1619925678560forensic Science UNIT - VI PDF

Forensic Science
UGC-NET/JRF Syllabus (UNIT- VI)

Arson, Explosive
and
Photography
Archana Singh
Forensic Science UGC-NET/JRF Syllabus UNIT- VI
Contents
Arson............................................................................................................... 3
Motive Of Arson .......................................................................................... 3
Major Principles: .........................................................................................4
Chemistry Of Fire ........................................................................................4
Elements Of Fire:.........................................................................................4
Class Of Fire ................................................................................................ 5
Three Phases Of Combustion ...........................................................................6
Evidence Collection: ....................................................................................... 8
Extraction Of Exhibits/Sample ........................................................................9
Gas Chromatography ...................................................................................9
Capillary Gas Chromatography .................................................................. 10
Explosives.......................................................................................................11
Applications Of Explosives .........................................................................11
Explosion ...................................................................................................... 12
Types Of Explosion ........................................................................................ 12
Classification Of Explosives ........................................................................... 13
Low Explosives .......................................................................................... 14
High Explosives ......................................................................................... 16
1. Primary High Explosives .................................................................... 16
2. Secondary Explosives ........................................................................ 18
Homemade Explosives-Molotov Cocktail : ................................................. 22
Improvised Explosive Devices: .................................................................. 23
Components Of An IED.......................................................................... 23
Booby Trap ................................................................................................ 24
Nuclear Explosives .................................................................................... 24
Characteristics Of Explosives..................................................................... 25
Types Of Explosion ........................................................................................ 27
Analysis Of Post Blast Residues ..................................................................... 29
Chemical Tests For Inorganic Anions-Water Extract ................................. 29
Chemical Tests For Cations: Water Extract ................................................ 37
Chemical Tests Using Alkali Extract.......................................................... 40
1 Edited by forensicfield (Archana Singh)

Chemical Tests For Inorganic Anions: Pyridine Extract ............................. 42

Collection Of Explosive Evidence ...................................................................44
Packing Of Explosive Evidence....................................................................... 45
Photography .................................................................................................. 47
Purpose Of Crime Scene Photography ...........................................................48
Admissibility Of Photographic Evidence ........................................................ 49
Crime Scene Photography Kit ........................................................................ 49
Light Sources ................................................................................................. 55
Digital Camera ............................................................................................... 66
Ultra Violet And Infrared Photography .......................................................... 67
Radiation Source Of Ultraviolet Rays.........................................................68
Reference: ..................................................................................................... 73

Arson
It is the crime of intentionally setting fire to
buildings, vehicles or other property in order to
cause damage. This also includes setting of fire to
others property or sometimes to own property in
order to advantaged insurance facilities.
Fire follows the well-defined principles of burning.
It produces heat, flame, smoke, and gases. The
byproduct in combustion processes may or may not
be seen readily. Flame includes both open flame and
smoldering glow. Smoke is composed of very fine
solid particles and condensed vapors. The
composition of fire gases emitted by the burning
materials depends on the chemical makeup of the
burning material, the amount of oxygen available
during burning, and the temperature of the fire.
Motive of Arson
Few of the reasons for arson are given below:
 Financial gain (Insurance Claim)

 Vanity
 Revenge
 Civil Disorder
 Crime Concealment

 Delinquent Behaviour
 Excitement
 Pyromania
 Dowry Death
 Communal Purposes
Major Principles:
1. Fuel, heat and oxygen are essential for
combustion (burning).
2. Fuel must be ignited before it will burn.
3. Without a reaction, fire will not burn materials
such as wood, cloth and paper. Chain reactions are
crucial to fires. If the reaction is interrupted, the
fire will be altered or extinguished.
Chemistry of Fire
Fire is a chemical reaction that takes place when
fuel, heat, and oxygen combine in an uninhabited
chain reaction. Heat chemically decomposes a fuel
into its gaseous elements. This decomposition is
known as pyrolysis.
Elements of Fire:
Fuel: This is anything that will burn. Examples of
flammable liquids are kerosene, oil and gasoline.

Vapours from paint, gasoline and other flammable

materials are considered gaseous. Natural gas and
propane are other examples of flammable materials
in a gaseous state.
Oxygen: Fires use oxygen to maintain a state of
combustion (burning).
Heat: Heat is needed to start a fire. Generally,
combustion temperature is 400 - 6000F.
CLASS OF FIRE
CLASS “A” FIRES
This can involve any material that has a burning
ember or leaves an ash. The adopted method for
quenching fire of class “A” is to remove the heat.
Water is considered to be most common agent, but
other agents such as foam and dry chemical can be
effectively used.
CLASS “B” FIRES
This can involves flammable liquid or gas.
CLASS “C” FIRES
This can involves electrical equipment and require
the use of an extinguishing agent and extinguisher
that will not conduct electricity back.
CLASS “D” FIRES
This can involves Exotic metals such as titanium,

zirconium, magnesium and sodium.
Class of fires Example
Class "A” Solid materials: paper, wood,

lumber, cloth
Class "B" Flammable liquids: oils, paints,

grease, gases
Class "C" Electric: faulty fuse boxes, frayed

wires, over-loaded electrical
outlets
Class “D". combustible metals
Three Phases of Combustion

These phases are classified on the basis of
atmospheric conditions.
Incipient/Initial Phase (Growth Stage):
This is the first phase; here fire produces water
vapor, carbon dioxide, perhaps a small quantity of
sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide and other gases.
Also in this phase the air oxygen content is reduced
and produces fire.

Free-Burning Phase (Fully Developed Stage):

The second phase involves the all burning activities
of the fire. In this phase, air rich in oxygen is
strained into the flame and convection carries heat
to the upper most regions. The gases heated up
spreads out from the top downward, resulting in
increased concentration of cooler air at low levels
and results in the ignition of combustible material.
Smoldering Phase (Decay Stage):
In third phase, flame may cease to exist if the area of
confinement is sufficiently airtight. In this instance,
burning is reduced to glowing embers.. The intense
heat will have vaporized the lighter fuel fractions
such as hydrogen and methane from the
combustible material in the room.

Evidence Collection:
The following equipment may be used in the

evidence collection process:
 Latex gloves/Nitrile Gloves (N-DEX).
 Forceps,
 Tweezers,
 Scalpels,
 Swabs,
 Paper bags,
 Plastic bags,
 Cardboard boxes,
 Wrapping paper,
 Hand tools,
 Thermometer.

Extraction of Exhibits/Sample
Approximately 30 ml of distillate is required for
instrumental analysis for the presence of flammable
petroleum products that are used to accelerate the
cases of fire/arson. This includes petrol, kerosene
and diesel.
Firstly distillate is extracted with approximately 30
ml of diethyl ether in 2-3 extractions. Combine the
extracts and concentrate by evaporating the extract
at room temperature to a small volume (0.5 to 1 ml).
The standard samples of petrol, kerosene and diesel
(by adding about 0.5 ml of each in distillation flask)
and blank sample are also prepared simultaneously
in the same way. Alternatively, the direct extraction
of the exhibits, standard and blank can also be
carried out with diethyl ether.
The concentrated extract is used for Gas
Chromatographic Analysis in both the cases.
Gas Chromatography
This chromatographic method is used to detect the
discriminating affinity of components to the
adsorbent materials. Making use of GS syringe the
sample is introduced in the liquid/gas form into the
injection port. At the injection port vaporization of

sample takes place and passed through column with

the help of mobile phase which is continuously in
motion. Mobile phase is mainly H2 that gets
separated/detected at the detection port with
suitable temperature programming. We visualize
this on computer in the form of peaks.
It is a powerful method used for separation,
identification and quantization of components in a
mixture. In this method, sample collected is first
converted into its vapor form and then a carrier gas
is used to flow the vapors into a thermally-
controlled column.
Capillary Gas Chromatography
There are basically two types of gas
chromatographic columns: one is packed and the
other one is capillary column. The packed columns
are made up of stainless steel coil or glass filled with
stationary phase. Capillary columns are thin fused-
silica capillary which inner surface is coated with
stationary phase. This gives much higher efficiency
of separation than packed columns.
The essential component of Gas Chromatography
and Capillary Gas Chromatography are:
 Injection Valve

 Mobile Phase (Gas)

 Stationary Phase (Column)
 Oven
 Detector
Explosives
An explosive is a substance, an element, a
compound or a mixture, which is capable of exerting
pressure on its surroundings on
explosion/transformation.
Applications of Explosives
Legitimate Uses: An explosive might be used in
blasting rocks for mining, oil explorations, in
satellite and space craft propulsions, in constructing
roads, railway line etc, in firework displays, and
may also be used for military purposes which we
will discuss latter.
Illegitimate Uses: The criminals are using the
explosives for causing destruction to individuals or
a nation by blasting bombs.
Some common examples of explosives are RDX,
TNT, TETN, ANFO, and Dynamite etc.

Explosion
an explosion is a rapid increase in volume of
gaseous substances and release of energy along with
the generation of high temperature and release of
gases.
Types of Explosion
An explosion can be divided into two types:

1. Exotic or,
2. Chemical.
The common examples of exotic explosion is nuclear
explosion and the use of high intensity laser arc to
heat a substance to its plasma state.
Due to the existence of organic compounds
containing -NO2, -ONO2 and -NHNO2 groups and
others an explosion is a impulsive chemical reaction
which is driven by enormous release of heat and
energy. This type of eruption is known as chemical
explosion.
The chemical explosion is of three types:
1. Decomposition,
2. Deflagration, And,
3. Detonation.

The chemical decomposition of an explosive is a

gentler process which occurs during its storage.
This can happen over years or days or hours or may
be within a fraction of a second. Deflagration and
Detonation are two spontaneous types of Chemical
decomposition.
Deflagration of the explosive substance is
proliferated by a blaze front which travels gradually
through the explosive substance. Low explosive
experiences the process of Deflagration.
In Detonation, the explosion is propagated by shock
waves navigating through the explosive material.
Detonation happens in high explosives.
Classification of Explosives
The Explosives can be classified on the basis of

composition, velocity, sensitivity and physical
forms.

Low Explosives
Low explosives are solid flammable materials that

deflagrate. Low explosives liberate enormous
quantity of gases that generate sufficient pressure to
force a projectile in a specific direction upon
ignition and decomposition. The proportion of
burning of explosive depends on combustion gas
pressure, grain size and form, and composition.
Low explosives experience deflagration at amounts
that fluctuate from a few cm/s to about 400 m/s.
Gunpowder or black powder, smokeless powder,

flash powder, Pyrotechnics are few common

examples of low explosives.
Gun Powder
Gunpowder was the first chemical explosive.
Gunpowder is an admixture of sulfur, charcoal, and
potassium nitrate. The sulfur and charcoal acts as
fuels, while the potassium nitrate works as an
oxidizer. Gunpowder has been extensively used as a
propellant in firearms and as a pyrotechnic
composition in fireworks owing to the extent of heat
and gas volume that it produces.
Pyrotechnics
Pyrotechnics is a methodical technique involving
the use of constituents skilled of undertaking self-
contained and self-sustained exothermic chemical
reactions for the generation of heat, light, gas,
smoke and/or sound. Pyrotechnics has the
propensity to change a fire into either a burst of
striking fireworks or a dense cloud of clogging
smoke.

High Explosives
The explosives that detonate with supersonic speed

and has a shattering effect. These are commonly
used in carrying out the activities involving mining,
destruction, and military applications. The high
explosives may be further grouped into primary and
secondary high explosives. High explosives
experience detonation with explosive velocity
ranging from 3 to 9 km/s.
RDX, PETN, TNT, ANFO are the examples of high
explosives.
1. Primary High Explosives
The explosives which are extremely sensitive to

mechanical shock, friction, and heat, to which they
will respond by burning rapidly or detonating are
known as primary high explosives. Lead Azide, lead
styphnate, DDNP and tetrazene are some of the
examples of primary high explosives.
1.1. Mercury Fulminate
Mercury fulminate is prepared by dissolving
mercury in nitric acid and then pouring into
ethanol. A vigorous reaction takes place, which is

accompanied by the evolution of white fumes,

followed by brownish red fumes and finally again by
white fumes. At the same time crystals of mercury
fulminate are formed. The grayish colored crystals
are recovered and washed with water until all of the
acid is removed.
1.2. Lead Azide
Lead Azide is a form of primary explosive. It is
prepared by dissolving lead nitrate in a solution
containing dextrin, with the pH adjusted to 5 by
adding one or two drops of sodium hydroxide. This
solution is heated to 60-65 degree Celsius and
stirred. Sodium azide dissolved in a solution of
sodium hydroxide is then added drop wise to the
lead nitrate solution. The mixture is then left to cool
to room temperature with continuous stirring. Lead
azide crystals are filtered, washed with water and
dried.
An explosive booster acts as a bridge between a low
energy explosive and a low sensitivity explosive such
as TNT. It increases the explosive shockwave from
an initiating explosive to the degree sufficient to
detonate the secondary charge. PETN and RDX are
categorized as Boosters.

2. Secondary explosives
Secondary high explosives are also known as base

explosives. They are comparatively unresponsive to
shock, resistance, and heat. They may ignite when
exposed to heat or flame in trivial, liberated
quantities. These are sometimes added in small
amounts to blasting caps to boost their power. The
secondary high explosives may further divide into
boosters and main charge.
Secondary High Explosive
Boosters Main Charge
RDX Dynamite
2.1 PETN (Pentaerythritol tetranitrate)

PETN is prepared by nitrating pentaerythritol,
which in turn is made by mixing formaldehyde with
calcium hydroxide in an aqueous solution held at
65-70 degree Celsius. Nitration of pentaerythritol is
achieved by adding it to concentrated nitric acid at
25-30 degree Celsius to form PETN. The crude PETN
is then removed by filtration, washed with water
and then neutralized with sodium carbonate

solution and finally recrystallized from acetone.

This results in 95% yield of PETN.
2.2. RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine, 1,3,5-
Trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine)
RDX is synthesized by adding
hexamethylenetetramine to excess concentrated
nitric acid at 25 degree Celsius and warming it to 55
degree Celsius. RDX is precipitated with cold water
and the mixture is then boiled to remove any soluble
impurities. Finally purification of RDX is carried
out by recrystallization from acetone.
2.3 HMX (cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine)

HMX is formed as a by-product during the
manufacture of RDX by the Bachman process.
Hexamethylenetetramine, acetic acid, acetic
anhydride, ammonium nitrate and nitric acid are
mixed together and heated at 45 degree Celsius for
10 minutes. Ammonium nitrate, nitric acid and
acetic anhydride are then slowly added and left on a
steam bath for 12 hour. A precipitate forms which
contains 27% RDX and 73% HMX.
2.4 HNS (Hexanitrostilbene)/ 1,1'-(1,2-ethenediyl)
bis [2,4,6-trinitrobenzene]

HNS stands for hexanitrostilbene and can be

prepared by many methods. For example:
 By the reaction of nitro derivatives of toluene

with benzaldehyde, by the reaction of nitro
derivatives of benzyl halgenides with alkaline
agents
 By removing hydrogen halogenide and also
 By the oxidation of nitro derivatives of toluene
2.5 Ammonium Nitrate
Ammonium Nitrate is formed by injecting gaseous
ammonia into 40-60% nitric acid at 1500C. Dense
ammonium nitrate crystals are formed by spraying
droplets of molten ammonium nitrate solution
(>99.6%) down a short tower. The spray produces
spherical particles known as „prills‟. These crystals
are non-absorbent and used in conjunction with
nitroglycerine.
2.6 TATB- 1,3,5-Triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene
Another explosive formed by C-nitration process is
TATB. It is produced by the nitration of 1,3,5-
trichloro-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene, where, 1,3,5-
trichloro-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene is prepared by the
nitration of tri-chlorobenzene with a mixture of
nitric acid and sulfuric acid. 1,3,5-trichloro-2,4,6-
trinitrobenzene is then converted to 1,3,5-trinitro-

2,4,6-triaminobenzene (TATB) by nitrating with
ammonia. The yellow brown crystals of TATB are
filtered and washed with water.
2.7 TNT-(2,4,6-trinitrotoluene)
TNT is also produced by the C-nitration process. It is
formed by the nitration of toluene with mixture
nitric and sulphuric acids. Toluene is first nitrated
to mono-nitrotoluene and then to di-nitrotoluene
and finally it gets converted to crude tri-
nitrotoluene.
2.8 Dynamite
Dynamite is basically divided into gelatine and non-
gelatine classification. Gelatine dynamite is
prepared by dissolving nitrocellulose in
nitroglycerine at 45-50 degree Celsius to form a gel.
The mixture is stirred by large, vertical mixer
blades. Once the gel is formed the other ingredients
are added. The explosives mixture is then extruded
or pressed into long rods, which are cut into smaller
pieces and packaged into paper cartridges coated
with paraffin. The manufacture of non-gelatine
dynamite is similar to gelatine dynamite except that
nitrocellulose is not used in the formulations.

Gelatine dynamites are basically of four types:
 Gelatine dynamite
 Semi gelatine dynamite
 Gelignite and
 Ammonia gelignite
Gelatine dynamite, gelignite and ammonia gelignite
contains 25-55% Nitroglycerine, 1% to 5%
nitrocellulose, woodmeal as a fuel whereas semi
gelatine dynamite contains 15-20% nitroglycerine, 1-
5% nitrocellulose and woodmeal act as a fuel. They
all differ in the use of oxidizer. Inorganic nitrates
are the oxidizer in gelatine dynamite and Semi-
gelatine dynamite whereas sodium/ potassium
nitrate and ammonium nitrate act as an oxidizer in
gelignite and ammonia respectively.
Homemade Explosives-Molotov Cocktail :
A Molotov cocktail consists of a glass bottle semi-

filled with flammable liquid, usually gasoline
(petrol) or alcohol (generally methanol or ethanol);
the mouth of the bottle is fitted with a cork or other
type of airtight stoppes (rubber, glass, or plastic),
and a cloth rag fixed securely around the mouth.

Improvised Explosive Devices:

An improvised explosive device(IED) is a product,
assembled in contravention to the existing rules of
law of nation adopting unconventional or semi-
conventional methods of formulating
ammunition/explosives, with a criminal/anti-
national intention. IED is also known as homemade
bomb. For example- roadside bombs, letter bomb,
bombs incorporated in briefcase/vehicle etc
A letter bomb is defined as an explosive device sent
via postal service, and designed with an intention to
injure or kill the recipient when opened. They have
been used in terrorist attacks also.
They are usually designed to explode immediately
on opening, with the intention of seriously injuring
or killing the recipient (who may or may not be the
person to whom the bomb was addressed).
Components of an IED
IED‟s are formed by incorporating destructive,

lethal, and noxious, pyrotechnics or incendiary
chemicals. An IED is basically composed of
explosives, a detonator, a power source (battery)
and an Initiation mechanism (switch).

Booby Trap
In simplest terms we can define a booby trap is as a
device, which is made with an intention to startle,
surprise, attack, harm or kill an individual. A booby
trap is generally trigerred accidentally by the
presence or movements of the victim. Sometimes
the booby trap is planted on busy roads or is
triggered when the victim performs some action like
opening a door, picking up something, switching
something on or off etc.
Nuclear Explosives
A nuclear explosive is an unstable device that stems
its energy from nuclear reactions. Virtually all-
nuclear explosive devices that have been devised
and produced are nuclear weapons anticipated for
warfare. Atom bomb is an example of nuclear
explosive.
1. Dirty Bomb
It is generally known as radiological dispersion
device (RDD). A dirty bomb is a radiological
weapon, which is a combination of radioactive
material with conventional explosives such as
dynamite.

Characteristics of Explosives
The following are some of the important
characteristics of an explosive which are very
important to determine whether the explosive is
suitable for a particular use:
 Availability and cost

 Sensitivity
 Sensitivity to initiation
 Velocity of detonation
 Stability
 Power, performance, and strength
 Brisance
 Density
 Volatility
 Toxicity
 Explosive train
 Oxygen balance (OB% or Ω)
 Chemical composition
 Chemically pure compounds
 Mixture of oxidizer and fuel
Mixture of oxidizer and fuel:- An oxidizer is a pure

substance (molecule) that in a chemical reaction can

contribute some atoms of one or more oxidizing

elements, in which the fuel component of the
explosive burns. On the simplest level, the oxidizer
may itself be an oxidizing element, such as gaseous
or liquid oxygen. For Example:
 Black powder : Potassium Nitrate (75%) +

Charcoal (15%) + Sulfur (10%),
 Flash powder,
 Ammonal: Ammonium Nitrate (65%) +
Aluminium (17%) + TNT (15%) + Charcoal (3%)
 Armstrong's mixture: Red Phosphorous +
Potassium Chlorate.
 Other formulae use potassium perchlorate.
Sulfur is used to substitute for some or all of the
phosphorus.
 Sprengel explosives,
 ANFO : Ammonium Nitrate + Fuel Oil,
 Cheddites: Potassium chlorate, Sodium chlorate,
Dinitrotoluene, Nitronaphthalene, castor oil,
Vaseline, paraffin.
 Oxyliquits,
 Panclastites.

Types of Explosion
The following are the four different types of

Explosion:
1. Mechanical Explosion
A gradual buildup in pressure until that pressure
overcomes the conflict of the containment vessel,
causing a mechanical rupture is an indication of
mechanical explosion. It is basically, the failure of a
containing vessel as a result of internal pressures in
excess of the structural capabilities of the vessel.
 In Mechanical Explosion, the nature of fuel does

not change.
 BLEVE (Boiling-Liquid Expanding Vapor
Explosion) is an example of mechanical
explosion. Fire in a gas cylinder, a tank, or rail
cars that are carrying liquids.
2. Chemical Explosion
Rapid conversion of solid, liquid or gas into gases
with much greater volume than the substances from
which they were generated.
 In Chemical explosion, the nature of fuel

changes. The reason being it is burned and

consumed during the transformation (explosion

process).
 Examples of chemical explosions are:- Initiation
of low explosives, high explosives and fuel air
explosions.
3. Nuclear Explosions
A nuclear explosion is stimulated by either splitting
of an atom i.e. fission or by joining of atoms i.e.
fusion. In Nuclear Explosions, there is a
tremendous release of energy, heat and gases.
4. Electrical Explosion
An electrical explosion is the result of a high energy
electrical arc, which generates sufficient heat to
cause the failure of the containing component, such
as an electrical wire.
Another type of electrical explosion results from the
differences in electrical potential e.g. lightening.
When electrical energy is transmitted through air,
an exceptional amount of heat, light and noise is
created.

Analysis of Post Blast Residues

Tests for explosives are carried out to detect and
identify the ions present in the explosive.
Chemical Tests for Inorganic Anions-Water Extract

1. Test for Chloride (Clˉ)
The following three reagents are required for
detecting chloride ion in an explosive.
Reagent „A‟ - It is made by dissolving 128 ml conc.
nitric acid in 500ml of distilled water and then
diluting it to 1 litre.
Reagent „B‟- It is prepared by dissolving 16.99 g of
Silver Nitrate in 500ml distilled water and diluting
it to 1litre.
Reagent „C‟- Reagent „C‟ is prepared by dissolving
95g of lead acetate trihydrate in a mixture of 500 ml
distilled water and 10ml glacial acetic acid and then
diluting the solution with water to 1litre.
Take 1ml of water extract in a clean test tube. Put 2-3
drops of reagent „A‟ followed by the addition of 2-3
drops of „B‟ reagent. The presence of chloride ions
are shown by the formation of white ppt. This white
precipitate is soluble in NH4OH and insoluble in
HNO3.

Another method is carried out by taking 1mL of

extract in a fresh test tube followed by the addition
of 3 drops of „C‟ reagent to it. The presence of Clˉ
ions are indicated by the formation of White
precipitate.
2. Test for Sulphate (SO4 2-)
Before preforming the test for sulphate ion we have
to prepare the following two reagents:-
Reagent A: It is prepared by dissolving 61.1g barium
chloride dihydrate in 500 ml distilled water and
then diluting it to 1 litre.
Reagent B: It is freshly prepared by dissolving 0.5g
of sodium rhodizonate in distilled water (100 ml).
The test is carried out by taking 1ml of extract in a
clean test tube and then adding 2-3 drops of dilute
HCl to it. The test tube is then placed in a water bath
at 1000C for 5 minutes and 2-3 drops of reagent A
are added to it. Formation of white crystalline
precipitate indicates the presence of Sulphate Ion.
3. Test for Nitrite (NO2ˉ)

Before analyzing the presence of nitrite in post blast
residue the following four reagents are to be
prepared:

Reagent A: Sulphanilic acid (1g) is dissolved in

100ml of warm 30% acetic acid.
Reagent B: Take 0.3 g of -naphthylamine and

dissolve it in 70ml of distilled water and it is then
kept for boiling and is filtered. And add 30ml of
glacial acetic acid to it.
Reagent C (Indole Reagent): To prepare this reagent
0.015 grams of indole is dissolved in 96% alcohol
(100 ml).
Reagent D: It is prepared by slowly adding 500ml of
water under constant stirring to 445 ml of conc.
Sulphuric acid. When the mixture cools down, again
dilute it with water to 1 litre.
The test is carried out by taking 1 drop of neutral or
acid extract on a clean spot plate. This step is
followed by the addition of reagent „A‟ and a drop of
„B‟ reagent. The presence of Nitrite ions are
indicated by the formation of red color.
Another method for testing the presence of nitrite
ion is done by taking 1 drop of the extract in a semi
micro test tube. And then added 10 drops of the
reagent C followed by adding 2 drops of the reagent
D to it. A purplish-red colour indicates the presence
of NO2ˉ.

4. Test for Thiocynate (SCNˉ)

To test the presence of thiocyante in the given
sample, firstly, we have to make the following two
reagents:
Reagent A: It is prepared by dissolving 146g of
cobalt nitrate in 500ml of distilled water and then
diluting it to 1litre.
Reagent B: It is prepared by dissolving 62.42g of
CuSO4.5 H2O in 500ml of distilled water and then
diluting it to 1litre.
Test for Thiocynate is carried out by mixing one
drop of the test solution in a micro-crucible with a
very small drop of reagent A and then evaporating it
to dryness. The residue will be of violet color if
thiocynate is present and the color fades away
slowly. Blue or green color is obtained when drops
of acetone is added to it.
Another method for testing the presence of
thiocynate is carried out by taking a few drops of
pyridine in a clean test tube. To it 3-4 drops of
reagent B is added followed by 2mL of chloroform,
and 5-6 drops of the extract. Shake the mixture
vigorously. The chloroform layer will acquire a

green colour which indicates the presence of

thiocyante
5. Test for Chlorate (ClO3ˉ)

To confirm the presence of chlorate in the given
sample we will have to prepare the following three
reagents:
Reagent A: It is prepared by dissolving 1g of aniline
sulphate in 100ml of distilled water.
Reagent B: Take equal volumes of saturated
manganese sulphate solution and syrupy
phosphoric acid and then mix them properly, the
solution so formed is labelled as Reagent B.
Reagent C: 1% Alcoholic Diphenyl Carbazide
solution is used as a Reagent C.
Test is carried out by taking 1ml of extract on a spot
plate and is left for some time. Cool it and add conc.
H2SO4 (2-3 drops) followed by 2-3 drops of reagent
A. The presence of chlorate ions are indicated by the
formation of blue color.
Second procedure for testing for the presence of
chlorate ions are carried out by taking 1 drop of the
extract in a micro crucible and added to it is 1 drop
of the reagent B. Briskly warm this solution over a

micro burner and allow it to cool for some time.

Appearance of violet coloration can be seen. Very
pale coloration may be intensified by adding a drop
of reagent C. A deep violet colour is formed, due to
oxidation of the diphenyl carbazide.
6. Test for Thiosulphate (S2O32ˉ)

Two reagents are prepared to test the presence of
Thiosulphate.
Reagent A: It is prepared by dissolving 2 g of
mercuric chloride in 100 ml of distilled water.
Reagent B: Reagent B is prepared by treating a little
nickel nitrate solution with ethylenediamine until a
violet colour appears. This violet colour appears due
to the formation of the complex [Ni(en)3]+2 ion.
Take 1 drop of the water extract in a clean test tube.
Add 2 drops of reagent A and mix it thoroughly. And
then add little amount of KCl to it. Take a blue
litmus paper and dip it in the solution. The presence
of S2O32ˉ can be indicated if the blue litmus paper
changes to red in color.
Put 1ml of the neutral/slightly alkaline water extract
in a fresh test tube. After this add 2-3 drops of the

reagent „B‟ to it. Formation of crystalline violet

precipitate indicates the presence of thiosulphate.
7. Test for Perchlorate (ClO4ˉ)

Reagent A: It is prepared by dissolving 28.8 g zinc
sulphate hepta hydrate in 100ml of distilled water.
Reagent B: It is prepared by dissolving 10.1g
potassium nitrate in 100ml of distilled water.
Reagent C: Reagent C is prepared by dissolving
methylene blue (0.05 grams) in 100ml of distilled
water.
To detect the presence of Perchlorate in an
explosive, take 1 drop of water extract of post blast
residue on a piece of filter paper impregnated with
Reagent A and Reagent B and then spray Reagent C
on it . Violet spot appears which indicates the
presence of perchlorate.
8. Test for Sulphite (SO32ˉ)

Reagent A: Saturated solution of zinc sulphate is
used as reagent A.
Reagent B: It is prepared by dissolving 10.4 g
potassium ferrocyanide in 100 ml of distilled water.
Reagent C: It is prepared by dissolving 1g sodium
nitroprusside in 100ml of distilled water.

The test is carried out by adding a drop of reagent B

to a drop of reagent A followed by a drop of reagent
C. White zinc ferrocyanide precipitates is formed.
And a drop of neutral water extract is added to it.
Red precipitate appears which confirms the
presence of sulphite in it.
9. Test for Phosphate (PO43ˉ)

Reagent A: It is prepared by dissolving 0.5g of
Ammonium molybdate in 10ml of distilled water
and then 3ml conc. HNO3 is added to it.
Reagent B: It is prepared by dissolving 6.5g
Benzidine in 10ml of glacial acetic acid and diluted it
to 35ml with distilled water.
Reagent C: Dissolve 16 g sodium hydroxide in 100
ml of distilled water and the solution so formed
used as Reagent C.
To identify the presence of PO43ˉ, put a drop of

water extract on a spot plate. Add a drop of „A‟
reagent to it, wait for 30 seconds followed by the
addition of one drop of reagent B. Wait for half a
minute. Now add saturated solution of sodium
acetate (3 drops). Blue gray colour indicates the
presence of phosphate.

Chemical Tests for Cations: Water Extract

1. Test for Potassium ion (K+)
Reagent A: It is prepared by dissolving 0.2 g of
dipicrylamine in 2ml of 2N sodium carbonate and 15
ml distilled water. Filter paper strips which are
placed in reagent „A‟ should be freshly prepared and
then dried.
Reagent B: It is prepared by dissolving 6.73g sodium
cobalt nitrite in 100mL of distilled water.
Place one drop of water extract on paper of reagent
„A‟ and then add 0.1N Nitric acid (2 drops). A red
stain at the side of the spot appears, while all other
parts of the reagent paper turn bright yellow which
indicates the presence of potassium ion.
Second method for confirming the presence of
potassium is done by taking 5 drops of water extract
in a watch glass, and then evaporate it to half of its
volume and then leave the remaining residue to cool
down for some time, then add 4 drops of reagent B
and warm if necessary. Yellow precipitate is formed
which is insoluble in dilute acetic acid. This
indicates the presence of K+.
2. Test for Barium ion (Ba2+)

Reagent A: It is prepared by dissolving sodium

rhodizonate(0.2 g) in distilled water(100 ml).
Reagent B: It is prepared by diluting 4.5ml of conc.
HCl with 100ml of distilled water.
Put a drop of neutral or slightly acidic water extract
on the filter paper followed by the addition of
reagent „A‟. The presence of barium ion is indicated
by the presence of reddish brown spots. A brilliant
red acid salt is formed on addition of „B‟ reagent. In
case barium is absent, this red color will disappear.
3. Test for Strontium ion (Sr2+)
Reagent A: It is prepared by dissolving 0.2 g of
sodium rhodizonate in 100ml of distilled water.
Reagent B: It is potassium chromate (saturated
solution).
Put one drop of neutral extract of sample on a filter
paper or on a spot plate. Add a drop of reagent A. A
brownish red coloration or precipitate is formed
which indicates the presence of strontium.
If barium is also present then proceed as follows:
Impregnate the filter paper with reagent B and dry
it. Place a drop of extract on this paper and after a
minute place a drop of reagent A on the moistened

spot. Brownish red spot or ring is formed which

indicates the presence Strontium ion.
4. Flame test for Sodium, Potassium, Barium,
Calcium, Strontium
Put drops of the water extract in a beaker till it
evaporates and is dry. Then cool it. Take conc. HCl
in a watch glass. Perform flame test with the help of
platinum wire in the non-luminous flame of the
burner. The response of various ions to the flame
test is given below in the table:
IONS COLOUR OF FLAME
Na+ Golden Yellow
K+ Violet (lilac), Crimson through cobalt blue

glass
Ca2+ Brick-red
Ba2+ Yellowish-green
Sr2+ Crimson
5. Test for Aluminum (Al3+)

Reagent A (Aluminon reagent): Reagent A is
prepared by adding saturated solution of Morin in
5ml of methyl alcohol in a small bottle.

Reagent B (Quinalizarin Reagents): Dissolve about

0.25 grams of aluminum in distilled water (250 ml).
Reagent C: 1,2,5,8-Tetra hydroxy anthraquinone is
used as reagent C.
To prepare reagent paper, immerse quantitative
filter paper in the solution of quinalizarin which is
attained by mixing 0.01 grams of quinalizarin in
pyridine (2 ml). Now dilute it with 18 ml of acetone.
Take water extract and add a small amount of 1N
acetic acid in order to make it slightly acidic. Place 3
drops of the acidified solution in a black spot plate.
Now add 2 drops of reagent A. Observe the spot
under UV light if Green fluorescence appears it
indicates the presence of aluminium.
Chemical Tests using Alkali Extract

Alkali extract is used for analyzing the presence of
Antimony and sulphide ions.
1. Test for Antimony (Sb3+)
The method of preparing the reagent is to dissolve
0.01grams of Rhodamine-B in 100ml of distilled
water.
Take a small portion of NaOH extract in a spot plate.
Add 1-2 drops of conc. Hydrochloric acid and a few

mg of NaNO3. Now put 10 drops of the prepared

reagent and mix it. A change of colour from bright
red to violet indicates the presence of Antimony.
2. Test for Sulphide ions (S2-)
Reagent A: It is prepared by dissolving 0.1 g
Methylene blue in 100 mL of distilled water.
Reagent B: It is prepared by dissolving 0.1g Sodium
nitroprusside dihydrate in 10ml of distilled water.
Use freshly prepared solution before carrying out
the test
Reagent C: It is prepared by dissolving 135.2 g Ferric
chloride hexa-hydrate in 500 ml water. Put few
drops of conc. hydrochloric acid and dilute with
water to make it up to one liter. In case the solution
turns dark, add more Hydrochloric acid.
To conduct the test, place a drop of alkali extract on
a spot plate, add a drop of conc. HCl, and mix it
properly. Add 2-3 drops of reagent A to it, followed
by a drop of reagent C. A clear blue coloration
appears after a short time (2-3 minutes).
Mix a drop of „B‟ reagent with the alkaline extract on
the spot plate. The presence of S2- is indicated by the
presence of violet color.

Chemical Tests for Inorganic Anions: Pyridine Extract

1. Test for Sulphur
To test for the Sulphur, take a small portion of
pyridine extract in a small test tube. And then boil it
for one minute. Add a drop of 2M sodium hydroxide
to it. A blue to green colour for low and red to brown
for high concentrations of sulphur is observed.
2. Thin Layer Chromatography of Cations (Al, Zn,
As, Ba, Hg, Pb)
Thin Layer Chromatography of cations such as
Aluminium, Zinc, Arsenic, Barium, Mercury and
Lead compounds is carried out by using n-Butanol
and Glacial Acetic Acid in 8:2 ratio as a solvent
system. This is used as a solvent system and samples
are applied on the pre-coated TLC plate of size
20cmx20cmx0.25mm silica 60F.
Spraying Reagents: Dimethlyaminobenzaldehyde
and Pyridine
(A) Dimethlyaminobenzaldehyde is prepared by
dissolving 5g of Dimethyl amino benzaldehyde and
5g of Ammonium thiocyanate in 50ml of methanol

(B) Pyridine reagent is prepared by adding 2ml

Pyridine and 5g of Ammonium thiocyanate in 50mL
of methanol.

Collection of Explosive Evidence

Following points should always be kept in mind
while collecting evidence:-
1. Search Post Blast Debris
2. Search Farther from the Site of Explosion
3. Sift Through Rubble
Never sort the debris with bare hands as it might
hurt. So use Wire mesh screens for the same.
4. Collect Electrical Components of the Explosive
Device
Electrical components of the explosive device such
as fuses, battery components, wires and blasting
caps, should be collected.
5. Collect Components of IED‟s
6. Collect Fragments of Pipe Bomb
7. Collect Clocks
8. Collect Iron Nails and Ball Bearings
9. Collect Remote Controls .
10. Collect Cloth Pins, if any
11. Collect Fingerprints.

12. Collect Porous Materials or Objects with Cracks

and Ridges
13. Collect Materials from near the Blast Site
14. Collect Relevant Extraneous Matter
15. Collect Tool Marks, if any
16. Collect Writings from the Explosive Device or its
Component Parts
17. Swabbing
18. X-Ray Suspicious Items.
Packing of Explosive Evidence
The investigating officers should follow the under

mentioned steps while packing the Explosive
Evidence:-
1. Water soluble explosive and volatile residue
should be packed in airtight containers such as,
 Clean unused metal cans

 Glass jars
 Sealable nylon bags
Some explosive residues are water soluble and must
be protected from moisture, whereas other residues
evaporate quickly and must be stored as soon as

possible in airtight containers such as clean unused

metal cans, glass jars or sealable nylon bags.
2. Do not pack jagged remains of a pipe bomb in bag.
3. Do not store explosive residues in Ziplock bags.
4. Do not fill the containers to the top.
5. Do not leave containers unpacked, it may cause
breakage.
6. Do not fill the evidence containers with packing
materials such as shredded paper or vermiculite.
7. Flash powder is very sensitive so it should be
packed in anti-static plastic bags or paper package.
8. Do not pack bulk flash powder in metal
containers or plastic bags.
9. All the containers should be labeled before
sending. The label should mention the type of
material, date of collection, investigators initials,
case name & number and any other relevant detail.

Photography
The word photography is derived from the Greek
word, photos meaning “light” and graphos meaning
„pertaining to drawing or writing‟. Therefore,
photography can be defined as the art, science and
practice of creating the durable images by recording
light or other electromagnetic radiations, either
chemically by means of a light sensitive material
such as photographic film, or electronically by
means of an image sensor.
The world‟s first photograph was taken in 1816 by
Nicephore Niepce (Photography School Speos).
Following, Niepce worked with another scientist
known as Louis Daguerre. Together, they planned
on creating a photograph that would not only last
but would need an exposure time of minutes
opposed to hours. Nicephore Niepce passed away in
1833, and after his death Daguerre was able to
develop a method similar to the starting goals. By
using mercury flames, the image became visible and
required only a brief exposure. This method was
recognized by French Academy of Sciences in 1839.

Purpose of Crime Scene Photography
1. One of the best means to record crime scene.

2. To record the original scene i.e. exact location of
crime scene and related areas.
3. To record the initial appearance and exact
location of physical evidence at the crime scene.
4. To record the point of Entry
5. Recognised and marked evidences can be
photographed first before the collection process
start.
6. It will provide investigators and others with
permanent visual record of the whole crime scene
for later use in the investigation.
7. Photographs are also produced in court trials and
hearings to authenticate the verbal statements.
8. In case of accident scene, the photographs should
be clicked to fix the location where accident took
place; registration number of the vehicle involved;
and other marks which can be useful in finding the
cause of accident
9. All the close-photographs must be taken by
putting at least one scale if not two.

10. If possible two or three photographs of the

viewer must be taken.
11. To record the point of Exit
12. Vehicle used to reach and get away from the
crime scene
13. Track Marks if any
Admissibility Of Photographic Evidence
The photographs must qualify the following major

points to be admitted by the court of law:
1. Photographs of the objects must be material or
relevant to the point of issue.
2. The close up photograph must be taken by putting
one or two scales and should not appeal to the
emotions or tend to prejudice the court or jury.
3. There shouldn‟t be any alteration, distortion and
not misrepresent the scene in the photograph or the
object it purports to reproduce.
4. There shouldn‟t be any alteration in the
photographs.
Crime Scene Photography Kit

The following items should be available to the crime

scene photographer in order to photograph most
scenes and evidence:
 Camera
Crime scene photographers should use a high
quality digital camera preferably a SLR camera. It
has at least ten megapixel and manual exposure
sites (and various custom settings in the field of ISO
or sensitivity, focusing zone, exposure modes,
bracketing modes, white balance, delay timer,
mirror lock, radio trigger, step aperture & shutter
speed etc. are usually suitable for crime scene and
evidence photography.
 Normal lens
A normal lens provides the best perspective for most
photographs. A 50mm lens is considered a normal
lens for a 35mm format SLR camera.
 Wide–angle lens
A wide-angle lens is required for taking pictures in
small rooms or other compact areas.
 Close–up lens or close–up accessories

Most normal lenses do not focus closer than about
three feet. A macro lens or a close–up accessory for

the normal lens is needed to photograph small items

of evidence. Close–up accessories include 1:1
adapters, extension tubes, bellows, reversing rings,
or close–up filters. Although scale is used,
sometimes real size images of small size evidence
are required.
 Filters
A polarizing filter is often really required for
photographing through glass and into water.
Colored filters (red, orange, yellow, blue, and green)
are used for taking pictures of several evidences by
black–and–white film.
 Electronic flash
Electronic flash, especially with TTL exposure
measurement provides additional light that is often
needed when photographing indoors, outdoors at
night, filling in shadows in bright daylight scenes
and for lighting evidence.
 Remote sync cord for electronic flash/ Radio

Trigger
A remote sync cord allows the electronic flash to be
operated when it is not mounted on camera.
 Additional camera and electric flash series

 Tripod
Sturdy and lightweight tripods are necessary to
make the camera rest on a stationary location for
long exposures and for positioning the camera
during certain types of evidence photography.
 Digital Storage Card

 Photo log, notebook and pen
 Scales and tape measure
Different scales, containing 6 inch and 36 inch sizes
should be taken for snapping diverse kinds of
objects.
 ABFO #2 scale
The ABFO #2 scale is the preferred scale for
photographing injuries.
 Angle–finder
An angle finder is used to help position a camera for
photographing certain types of evidence at the crime
scene.
 Color chart or color control patches

Color chart or color control coverings are valuable
for color mentioning the injury photography.
 18% gray card

A 18% gray card is used as an aid in getting accurate

exposures.
 Index cards and felt pen

An identifier is essential in a picture; we can give a
number or identifier on an index card and place it in
the photograph.
 Flashlight
SCENE OF CRIME PHOTOGRAPHY
 Before any items are moved or even touched, the

crime scene should be photographed.
 The photographs should be taken to clearly and
accurately depict the scene as it was found.
 The paths taken by the criminal to the scene, the
point of entry, the exit, and the escape route.
 Detailed photographs should be taken to show
items of physical evidence in the condition in
which they were found by the investigator prior
to their removal
Following items of Scene of Crime should be

photographed
 The main site of the Scene.

 The route of approach of the Scene.

 The point of the entrance.
 The location and position of the Scene.
 The evidence (injuries, weapon, hair/fibers)
 Evidence left by criminals (weapon, Bullets).
 The point of Exit and route of departure.

LIGHT SOURCES
There is need to understand the concept of light and

their types to understand the photography. Light or
visible light is a narrow region of electromagnetic
spectrum. Electromagnetic energy with wavelengths
within the range of 400 to 700 nm is capable of
stimulating receptors (rods and cones) in the retina
of the eye and for this reason is known as visible
light. When light falls on the object the visual and
photographic images are produced by gathering a
portion of the light emitted or reflected by an object
and reassembling it to form an image. When light
interacts with object sometimes it gets transmitted
in case of transparent objects and other times it get
reflected when there is an opaque object. The way in
which the light has interacted with the object helps
in getting information about the resembling of the
light to form an image.
Illumination or Lighting Conditions
Illumination or lighting conditions makes a
significant difference between a photograph which
is of good quality and the photograph which is of
poor quality. When the natural light is not sufficient
or it is not available then we have to opt for artificial

light. Artificial illumination sources include arc

light, flashbulb, and electronic flash etc. They can be
moved and positioned accordingly so that various
angles of illumination can be obtained. Control of
the illumination angle is difficult when available
light such as sunlight or normal room light is being
relied upon for the exposure. Thus, artificial
illumination is preferred when control of the angle
of illumination is important.
Frequency and Wavelength of Electromagnetic
Spectrum
S. No Name of Frequency Wavelength

Radiation (Hz) (meters)
1 Gamma rays 1021-1019 More than 10-

12
2 X-Rays 1019-1017 10-8-10-12
3 UV Rays 1017-7x1014 3x10-7-10-8
4 Visible rays 7x1014- 8x10-7-4x10-7

4x1014
5 IR Rays 4x1014-1012 10-3-8x10-7
6 Microwaves 1012-109 1-10-3
7 Radio waves 109-107 Less than 1

The electromagnetic radiation other than visible

light which are called infrared radiation was first
discovered by William Harchel in 1800, when he
was checking the temperature of various colours of
the spectrum by splitting through the prism. He
observed the highest temperature away from red
colour. Then he suggested a theory that change of
temperature was due to a type of "calorific rays" or
light ray that could not be seen.
Next year, Johann Ritter, while working on the
other end of the visible spectrum, noticed „chemical
rays‟ later named as ultraviolet radiation, which
are also invisible light rays but induced certain
chemical reactions. These were beyond visible
spectrum and behaved similar to visible violet light
rays.
Ultraviolet Light (UV) has shorter wavelength than
the shortest visible wavelength. But Infrared Light
(IR) has longer wavelength than longest visible
wavelength. These two lights (UV and IR) do not fall
in the sensitivity level of the human eye (which
varies from 400-750nm).

Photographs has to be taken on a special film with

these two lights (UV and IR) and reveals different
properties of different types of physical evidences
like semen stained garments or bed sheets,
questioned documents (including obliterated
writing), and GSR discharge, etc. etc.
S. Wavelength Colour Major

No. Range Complements
(approx.)
In nm
1 400-450 Violet Yellow-Green
2 450-480 Blue Yellow
3 480-490 Green-blue Orange
4 490-500 Blue-green Red
5 500-560 Green Purple
6 560-575 Yellow-green Violet
7 575-590 Yellow Blue
8 590-625 Orange Green-blue
9 625-750 Red Blue-green

Showing Major Colors and their complements along with Wavelengths

Contrast
Contrast is the degree of difference between black
and white or dark shadows and bright highlights of
the photographs/images. Without contrast, there
wouldn't be any difference between light and dark.
There are two types of contrasts in photography;
high contrast and low contrast.
An image is said to be in high contrast when it
exhibits a full range of tones ranging from black to
white and strong, bold colours and textures of the
images are emphasized. On the contrary, in a low
contrast photograph appears dull as it doesn‟t
exhibit a great deal of difference between its darks
and lights. Best examples of low contrast are the
photos taken in the fog or mist.
Filters
Coloured filter plays an important role to get the

selected colour and further enhancing the contrast
of an image, when placed over the light source or
the camera lens. An object will appear darker in the
photograph if the filter of complementary colour is
used. For example if a filter of the same colour is
used then the object appears comparatively lighter.

If filters of black and white film are used then they

are called colour contrast filter.
There are filters which distort the image as desired,
diffusing an otherwise sharp image, adding a starry
effect, etc. Supplementary close-up lenses can also
be used as filters.
Temperature and Colour balance

It is well known that white light is made up of all the
seven colours of visible spectrum. The colour of the
white light used in colour photography is critical.
Colour contrast filters are required for black and
white photography. However, all sources of white
light are not the same. For example, the light given
off by a candle contains a higher proportion of the
longer wavelengths corresponding to yellow,
orange, and red colour. Hence light appears
yellowish or yellow-white. The light produced by a
tungsten filament in a normal incandescent lamp
bulb also contains a preponderance of longer
wavelengths, although to a lesser degree. This light
appears whiter than that from the candle flame but
is noticeably yellow as compared to sunlight. The
tungsten filament is hotter than the candle flame.
There is a direct correlation between the

temperature and colour balance. For example the

hotter the incandescent light source, the whiter the
light it will produces. This relationship between the
colour of the source and its temperature specify the
degree of whiteness of the source by comparing it to
the colour of the light emitted from a standard
source.
Lenses
Some of the lenses are fixed permanently on the
camera or some time interchangeable with lenses of
different physical properties like focal length and
apertures. A camera lens or photographic lenses
either individually or assembly of lenses are capable
of making image on either photographic film
chemically or presently on any other media (hard
disc or card) electronically.
The image formed onto film in a camera is a real
image. As the latent image formed on the film is
affected by the spatial variation of intensity, the
treatment with developer and fixer chemicals make
the latent image permanent. The following factors
contribute significantly in the selection and use of
photographic lenses:

Focusing
Focusing of a camera is accomplished by altering the
distance that separates the lens and the film.
Selection of Photographic Lenses
 Lens Types
The quality of camera depends upon the type of

lenses used. The better quality cameras often have
complex lens.
 Focal Length
Focal length can be defined as the distance from the
lens and a point where the parallel rays of light
comes to meet. There are three general classes of
lenses which can be distinguished on the basis of
their focal length. These are
 Normal : These lenses are approximately equal to

the length of a diagonal line drawn between
opposite corners of the picture area on the film
 The Wide-Angle: Lenses with focal length
substantially less than 45 mm, particularly when
they are used on 35-mm cameras (Fig-3) are
known as wide angle lenses.
 Telephoto: Focal lengths these lenses are longer
than the normal have narrower angles of view

but yield larger images of distant objects. A

telephoto lens may be used to produce an
enlarged image of a remote or inaccessible object
from a reasonable or more convenient distance.
 Zoom Lens: Zoom lenses are beneficial because
they allow for an array of different focal lengths
lacking the necessity to transfer various prime
(fixed focal length) lenses. This allows the
photographer to quickly zoom in and capture the
shot, then zoom back for a wider angle.
 Close UP or Macro Lens: Close-up or Macro
lenses are used for close-up or “macro”
photography. The focal length ranges between
50-200mm.
 Fish Eye Lens: A fisheye lens is a specialized,
wide-angle lens that provides extremely wide
images by altering straight lines into curves.
 Tilt-Shift Lens: The Tilt-Shift lens permits us
fluctuate the vanishing points. If you are firing
buildings, you can modify the perspective of an
image so the parallel lines don‟t converge, thus
eliminating the distorting quality of the lens.
 Lens Speed:

Lens speed refers to the maximum aperture

diameter (or a smaller minimum f-number) of
photographic lens. The aperture of a lens can be
defined as the diameter of the open circle or
diaphragm inside the lens. This diameter can also be
expressed in the form of f-number, such as f/2.8 or
f/16. Lens speed is to measure a power of a lens to
gather light.
A smaller maximum aperture or a larger minimum
f-number is slow lens as it delivers less light
intensity i.e. has a higher noise floor and requires a
slower shutter speed.
Lens speed has importance:
 While taking pictures in dim light,

 Taking pictures with Telephoto lenses
 In controlling depth of field especially in portrait
photography
 With respect to key variable in combination with
other variables such as focal length and camera
format size.

Defects of Lens
i. Spherical Aberration
Spherical Aberration is an optical complexity which
arises when all inward light rays terminate focusing
at diverse points later passing through a spherical
surface.
ii. Chromatic Aberration
Chromatic Aberration, also known as “color
fringing” or “purple fringing”, is a common optical
problem that occurs when a lens is either unable to
bring all wavelengths of color to the same focal
plane, and/or when wavelengths of color are
focused at different positions in the focal plane.
iii. Coma
Coma is an aberration which causes rays from an
off-axis point of light in the object plane to create a
trailing "comet-like" blur directed away from the
optic axis.
iv. Astigmatism
Astigmatism (pointlessness) is a refractive error
which occurs when a point sending light through a
lens cannot be projected as one point. It appears as
a line on the focal plane.

Digital Camera
A digital camera like a film camera also contains

light body with a lens, an aperture mechanism and a
shutter control to control exposure.
A digital image is a depiction of a two-dimensional
(2D) image using ones and zeros (binary).
Bit Depth is determined by the number of bits used
to explain each pixel. So bit depth computes how
many unique colors are accessible in an image's
color palette in terms of the number of 0's and 1's,
or "bits," which are used to depict each color.
ISO is one of the important dissimilarities between
film and digital cameras.

Ultra violet and Infrared Photography
Ultraviolet rays has wavelength between 100

nanometers and 400 nanometers approximately
whereas visible radiation includes wavelengths
between 400 and 780 nanometers.
Ultraviolet spectrum is classified into the following
bands:-
i. Long wave ultraviolet
ii. Middle ultraviolet
iii. Short wave ultraviolet
iv. Vacuum ultraviolet
i. Long wave Ultraviolet:
It extends from 3200 A to 4000 A. This is the range

transmitted by regular optical glass of which most
photographic lenses are made. This range is most
practical value in ultraviolet photography.
ii. Middle Ultraviolet:
Between 2800 – 3200 A lies in this region. Middle

ultraviolet radiations are not transmitted by even
photographic lenses. A lens made of quartz however
will transmit these rays and could therefore

produce an image using them. Quartz lenses

however can also transmit longer ultraviolet.
iii. Short Wave Ultraviolet:
This region lies between 2000 – 2800 A and is also

called ultraviolet. One should never look straight at
a source of shortwave ultraviolet radiation. A quartz
lens will transmit most wavelengths of short
ultraviolet.
iv. Vacuum Ultraviolet:
This region is shorter than 2000 A and up to 100 A

which is upper limit of X –rays. These radiations
pass through vacuum and have no practical value in
photography.
UV Rays can be classified into three bands according

to their frequencies as given above in the visual.
Radiation source of Ultraviolet Rays
1. Sunlight:
Although it would be possible to use sunlight as a

source of UV to produce fluorescence, but it is not a
practical procedure as it is not followed for forensic
photography.

2. Mercury Vapour Lamps:
Mercury vapor lamps, both high pressure and low

pressure have applications in reflected and
fluorescence photography. All mercury vapor lamps
however emit long wave ultraviolet and if the tube is
made of quartz, then shorter waves of ultraviolet
may also be emitted.
3. Electronic Flash:
Electronic flash lamps are suitable for ultraviolet

photography since they emit long wave ultraviolet.
One of the difficulties encountered in using
electronic flash is that resulting fluorescence is not
perceptible during the short flash interval.
There are two kinds of photography that should not

be mixed up: Fluorescence and UV-reflected
photography.
UV Fluorescence imaging:
UV illumination stimulates fluorescence at a longer

wavelength than the UV excitation source.
The resulting fluorescence is typically in the visible

band. A color camera with a UV-blocking filter is
used to record the fluorescence image.

Photoluminescence –
SWUV excited LWUV fluorescence probably not a

common form of fluorescence photography as it
requires a very controlled SWUV excitation source,
typically narrow band. A barrier filter that
transmits LWUV and blocks SWUV is necessary for
the lens. Unfortunately, most photographic lenses
will fluoresce to some degree resulting in a foggy
image.
Visible excited visible fluorescence –
This is very similar to visible excited infrared,

except of course the fluorescence occurs in the
visible region of the spectrum. The excitation is
typically blue or green light and the fluorescence
red. However, fluorescence can be green, yellow or
orange as exhibited by many "fluorescent" dyes and
inks.
UV Photography with Digital Cameras
Usually all cameras have built-in filters of the so-

called ―Hot Mirror type that eliminate totally the
UV from the photographs. CCD and CMOS image
sensors of digital cameras incorporate strong UV

and IR filters to achieve good color accuracy with

standard visible-light subjects.
Normal Digital-SLR cameras are not very sensitive

in the UV, but very much to IR ranges.
5. Chemical Photography and Films
All photographic films (color negative and slides,

black-and-white, infrared) are sensitive to
ultraviolet radiation (because silver halide crystals
are sensitive to it).
Some materials will absorb ultraviolet, while others

will reflect these radiations. Some have partial
reflection. These effects can be recorded
photographically using ultraviolet radiation.
Black-and-white films are sensitive to most

wavelengths of ultraviolet. By using a filter that
absorbs all visible light but passes ultraviolet, it is
possible to make a photographic exposure with just
ultraviolet.

Development of the Film

The following items are required to develop the
photographic film:
1. Exposed film roles
2. Developing tank
3. Thermometer
4. Scissors to cut the film roll from the cassette
5. Can opener
6. Developing solution
7. Fixing solution
8. Hypo cleaning solution
9. Beaker or measuring cup
10. Containers to mix chemicals
11. Negative carrier

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Forensic Science

UGC-NET/JRF Syllabus (UNIT- VI)

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Chemical Tests For Inorganic Anions: Pyridine Extract ............................. 42

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 Financial gain (Insurance Claim)

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Vapours from paint, gasoline and other flammable

This can involves Exotic metals such as titanium,

Class of fires Example

Class "A” Solid materials: paper, wood,

Class "B" Flammable liquids: oils, paints,

Class "C" Electric: faulty fuse boxes, frayed

Class “D". combustible metals

Three Phases of Combustion

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Free-Burning Phase (Fully Developed Stage):

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The following equipment may be used in the

 Latex gloves/Nitrile Gloves (N-DEX).

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sample takes place and passed through column with

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 Mobile Phase (Gas)

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An explosion can be divided into two types:

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The chemical decomposition of an explosive is a

The Explosives can be classified on the basis of

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Low explosives are solid flammable materials that

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flash powder, Pyrotechnics are few common

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The explosives that detonate with supersonic speed

1. Primary High Explosives

The explosives which are extremely sensitive to

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accompanied by the evolution of white fumes,

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Secondary high explosives are also known as base

Secondary High Explosive

Boosters Main Charge

2.1 PETN (Pentaerythritol tetranitrate)

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solution and finally recrystallized from acetone.

2.3 HMX (cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine)

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HNS stands for hexanitrostilbene and can be

 By the reaction of nitro derivatives of toluene

trinitrobenzene is then converted to 1,3,5-trinitro-

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Gelatine dynamites are basically of four types:

Homemade Explosives-Molotov Cocktail :

A Molotov cocktail consists of a glass bottle semi-

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Improvised Explosive Devices:

IED‟s are formed by incorporating destructive,

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 Availability and cost