flexible than an adhesive lifter, allowing it to

pick up a dusty shoeprint on a cardboard box, for
example, but not tear the surface of the box.
• Electrostatic dust-print lifting device-
A tool that electrostatically charges particles within

dust or light soil, which are then attracted and
bonded to a lifting film. This method is best for
collecting dry or dusty residue impressions on
almost any surface, even the skin of a cadaver.
Casting:
Any plastic, or three-dimensional, footwear or tire

impressions can be collected by casting.
Casting uses a powdered stone material, such as

dental stone, that can be mixed with water and
poured into the impression. When it dries, this
method creates a three-dimensional model of the
impression.
Imprints and impressions may be further processed

to enhance or bring out additional minute details.
For example, a digital enhancement program such
as Adobe Photoshop can be used to improve the
quality of a photographed tire track. Fingerprint
powders and chemical stains or dyes can enhance

image colour or increase the contrast against the

background. This enables lifted or casted evidence
to be photographed or scanned.
Comparison samples are usually taken from

suspects or suspect vehicles. Shoe samples should
be packaged to avoid cross-contamination and tire
samples should remain on the vehicle.
The Scientific Working Group on Shoeprint and Tire

Tread Evidence (SWGTREAD) has a published
standard that discusses the minimum qualifications
and training for footwear/tire track examiners.
Additionally, the International Association for
Identification (IAI) offers a recommended course of
study for footwear and tire track examiners that
takes participants through more than 550 hours of
training. The IAI also certifies footwear (but not tire
track) examiner

FOOTPRINTS
The purpose of the present investigation is to study
the shape, size, alignment of toes, humps, creases,
cuts, cracks, pits, etc., of the foot so as to draw
conclusions for individualizing characteristics.
There are 26 bones, 33 joints (20 of which are

actively articulating) and more than 100 muscles,
tendons and ligaments in each human foot along
with considerable variations in its component parts.
These variations are reflected in the degree of
influence of every part to the function of the foot as
a entire. These variations are responsible for
differences in pressure distribution and weight
bearing through gait, making each footprint unique.
Types of Footprint
1) Visible Print
2) Latent Print
Others:
1) Phalange marks
Phalange marks are created by the phalanges of the

toes and are imprinted in form of toe stems. The
presence, position, shape and size of the phalange

mark from the characteristic feature of footprints

and can help in personal identification.
2) Crease marks
Crease marks are caused by skin folds of the plantar

surface of the foot. Some of the folds are long lasting
while others are not. Both types of creases form
useful evidence to identify individuals. Their
presence, position, size and shape are characteristic
of a person. The existing study demonstrations that
in various cases, there may be no crease mark or
there are one or two or several creases,
correspondingly in some individuals, creases are
vertical horizontal or crossed, in others or they may
be in different directions. Besides this in flatfooted
subjects of the present study, the crease marks are
frequently seen at the centre of the foot. It is further
observed that the number of crease marks in a
flatfoot is more than in normal foot.
3) Pits, corns, deformity and crack marks
It is well known that the individuals who have the

habit of walking barefooted, their plantar surface
forms pits, corns, cracks, cuts, etc. They have their
corresponding marks in the imprints. The damage

in the form of pits or cracks is individualistic in

nature and permits definite identification of the
marks in the respect of its source, thus linking the
mark with the foot of a person. In the North Indian
Gujjars of the present study, clearly demonstrates
the formation of pits that might be due to the habit
of walking barefooted. An unusual flat ridge in the
instep area of both left and right footprints is seen
as an example of deformity.
4) Flatfoot character
Flatfoot is a condition, in which complete instep

region of the plantar surface of the foot is impressed
on the surface. The flexed or curved area is not
visible in flatfoot as in normal foot.
That is, the medial and lateral borders of the foot

can clearly be discernible in the flatfoot.
This condition is considered as a deformity and the

recruitment into the military and police forces is
restricted for such persons having this condition. In
the present study, the flatfoot condition exists in
1.54% of the population. The condition shows a
significant bilateral variation in both left and right
feet of some persons. It is found, in an individual, as

shown in , one foot is flat and the other is normal.

The frequency of the flatfoot condition is more on
the left side (1.54%) than on the right side (1.05%).
The feature may be helpful in approaching personal
identity in the exclusion and inclusion of certain
suspects.
Footprints can give valuable information regarding

any pathology or individual characteristics and this
will aid in the identification process. Three methods
for barefoot examination are commonly employed –
I. Gunn Method:
Here well recognized identification points of foot

are connected with one another by using a series of
measured lines.
II. Optical Centre Method:
A distinct point on the foot is identified and

concentric circles are drawn in its most suitable
location. This point is then isolated and then
connected to other recognized regions of the
footprint by means of lines.
III. Overlay Method

Here outline of an identified footprint is drawn and

positioned over an unknown footprint and
compared. Features such as crease lines, shapes and
positions of toes etc. are matched.
Collection of Footprint
Footprints can be considered as a type of evidence
and collection can be done from various crime
scenes. The stride dimension, location of each
footprint, its shape, size, angulations and deepness,
interspaces and outer margins, heel creases,
injuries or accidental damages provide indirect
information with regard to gait pattern, height of
the person, length of legs, range of body weight and
interrelated movement of the foot, ankle, leg and
the body that are individualistic to that particular
person. Thus, the footprints whether complete or
partial or even a small portion can provide evidence,
which may indicate the skeletal and body structure
of the person who made it.
In a foot, the specific arrangement of the bones in

respect of to each other and the manner they are
kept by connective tissues are the result of heredity
and environment and differ not only from

individual to individual but also from left to right

feet of the same individual; even identical twins do
not make identical footprints.
For impressions in soil, snow or other soft surfaces,

casting is the most commonly used collection
method. For imprints, examiners generally try to
collect the entire object containing the imprint, such
as a whole sheet of paper or cardboard with a shoe
print. When that is not possible, for instance, if the
print is on a bank counter, the examiner would use a
lifting technique to transfer the imprint to a
medium that can be sent to the laboratory.

VOICE ANALYSIS
The Main Areas Of Forensic Science That Include
Voice Are:
(1) Speaker Recognition,
(2) Speaker Profiling,
(3)Intelligibility Enhancement Of Audio Recordings,
(4)Transcription And Analysis Of Disputed

Utterances, And
(5)Authenticity Or Integrity Examination Of Audio

Recordings.
Nature of voice and production of speech
Voice results from an expiratory energy used to

generate noises and/or to move the vocal
cords, which generate voiced sounds.
Speech production is composed of two basic
mechanical functions:
1. Phonation - Phonation is the production of an

acoustic signal
2. Articulation - Articulation includes the

modulation of the acoustic signal by the
articulators, mainly the lips, the tongue and

the soft palate, and its resonance in the

supraglottic cavities, oral and/or nasal.
The frequency range of the normal speech signal

is 80-8000 Hz, with a dynamic range of 60-70 dB.
The average fundamental frequency of vibration of

the vocal cords (P0), called pitch, is between 180
and 300 Hz for females, between 300 and 600 Hz
for children and between 90 and 140 Hz for males.
Perception of voice and speech
Speech perception is generally described as a five-

stage transformation of the speech signal in a
message:
1. Peripheral auditory analysis,
2. Central auditory analysis,
3. Acoustic-phonetic analysis,
4. Phonological analysis and,
5. Higher order analysis (lexical, syntactic and

semantic).
The human ear is primarily designed to perceive the

human voice. The accepted range for perception is
between 16 and 20 000 Hz, with extremely good

sensitivity between 500 and 4000 Hz. The

recognized limit in the intensity domain is between
130 and 140 dB.
Speaker Recognition
TYPES OF SPEAKER RECOGNITION
Speaker recognition refers to any process that uses

some features of the speech signal to determine if a
particular person is the speaker of a given
utterance. Three kinds of approach can be
distinguished:
(1) Speaker recognition by /istening (SRL) - SRL

involves the study of how human listeners associate
a particular voice with a particular individual or
group, and indeed to what extent such a task can be
performed.
(2) Speaker recognition by visual comparison of

spectrograms (SRS) - SRS comprises efforts to make
decisions on the identity or nonidentity of voice
based on visual examination of speech
spectrograms.
(3) Automatic speaker recognition (ASR) - ASR

relies on computer methods, based on information

theory, pattern recognition and artificial

intelligence.
Recognition Process
The recognition process consists of three stages:
(1) Feature Extraction,
(2) Feature Comparison, And,
(3) Classification
Feature extraction
The ideal parameters would:
• Exhibit a high degree of variation from one

speaker to another (high interspeaker
variability);
• Show consistency throughout the utterances of a

single speaker (selectivity);
• Preferably be insensitive to emotional state or

health and to communication context (low intra-
speaker variability);
• Withstand attempted disguise or mimicry

(resistance);
• Occur often in speech (availability);

• Be neither lost nor reduced in telephone

transmission channel recording
• Process (robustness);
• Not be prohibitively difficult to extract

(measurability).
Recognition
This analysis combines aural-perceptual and

phonetic-acoustic approaches.
FSR Methods
Forensic Speaker Recognition includes aural-

perceptual, auditory-instrumental and automatic
methods.
Aural-Perceptual Method
 The aural-perceptual technique is based on

human auditory perception.
 It mainly relies on the careful listening of voice

recordings by trained experts, where perceived
differences in the speech samples are used to
estimate the extent of similarity between voices.

Acoustic-Phonetic Method
Auditory-instrumental methods involve the acoustic

measurements of various features, such as
 Average Fundamental Frequency,
 Articulation Rate,
 Formant Centre Frequencies, Etc., And
 Comparisons of their statistical characteristics.
The aural/acoustic approach is largely experience-

based and the analysis may therefore differ between
individual examiners.
The aural and acoustic analysis process is divided

into the following steps:
1. Careful listening to the speech material – To

provide a first assessment of general factors, like
the duration of useful material and sound
quality, but also to identify traits that seem to be
worth exploring more in-depth.
2. Transcription of the material – The entire

material is transcripted so that it becomes
searchable in a convenient way. Transcription is
also used to identify and extract units in an
automatic way for various types of analysis.

3. Linguistic Analysis – Analyse the speech sample

from a linguistic point of view, i.e. dialect,
sociolect, accent, grammar, etc.
Acoustic Analysis – Involves analysis of parameters

like formants, pitch, fundamental frequency,
intonation patterns, etc.
The auditory analysis technique is based on critical

listening where a particular speaker is to be
identified using phonetic sequences and events
undertaken while speaking accented speech as well
as regional dialect.
Speech of a person is characterized using this

technique with some phonetic features like stylistic
impression, phonation, nasality, the dynamic of
loudness, the flow of speech, etc.
Automatic Method
Forensic Automatic Speaker Recognition (FASR) is

the deterministic or statistical models of acoustic
features of the speaker‘s voice and the acoustic
features of the questioned recordings are compared.
Aural/acoustic method is a combination of linguistic

judgements made by the examiner listening to the

speech material combined with the use of acoustic

measurements carried out by an examiner.
For Aural Following factors are considered;
 Speech Errors,
 Pathological Speech Problems,
 Dialect,
 Foreign Accent, Etc.,
For Acoustic Following factors are considered;
 Measurement Of Formats,
 Fundamental Frequency Mean And Standard

Deviation,
 Speaking Rate, Etc.
Speaker Recognition by Visual Comparison of

Spectrograms (SRS) Technology
The sound spectrograph is an instrument that shows

the variation of the short-term spectrum of the
speech wave. In each spectrogram, the horizontal
dimension is time, the vertical dimension
represents frequency, and the darkness represents
intensity on a compressed scale.
The Kersta method

In 1962, Kersta first proposed the SRS method

under the name of ‗voiceprint‘ identification.He
claimed that the speech spectrogram of a given
individual is as permanent and unique as
fingerprints and would allow the same level of
certainty for forensic identification.
The Tosi study:
In 1972, Tosi and collaborators produced the only

large-scale study, to date, for the determination of
accuracy for subjects performing speaker
identification tasks based on sound spectrograms.
They conclude that ‗if trained ‖voiceprint‖
examiners used listening as well as spectrograms
for speaker identification, even under true forensic
conditions, they would achieve lower error rates
than the experimental subjects had realized under
laboratory conditions‘.
Automatic Speaker Recognition (ASR)
Automatic speaker recognition methods can be

divided into text-dependent and text-independent
methods.

Text-independent methods are predominant in

forensic applications where predetermined key
words cannot be used.
Evidentiary value of data
The results of the several analyses are generally

insufficient to reduce the suspect population to one
person only. Therefore, the classical discrimination
or classification tasks are not enough to interpret
the evidence because they lead to a binary decision
of identification or no identification. But a
probabilistic model (the bayesian model) allows for
revision based on new information. It allows the
scientist to evaluate the evidentiary value of data,
for instance the comparison of control recording
and audio recording evidence, without making a
binary decision on the identity of the speaker.
Speaker Profiling
Speaker profiling is a classification task, performed

mostly by phoneticians, where a recording of the
voice of a perpetrator is the only lead in a case.The
classification specifies the sex of the individual, the
age group, dialect and regional accent, peculiarities

or defects in the pronunciation of certain speech

sounds, sociolect and mannerisms.
Intelligibility Enhancement of Audio Recordings
Enhancement techniques fall into two main

categories:
Canonical filters, such as various types of band pass,

and simple comb filters. A second and more
effective class of enhancement techniques relies on
‗signal-dependent filters‘.
These filters are microprocessor-based and use

digital signal processing techniques, such as
adaptive filtering and spectral subtraction.
Forensic noise is any undesired background sound

that interferes with the audio signal of
interest, generally speech.
It can usually be classified as:
Additive or Convolutional.
Additive noise can be attributed to specific noise

sources, such as traffic, background music,
microphone noise, channel noise, and ambient

random noise in cases where the recording level was

too low.
Convolutional noise, such as reverberations,

acoustic resonance and muffling, is the result of the
effect of the acoustic environment on the speech
sample and on additive noise.
Transcription and Analysis of Disputed Utterances
The transcription of disputed utterances consists of

converting spoken language into written language.
If the intelligibility of the speech is optimal, the task
can be achieved by a lay person of the same mother
tongue as the unknown. If the intelligibility is
altered by the speaker or transmission channel
distortion, decoding necessitates knowledge of
phonetics, linguistics and intelligibility
enhancement techniques.
After enhancement or filtering, the sample is first

listened to in its entirety to locate particularly
difficult passages, learn proper names, and note
idiosyncratic characteristics.

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 Triplett, M. Fingerprint Dictionary
 The Fingerprint Sourcebook, Scientific Working Group on Friction

Ridge Analysis, Study and Technology (SWGFAST), et al. August
2011.
 The Science of Fingerprints, U.S. Department of Justice, Federal

Bureau of Investigation, 1990.
 The authors wish to thank the following for their invaluable

contributions to this forensic guide:
 Zhang, Q., Huang, K.: Hong Yan: Fingerprint Classification Bsaed
on Extraction and Analysis of Singularities and Pseudoridges. In:
The Pan-Sydney Area Workshop on Visual In-formation Processing
(VIP 2001, Sydeney, Australia, vol. 11, pp. 83–87 (2002)Google
Scholar


1619928933892forensic Science UNIT - VIII PDF

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Forensic Science

UGC-NET/JRF Syllabus (UNIT- VIII)

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 Fingerprint ridges are formed during the third to

Functions of Finger Ridges

Finger ridges have an average width of 0.48

1. They increase security of contact with objects.

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2. They enhance the sense of touch. For this reason,

Fundamental Principles of Fingerprinting

The science of identification by screening and

1. No two persons and no two fingers of the same

2. The fingerprints remain unchanged throughout

The three basic pattern forms are the following:

1. Arch — An Arch pattern is identified by the ridges

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A. Plain Arch---this pattern has a steady flow of

B. Tented Arch---this pattern is similar to the plain

Loops are the most common patterns. The

A Loop is a type of pattern in which one or more

The imprint on the fingerprint card is similar to the

A. Radial Loop - these are loops that drift towards

B. Ulnar Loop - are loop pattern that stream

The existence rate of such pattern is 30-35%.

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In whorls, generally have more than two deltas

There are four sub-categories of whorls:

A. Plain Whorl - A plain whorl pattern possesses

B. Central Pocket Loop - in these whorls, one or

C. Double Loop - A Double Loop pattern is made up

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individual and different groups of shoulders and

D. Accidental - These are certain composite pattern

Common types of Fingerprints Characteristics

A closer scrutiny reveals that the parallel trend is

(a) Ridge termination or ridge ending – when the

(b) Bifurcation – when the ridge splits into two,

(c) Lake – when there is an enclosed area in

(d) Island or ridge dot– when there is a small dot or

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(e) Short independent ridge – when there is a

(f) Hook or spur – when a small curved ridge is

(g) Crossover – when two parallel ridges are joined

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The common characteristics that make up these

Pattern area is a part of a loop or a whorl where

Type lines are the ridges that determine the pattern

Delta is formed when a ridge bifurcates and two

Core is the central point of the pattern. The core is

Fingerprints Impression Categories:

1. Latent fingerprints (hidden).

2. Patent fingerprints (visible).

3. Plastic fingerprints (3D).

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1. Latent Fingerprint: Latent friction ridges are

Sebum composition shows much variation between

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with diglycerides (25%), triglycerides with

These sebaceous components are valuable for latent

The chemical reactivity of these friction ridge

2. Patent Fingerprint: A patent Fingerprint is a

3. Plastic Fingerprint: Plastic fingerprints are three-

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