Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 184 (2021) 106100

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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture

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Original papers

Nondestructive detection of decayed blueberry based on information fusion

of hyperspectral imaging (HSI) and low-Field nuclear magnetic resonance
(LF-NMR)
Qiao Shicheng a, b, c, Tian Youwen a, c, *, Wang Qinghu b, Song Shiyuan a, c, Song Ping a, c
a
College of Information and Electric Engineering, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
b
College of Computer Science and Technology, Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities, Tongliao 028043,China
c
Research Center of Liaoning Agricultural Informatization Engineering Technology, Shenyang 110866, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Decay affects the quality of blueberry. In this paper, information fusion of hyperspectral imaging (HSI) and low-
Blueberry field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) were carried out to achieve nondestructive detection of decayed
Decay blueberries. The hyperspectral images of the fruit were acquired by HSI system, multi-threshold spectral infor­
HSI
mation segmentation (MT-SIS) algorithm was proposed to segment decayed region of interest (ROI). The
MT-SIS
LF-NMR
competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS) algorithm and successive projections algorithm (SPA) were
used to extract the characteristic wavelengths, which were input into partial least squares discriminate analysis
(PLS-DA), probabilistic neural network (PNN) and back propagation neural network (BPNN) models to detect
decayed fruit. Then the carr-purcell-meiboom-gill (CPMG) sequence of the fruit was acquired by LF-NMR system.
T2 relaxation information was obtained, Pearson correlation and Spearman correlation analysis were used to
select parameters, which were input into the models to detect decayed fruit. Finally, information of HSI and LF-
NMR was fused and input into the models to detect decayed fruit. The results showed that SPA algorithm was
used to extract the characteristic wavelengths and Spearman correlation was used to extract the LF-NMR pa­
rameters, the BPNN model had the optimal effect in detecting decayed blueberries, the identification accuracy of
the training set was 98.33%, and that of the test set was 97.79%. The results showed that it was feasible to fuse
the information of HSI and LF-NMR to detect decayed blueberry fruit.

1. Introduction
Blueberry is known as the “King of Berries”, rich in anthocyanins,
flavonols, vitamins and other nutrients, and deeply loved by consumers
(Chen et al., 2019). Fresh fruit are highly perishable during storage,
transportation and processing. If not detected and sorted in time, the
decayed fruit will infect other fresh fruit and cause greater losses (leiva-
valenzuela et al., 2011). Traditional detection of decayed fruit mainly
relies on manual sorting, which is monotonous, subjective and time-
consuming (leiva-valenzuela and Aguilera, 2013). Therefore, it is
necessary to adopt a fast, effective and nondestructive approach to
detect decayed fruit.
Hyperspectral image (HSI) technology is a nondestructive detection
technology that can provide both spectral and image information. A
hyperspectral image consists of a series of monochromatic images. Each
spatial position of the sample can be studied from hundreds of adjacent
bands. Each pixel in the image contains the spectrum of that specific
location (Fan et al., 2017; Munera et al., 2019). In recent years, re­
searchers at home and abroad have used hyperspectrual imaging tech­
nology to conduct nondestructive detection of fruit diseases, such as
penicillium digitatum in citrus (Folch-fortuny et al., 2016), decay in
citrus (Li et al., 2016; Lorente et al., 2013; Tian et al., 2020), apple
diseases (Liu et al., 2017), fungal infection of stored apple fruit (Piec­
zywek et al., 2018), decayed pear (Sun et al., 2017; Sun et al., 2018),
pear black spot disease (Pan et al., 2019), decayed strawberry (Liu et al.,
2019), fungal infections in strawberry (Siedliska et al., 2018), etc.
LF-NMR is also a nondestructive detection technique (Carneiro et al.,
2013; Kenouche et al., 2014; Li et al., 2018; Tan et al., 2018), which has
been widely employed to detect fruit diseases, such as black heart dis­
ease in pomegranate (Zhang and Mccarthy, 2012), internal browning in

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: youwen_tian10@163.com (T. Youwen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2021.106100
Received 2 April 2020; Received in revised form 9 July 2020; Accepted 6 March 2021
Available online 21 March 2021
0168-1699/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Q. Shicheng et al.
apple (Gonzalez et al., 2001; Defraeye et al., 2013), internal browning in
pear (Hernández-Sánchez et al., 2007; Suchanek et al., 2017), internal
browning in mango (Bourne et al., 2012), decayed blueberry (Qiao et al.,
2019a), decay in citrus (Galed et al., 2004), etc.
The above studies show that both HSI and LF-NMR can realize
nondestructive detection of fruit diseases, and HSI mainly focuses on the
detection of chemical and physical characteristics of fruit surface (Liu
et al., 2019; Qin et al., 2013), since metabolic activity of fungus can
result in considerable changes in both chemical and physical charac­
teristics of fruit (Wszelaki and Mitcham, 2000). LF-NMR can be used to
characterize the distribution and migration of water in the internal fruit
(Clark and Forbes, 1994), and fruit diseases are closely related to water
distribution and migration (Chen et al., 1989).
Some researchers also detected the decayed blueberry fruit by using
nondestructive detection techniques. Leiva-valenzuela and Aguilera
(2013) used computer vision (CV) technology to detect fungally decayed
blueberries; He et al. (2019) used HSI technology to detect decayed
blueberry fruit; and Qiao et al. (2019a) used LF-NMR technology to
detect decayed blueberry fruit. These studies all used a single technology
to detect decayed blueberry fruit. However, the combination of different
technologies can obtain more comprehensive information about fruit
diseases, while a single inspection technology can provide information
on a single aspect of fruit diseases (Wu et al., 2018). In recent years,
some researchers have also used multisource information fusion to
detect fruit quality in a nondestructive manner. For instance, Milczarek
et al. (2019) used near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and NMR to study
the astringency of pollination-variant persimmons (Diospyros kaki), and
the results showed that information fusion could achieve good classifi­
cation performance. Liu et al. (2019) adopted HSI and electronic nose
(E-nose) technologies to evaluate fungal contamination in strawberries
during decay. The results showed that the model based on featured in­
formation fusion had better prediction performance than that con­
structed based on a single dataset (HSI or E-nose). Therefore, the
information fusion of different technologies could obtain more
comprehensive information of fruit diseases. It is of great significance to
use fusion approach (HSI and LF-NMR) to detect decayed blueberry. Due
to the large amount of HSI & LF-NMR data, it is necessary to select major
features to establish a fast and robust detection model (Wold et al.,
1996).
Therefore, the purposes of this study are as follows: (1) to use HSI to
collect the hyperspectral images of the fruit, use multi-threshold spectral
information segmentation (MT-SIS) algorithm to segment decayed re­
gion of interest to extract spectral information, and use the CARS and
SPA algorithms to extract characteristic wavelengths, which will be
input into PLS-DA, PNN and BPNN models to detect decayed fruit; (2) to
use LF-NMR system to collect carr-purcell-meiboom-gill (CPMG)
sequence of the fruit, obtain T2 relaxation information, and then use
Pearson correlation and Spearman correlation analysis to select relaxa­
tion parameters, which will be input into the models to detect decayed
fruit; (3) the information obtained by HSI and by LF-NMR are combined
and used to build PLS-DA, PNN and BPNN models to detect decayed
fruit.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sample preparation
A total of 188 fresh blueberries of the variety “Emil” were picked at
the blueberry plantation of Shenyang Agricultural University in China,
and then immediately stored in a freezer at 5 ◦ C for 4 h to remove field
heat. Each blueberry had similar maturity, size, and quality, and was
free of obvious pests and mechanical damage. After the samples were
taken out, the sodium hypochlorite solution with a concentration of 2%
(v/v) was used for sterilization treatment, and then they were washed
with distilled water and blow-dried. Before the experiment, each blue­
berry sample was weighed using a balance (Beijing Sartorius Instrument
2
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 184 (2021) 106100
System Co., Ltd., Accuracy: 10-6 kg). Then, the HSI and LF-NMR data of
the fruit were tested respectively, and regarded as the data of sound fruit
samples. After that, decayed fruit samples were prepared for cultivation.
The blueberry rot fungus, strains code-named LNSY01, was provided by
the Small Berry Diseases Laboratory of Shenyang Agricultural Univer­
sity. After activation, spores were used to make a spore suspension (104
spores mL− 1), and the liquid was sprayed evenly on the fruit surface.
After that, all samples were stored in a climate box at a temperature of
(27 ± 2 ℃) and a humidity of 80%. The fruit were taken out for testing
when decay characteristics appeared after 1 d, and were discarded after
the experiment. There were 188 decayed blueberries after the experi­
ment was completed.
2.2. HSI and LF-NMR measurement
2.2.1. HSI measurement
As shown in Fig. 1, the HSI system in the experiment consists of a
spectrograph (ImSpector V10 E, Spectral Imaging Ltd, Finland), a CCD
camera (IGV-B1410M, IMPERX incorporated, USA), a translation plat­
form controller (IRCP0076-1 COM, Taiwan), two 150 W illumination
lamps (3900 Illuminatior, Illumination Technologies, Inc. U.S.), and a
computer (DELL Vostro 5560D-1528). The spectral range is 400–1000
nm, and the effective resolution is 1.27 nm, with a total of 472 bands.
The exposure time is 20 ms, and the distance between the lens and the
samples is 32 cm (see Fig. 1).
The velocity of the conveyor belt was controlled at 1.7 × 10-3 m s− 1
to ensure that the hyperspectral image was not distorted. To remove the
effect on dark current of the hyperspectral cameras and the nonuniform
intensity of hyperspectral image, the hyperspectral image was corrected
by a black and white board. The corrected hyperspectral image I was
calculated according to Eq. (1) as follows to eliminate the noise.
Is − ID
R= (1)
IW − ID
where IS is the raw hyperspectral image of blueberry, IW is the white
reference image, ID is the dark image, and R is the corrected hyper­
spectral image (Qiao et al., 2019b).
2.2.2. LF-NMR measurement
For the LF-NMR test, as shown in Fig. 2, a low-field nuclear magnetic
analysis experimental instrument of Shanghai Nuomai Electronic
Technology Co., Ltd. was used. The model is MesoMR23-060H-I, the
magnet probe model is NIMI20-015V-I, the magnet strength is 0.5 T, and
the coil diameter is 15 mm. The working principle of low-field nuclear
magnetic resonance is that with an industrial computer, a frequency
source (direct digital frequency synthesis source, DDS) sends out a radio
frequency signal that meets the resonance conditions, and the power is
amplified by a radio frequency unit. Then the signal emits through the
RF coil and excites the sample to generate nuclear magnetic resonance.
During the signal acquisition period, the RF coil obtains the nuclear
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of hyperspectral imaging system.
Q. Shicheng et al.
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of LF-NMR system. RF = Radio Frequency.
magnetic resonance signal through induction. After pre-amplification,
data acquisition and analog-to-digital conversion will be performed.
After the collected data enter the industrial computer, the relaxation
spectrum of the nuclear magnetic resonance signal can be obtained
through processing. In the two-dimensional magnetic resonance imag­
ing sequence, it is necessary to send a gradient signal from the sequencer
in the gradient unit. After digital-to-analog conversion and gradient
power amplification, the gradient coil generates a gradient magnetic
field, which is used to spatially locate the nuclear magnetic resonance
signal. The industrial computer processes the data to obtain a two-
dimensional image of the sample.
When the temperature is equal to 32 ◦ C, the magnet reaches a steady
state. The FID sequence will be used to calibrate the center frequency
and the 90◦ and 180◦ pulse widths. The Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill
(CPMG) sequence is used to test the lateral relaxation process of blue­
berries (Li et al., 2018). The mathematical expression of the relaxation
model is shown in Eq. (2):
∑
n helps select optimal wavelengths by minimizing co-linearity among
t
M(t) = Ai exp(− ) + A0
T2i
i=1
where M (t) is transverse magnetization, t is time, Ai is signal amplitude,
i is sample number, n is number of hydrogen proton states, T2i is lateral
relaxation time of hydrogen proton of the i-th component, and A0 is
noisy signal. Collected data are substituted into Eq. (2) to obtain the T2
relaxation information of blueberries. In the test, each sample is tested 3
times, and then the parameters are averaged.
2.3. Evaluation of decayed blueberries
In this paper, decayed fruit were evaluated. “Decayed” here refers to
visible fungal growth, pronounced rot, juice leakage in the fruit, and the
identification standards of decay can be referred to the previous research
(Wang et al., 2018) as shown in Table 1.
2.4. Key technology introduction
2.4.1. Multi-threshold spectral information segmentation (MT-SIS)
algorithm
The decayed region is similar to sound region due to the dark skin of
blueberry. It is difficult for the conventional image segmentation
method based on the gray value to segment the decayed region accu­
rately. Therefore, we proposed multi-threshold spectral information
segmentation (MT-SIS) algorithm to segment the decayed region of the
fruit. The threshold is not determined by the gray value of the image, but
by the spectral value of a certain wavelength. The operation steps are as
Table 1
Classification of decayed fruit.
Class Decay characteristics
Sound no fungal, no visible juice leakage
Decayed visible fungal growth, pronounced rot, juice leakage
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 184 (2021) 106100
follows:
Step 1: Analyze the spectral curve of the hyperspectral image, and
select the grayscale image I at the characteristic wavelength λ where the
spectral values of the decayed region and the sound region of the
blueberry differ greatly.
Step 2: Analyze the spectral curves of the blueberry region and the
background region, and select the mean of the average spectral reflec­
tance of the background region and that of the segmented blueberry as
the segmentation threshold f0. The mean of the average spectral reflec­
tance of the decayed region and that of the sound region was selected as
the segmentation threshold f1.
Step 3: Compare the spectral reflectance of each pixel of the image
with the thresholds f0 and f1. If the spectral reflectance of the pixel is
smaller than f0 or bigger than f1, assign the gray value to 0; if the spectral
reflectance of the pixel is equal to or greater than f0 and equal to or
smaller than f1, assign the gray value to 255. It is shown in Eq. (3):
f1 < f(x,y) or f(x,y) < f0 , g(x,y) = 0;
(3)
f1 ⩾f(x,y) ⩾f0 , g(x,y) = 255
where f(x, y) is spectral value at the location (x, y) of the image IM×N, x ∈
[1, M], y ∈ [1, N]; g(x, y) is gray value at the location (x, y) of the image
IM×N.
2.4.2. Feature selection algorithms
In this study, CARS algorithm and SPA algorithm were used
respectively to extract the characteristic wavelengths. CARS algorithm
selects the wavelength points with large absolute value of regression
coefficient in PLSR model through adaptive reweighted sampling algo­
rithm, and removes the wavelength points with small weight to effec­
tively find the optimal variable combination. SPA is an algorithm that
(2) wavelengths (Li et al., 2020; Qiao et al., 2019b).
In this study, Pearson correlation and Spearman correlation were
used to select LF-NMR parameters. Pearson correlation can be used to
measure the degree of correlation between two variables. For instance,
when correlation between two sample sets X and Y is measured, the
calculation is shown in equation (4):
∑ ∑ ∑
N XY − X Y
ρX,Y = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∑ ̅ (4)
∑ ∑
N X 2 − ( X)2 N Y 2 − ( Y)2
∑
Spearman correlation coefficient is a statistic obtained by arranging
the sample values of two elements into a ranking form according to the
size of the data and replacing the actual data with the sample values of
each element. Assuming that 2 random variables (2 sets) are respectively
X and Y (which can also be regarded as 2 sets), and the number of ele­
ments is N, X and Y are sorted (ascending or descending at the same
time), and the ranking set X and Y of 2 elements are obtained. The
Spearman correlation coefficient (Zhang, et al. 2019) is shown in Eq. (5):
∑N
i=1 (xi − x)(yi − y)
ρ = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅ (5)
∑ ∑
N N
(xi − x)2 (yi − y)2
i=1 i=1
In this study, the correlation coefficient means extremely strong
correlation when its absolute value is between 0.8 and 1.0, strong cor­
relation between 0.6 and 0.8, moderate correlation between 0.4 and 0.6,
weak correlation between 0.2 and 0.4, and extremely weak or no cor­
relation between 0.0 and 0.2.
2.4.3. Detection models
The partial least squares discriminate analysis (PLS-DA) is a multi­
variate statistical analysis method for discriminant analysis. Discrimi­
nant analysis is a common statistical analysis method to determine the
classification of research objects based on the observed or measured
values of several variables (Alyssa et al., 2019). The probabilistic neural
3
Q. Shicheng et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 184 (2021) 106100

network (PNN) is a forward-propagation network (Porwik et al., 2016),
which does not require back-propagation optimization parameters. It is
a parallel algorithm developed by Bayesian classification rules and
probability density function estimation method of Parzen window.
Essentially, the Bayesian minimum risk criterion is employed to deter­
mine the type of test sample. PNN neural network plays an important
role in solving classification problems. The back propagation neural
network (BPNN) is the most basic neural network. The output results are
propagated forward while the error is propagated back. BPNN has the
capabilities of self-organization, self-learning, associative storage, and
high-speed search for optimal solutions. It has good nonlinear approxi­
mation capacities, and has the advantages of simple structure and
mature technology (Lu et al., 2019).
2.5. Flowchart of detecting decayed fruit
In this study, HSI system was employed to acquire the hyperspectral
images of the fruit, MT-SIS algorithm was proposed to segment decayed
region, and CARS and SPA algorithms were used to extract the charac­
teristic wavelengths, which were input into PLS-DA, PNN and BPNN

Fig. 3. Flowchart of detecting decayed fruit. HSI = hyperspectral imaging; LF-NMR = low-field nuclear magnetic resonance; T2 = transverse relaxation time; PLS-DA
= partial least squares discriminate analysis; PNN = probabilistic neural network; BPNN = back propagation neural network.

4
Q. Shicheng et al.
models to detect decayed fruit. The CPMG of the fruit was acquired by
LF-NMR system. T2 relaxation information was obtained, Pearson cor­
relation and Spearman correlation analysis were used to select relaxa­
tion parameters, which were input into three models to detect decayed
fruit. The information obtained by HSI and by LF-NMR were fused and
input into three models to detect decayed fruit. The flowchart of
detecting decayed fruit is shown in Fig. 3.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. HSI analysis
3.1.1. Spectral curves analysis
To reduce the impact of system noise, the wavelength coverage in
this study is 450–1000 nm. Fig. 4 shows the mean spectral reflectance of
the sound, decayed and background regions. The solid line is the mean
spectrum, and the error bar is the standard deviation. The spectral
reflectance of sound and decayed region of the fruit is different, which
may be caused by the changes in the chemical and physical properties.
Therefore, the spectral data in the range of 450–1000 nm were used to
establish the model to detect decayed fruit, and the spectral data were
obtained from the region of interest (ROI) by using image segmentation
algorithm.
3.1.2. ROI segmentation
Due to the dark skin of blueberry, its gray characteristics do not
change significantly before and after decay, so it is difficult to obtain
desirable segmentation results by using conventional image segmenta­
tion algorithm. Therefore, the MT-SIS algorithm was adopted to segment
decay ROI of the decayed fruit, as shown in Fig. 6. We acquired the
hyperspectral image (Fig. 5A), and chose gray image in the 890 nm band
(Fig. 5B) as feature image for ROI segmentation due to obvious differ­
ence between the sound and decayed regions. The mean spectral
reflectance of the background was 0.04, that of the decayed region was
0.32, and that of the sound region was 0.42. Therefore, the two
thresholds of the MT-SIS algorithm were set as f0 = 0.18 and f1 = 0.37,
respectively. The decayed region was obtained as shown in Fig. 5C. After
the process of corrosion and expansion, the ROI of decayed fruit
(Fig. 5D) was obtained, so that the mean spectral reflectance of the
decayed region could be extracted (Fig. 5E).
Fig. 4. Mean reflectance spectral (solid line) and standard deviation (error bar)
before preprocessing of sound region, decayed region of the fruit and the
background. Note: Error bar stands for standard deviation. For every 5 data
points, draw an error bar at the first data point, and skip the next 4 data points.
5
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 184 (2021) 106100
3.1.3. Extracted characteristic wavelengths
According to the previous image segmentation, spectral data were
extracted from 5 × 5 pixels region with 4 different locations in the sound
region and the decayed region, and the mean values were calculated to
replace the average spectral reflectance of the region. Due to more
redundant information of spectral curves, it is not conducive for the
construction of the model. Therefore, the characteristic wavelengths
should be extracted before the data was input into the model, so as to
reduce the input vectors of the model and reduce the introduction of
wrong information into the established model.
(1) Extracted characteristic wavelengths by CARS
The CARS algorithm was used to extract characteristic wavelengths
from 431 wavelength variables in the band range of 450–1000 nm. It can
be seen from Fig. 6A that when the number of runs was 20, the corre­
sponding root mean square error of cross validation (RMSECV) = 0.007
was the smallest, indicating that the subset of characteristic wavelengths
related to decayed blueberries was optimal. Finally, 7 characteristic
wavelengths were extracted by CARS algorithm, which were 475 nm,
500 nm, 702 nm, 746 nm, 857 nm, 893 nm and 969 nm, respectively, as
shown in Fig. 6B.
(2) Extracted characteristic wavelengths by SPA
In this study, SPA algorithm was used to extract characteristic
wavelengths from 431 wavelength variables in the band range of 450
nm ~ 1000 nm. Fig. 7A shows that when the number of selected vari­
ables was 6, RMSECV = 0.132 was the smallest. The 6 characteristic
wavelengths were extracted by SPA algorithm, which were 522 nm, 701
nm, 715 nm, 857 nm, 890 nm and 980 nm, respectively, as shown in
Fig. 7B.
Figs. 6 and 7 show that CARS algorithm and SPA algorithm were
respectively adopted in this study to select the characteristic wave­
lengths of decayed blueberries. The original 431 wavelength variables
were reduced to 7 characteristic wavelengths by CARS algorithm and 6
characteristic wavelengths by SPA algorithm, which greatly reduced the
input vectors of the model. In this study, PLS-DA, PNN and BPNN models
were used to realize the nondestructive detection of decayed
blueberries.
3.1.4. Detection model with characteristic wavelengths
Of the 188 samples from each category of sound and decayed blue­
berries, 120 were randomly selected as the training set and 68 as the
prediction set. Firstly, the characteristic wavelength variables selected
were normalized, and then the processed data variables were input into
the models. When the PLS-DA model was used to detect decayed blue­
berries, the optimal principal component number was determined and
the PLS-DA model was established by using an interactive verification
method. When the number of principal components was 4, corre­
sponding RMSECV was the smallest, so 4 was selected as the optimal
number of principal components of the model. The “newpnn” was a
function used to establish PNN, PNN “spread” was the distribution
density of the radial basis function which was selected as 1.5, and the
“sim” function was used for network prediction. The “sim” command
causes the specified Simulink model to be executed. When BPNN model
detected decayed blueberries, the activation function was Tansig, the
output layer function was Tansig, the network training function was
Trainlm, the number of training steps was 1000, and the training target
was 0.0001.
It can be seen from Table 2 that when SPA algorithm was used to
extract characteristic wavelengths, the BPNN model performed best for
detecting decayed blueberries. For the training set of the BPNN model,
the identification accuracy of “sound” and “decayed” fruit was 94.17%,
with 7 “sound” fruit misjudged as “decayed” fruit and 7 “decayed” fruit
misjudged as “sound” fruit. For the prediction set of the BPNN model,
the identification accuracy of “sound” and “decayed” fruit was 93.38%,
with 4 “sound” fruit misjudged as “decayed” fruit and 5 “decayed” fruit
misjudged as “sound” fruit. The “sound” fruit could be misjudged as
“decayed” fruit since no obvious symptoms could be observed outside
Q. Shicheng et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 184 (2021) 106100

Gray image at 890 nm Decayed ROI segment by MT-SIS

A B C
W y
av
el
en
gt

x
h

Hyperspectrual image

E D

Spectrum extraction Corrosion and expansion

Fig. 5. Decay ROI segmentation. ROI = region of interest; MT-SIS = multi-threshold spectral information segmentation.

Fig. 6. Selection of characteristic wavelengths by CARS algorithm for detection of decayed blueberry. Note: Fig. 6A stands for RMSECV variation with the increase of
number of selected variables, and Fig. 6B stands for variable indices of the 7 selected variables corresponding to 431 variables. Mean reflectance spectral (solid line)
and standard deviation (error bar) before preprocessing of sound region and decayed region of the fruit. Error bar stands for standard deviation. For every 5 data
points, draw an error bar at the first data point, and skip the next 4 data points. RMSECV = root mean square error of cross validation.

the fruit due to the dark skin even when the fruit had decayed inside.
Since the light transmission performance is limited (Jie and Wei, 2018),
it is unable to detect internal decay effectively. The “decayed” fruit were
misjudged as “sound” fruit since the chemical and physical information
on the surface tissue did not change significantly, resulting in “sound”
fruit and slightly “decayed” fruit with similar spectral curves. In general,
this paper uses hyperspectral images combined with MT-SIS algorithm
for nondestructive detection of decayed fruit. The SPA algorithm and
BPNN model had relatively better detection results.
The detection effect of SPA algorithm is better than that of CARS
algorithm, which may be due to the fact that the wavelength selected by
CARS algorithm might be less correlated with decayed blueberries. SPA
algorithm has the advantage of minimizing co-linearity in vector space
and eliminating redundant information in the original spectral matrix
(Chu, 2011).
In this research, we employed the SPA algorithm to extract the
characteristics of wavelengths. As shown in Fig. 7A, a sharp fall occurred
in the starting part of the RMSEV curve as the number of selected
effective variables increased from 1 to 6. When the number of selected
variables was 6, the corresponding RMSEV = 0.132 was the smallest.
That is to say, the SPA algorithm extracted the 6 characteristic wave­
lengths, which were respectively 522 nm, 701 nm, 715 nm, 857 nm, 890
nm, and 980 nm (Fig. 7B). The intensity of reflectance of different
wavelengths in the hyperspectral image is related to the chemical
structure of the fruit. Therefore, changes in the physical and chemical
information generated by the fungal metabolism of the blueberry fruit
can be detected by the difference in spectral reflectance (Siripatrawan
et al., 2011; Teena et al., 2014). Among them, 522 nm is associated with
the blueberry color information (Pan et al., 2019), 701 nm with the
chlorophyll (Zhang et al., 2016; Pan et al., 2019), 715 nm with the
fourth-order frequency doubling of the C-H group and the third-order
frequency doubling of the O-H group in carbohydrate (Liu et al.,
2019), 857 nm and 890 nm with the stretching vibrations of the third C-
H (Chu, 2011), and 980 nm with the absorption of water. This is
consistent with the molecular spectroscopy theory, which holds that the
absorption peak at 980 nm is related to the first- and second-order fre­
quency-doubled stretching vibrations of the O-H group (Osborne and
Fearn, 1986; Liu et al., 2019), as shown in Fig. 7B.

6
Q. Shicheng et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 184 (2021) 106100

Fig. 7. Selection of characteristic wavelengths by SPA algorithm for detection of decayed blueberry. Note: Fig. 7A stands for RMSEV variation with the increase of
number of selected variables, and Fig. 7B stands for variable indices of the 6 selected variables corresponding to 431 variables. Mean reflectance spectral (solid line)
and standard deviation (error bar) before preprocessing of sound region and decayed region of the fruit. Error bar stands for standard deviation. For every 5 data
points, draw an error bar at the first data point, and skip the next 4 data points. RMSEV = root mean square error of verification.

Table 2
Detection performances of models with characteristic wavelengths. FS = full spectrum.
Models Selection algorithm Training set(240) Test set(136)

Sound(120) Decayed(120) Accuracy(%) Sound(68) Decayed(68) Accuracy(%)

PLS-DA FS 110 109 91.25 60 60 88.24

CARS 111 110 92.08 62 62 91.18
SPA 111 112 92.92 61 61 89.71
PNN FS 107 109 90.00 59 59 86.76
CARS 109 110 91.25 60 61 88.97
SPA 110 112 92.50 60 62 89.71
BPNN FS 111 109 91.67 62 61 90.44
CARS 113 111 93.33 63 63 92.65
SPA 113 113 94.17 64 63 93.38

3.2. LF-NMR analysis
3.2.1. T2 Information acquisition
There is a small magnetic field around the proton of any substance.
Therefore, each proton creates a tiny magnetic field, and at the same
time, it will be affected by the magnetic field of other protons. When the
distance between protons is relatively small, the T2 of the sample is
small; when the distance between protons is relatively large, the T2 of
the sample is large. Therefore, T2 reflects the micro-molecular structure
of the sample to some extent (Srivastava et al., 2018).
From the CPMG attenuation curve of blueberries (Fig. 8A), it can be
seen that when the blueberries have more hydrogen protons after decay,
the attenuation rate becomes lower. The attenuation curve is obtained
by inversion of equation (2) to obtain the T2 relaxation information of
the blueberry (Fig. 8B), and its length can reflect the degree of freedom
of water inside the blueberry. A shorter T2 indicates a lower degree of
freedom, and a longer T2 indicates a higher degree of freedom (Li et al.,
2012; Xu et al., 2017).
According Fig. 8B, it can be seen that the T2 relaxation time of sound
blueberries and decayed blueberries varies from 1 ms to 1000 ms, and
there are three peaks. The peak time corresponding to the three relax­
ation times is defined as T21 (1 ms ~ 10 ms), T22 (10 ms ~ 100 ms), and

Fig. 8. Carr-Purcell- Meiboom-Gill (CPMG) sequence decay curves (A) and its corresponding relaxation spectrum (B). Note: T21-cell wall, T22-cytoplasm, T23-vacuole.

7
Q. Shicheng et al.
T23 (100 ms ~ 100 ms). The relaxation time of T21 is the smallest, which
is defined as the relaxation time of water in the cell wall. The water in
the cell wall mainly exists in the sieve tube and the small hole in the duct
of the cell wall, which limits water transfer (Black and Pritchard, 2002).
T22 is defined as the relaxation time of water in the cytoplasm, which is
determined by the properties of the cytoplasmic matrix (Raffo et al.,
2005). T23 is defined as the relaxation time of water in the vacuoles,
since 50–80% of the water is present in the vacuoles, the relaxation time
is the largest (Zhang and Mccarthy, 2012). The signal amplitudes A21,
A22, and A23 are defined as water content of the cell wall, cytoplasm, and
vacuole (Zhang et al., 2018). The amplitude ratios are P21, P22, and P23,
which are the ratios of A21, A22, and A23 to the total signal A2 (P2i = A2i/
A2 × 100%, i = 1, 2, 3), respectively. After decay, the relaxation times
T21, T22, and T23 increased to varying degrees, while the signal ampli­
tudes A21 and A22 increased, and A23 decreased. The amplitude ratios of
P21 did not change significantly, P22 increased and P23 decreased. In the
experiment, nine parameters of T2 relaxation information were used to
detect decayed blueberry.
3.2.2. Selection of relaxation parameters
In this study, the Pearson correlation analysis and Spearman corre­
lation were carried out between the 9 relaxation parameters of T2 and
sound/decayed fruit. The relaxation parameters were selected based on
correlation coefficients, and the correlation coefficient and its signifi­
cance are shown in Table 3.
To make sure that the models have a higher identification accuracy,
the relaxation parameters corresponding to extremely strong correlation
and strong correlation were selected in this study, that is, the relaxation
parameters with the absolute value of correlation coefficient larger than
or equal to 0.6 were selected as the input variables of the models, as
shown in Fig. 9.
As can be seen from Fig. 9, the parameters selected by the two
methods are consistent. The definition of Spearman correlation is similar
to that of Pearson correlation, but the restrictions are much looser for the
Spearman correlation, so Spearman correlation was adopted in this
study (Myers and Well, 2003). We selected 7 parameters T21, T22, T23,
A22, A23, P22, and P23 (Fig. 9), and input them into the models to detect
decayed fruit. Among them, the increase in T21, T22, and T23 was due to
the disappearance of cell turgor after cell tissue destruction after decay,
which increased the relaxation time (Fundo et al., 2015; Toivonen and
Brummell, 2008). There was more water in the cytoplasm and vacuoles,
so the decay of blueberries caused little change in A21 and P21. There­
fore, T21, T22, T23, A22, A23, P22 and P23 could better reflect the change of
relaxation parameters before and after blueberry decay.
3.2.3. Detection model with relaxation parameters
It was the same samples of prediction set and test set in hyperspectral
imaging data and low-field nuclear magnetic resonance data. Of the 188
samples of sound and decayed blueberries, 120 were selected as the
training set and 68 as the prediction set. Seven selected T2 relaxation
parameters were normalized, and parameter settings of models were the
same as above. The detection results are shown in Table 4.
It can be seen from Table 4 that the BPNN model performed best for
detecting decayed blueberries, and the accuracy of the training set is
94.17%, with 8 “sound” fruit misjudged as “decayed” fruit and 6
Table 3
Table of correlation between T2 relaxation parameters and sound/decayed fruit.
Parameters Pearson Spearman Parameters Pearson
correlation correlation correlation
T21 0.654 0.669 A21 0.410
T22 0.813* 0.828* A22 0.848**
T23 0.758* 0.768* A23 − 0.837**
*
Significance was identified by Spearman correlation analysis (p < 0.05).
**
Significance was identified by Spearman correlation analysis (p < 0.01).
8
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 184 (2021) 106100
“decayed” fruit misjudged as “sound” fruit. For the prediction set, the
identification accuracy of “sound” and “decayed” fruit was 92.65%, with
4 “sound” fruit misjudged as “decayed” fruit and 6 “decayed” fruit
misjudged as “sound” fruit. According to the detection results, the
number of “sound” fruit misjudged as “decayed” fruit by LF-NMR were
less than that by HSI, indicating that LF-NMR could detect the internal
decay of the fruit more effectively. The “sound” fruit were misjudged as
“decayed” fruit since no obvious symptoms could be found inside the
fruit. The “decayed” fruit were misjudged as “sound” fruit since no
obvious water distribution and migration could be found inside the fruit,
resulting in “sound” fruit and “decayed” fruit with similar relaxation
parameters. In general, the T2 relaxation parameter input identification
model BPNN using LF-NMR can detect decayed fruit; when combined
with Spearman correlation algorithm, the identification accuracy can be
increased to some extent.
3.3. HSI combined LF-NMR analysis
According to the foregoing description, it can be seen that the
characteristic wavelengths can reflect the chemical and physical
changes on the tissue surface before and after blueberry decay, and the
relaxation parameters can reflect the water distribution and migration
inside the fruit. The combination can obtain more comprehensive in­
formation about decayed fruit. Therefore, in this study, 6 characteristic
wavelength variables of HSI selected by SPA and 7 characteristic
wavelength variables of HSI selected by CARS, and 7T2 relaxation pa­
rameters of LF-NMR selected by Spearman correlation were fused and
input into the models to detect decayed fruit. The detection results are
shown in Table 5.
It can be seen from Table 5 that SPA and Spearman correlation were
respectively adopted in characteristic selection algorithms, and BPNN
model was adopted to detect decayed blueberries with the best effect.
For the training set, the identification accuracy of “sound” and
“decayed” fruit was 98.33%, with 2 “sound” fruit misjudged as
“decayed” fruit and 2 “decayed” fruit misjudged as “sound” fruit. For the
prediction set, the identification accuracy of “sound” and “decayed”
fruit was 97.79%, with 2 “sound” fruit misjudged as “decayed” fruit and
1 “decayed” fruit misjudged as “sound” fruit. According to the detection
results, the misjudged number decreased, indicating that LF-NMR could
better improve the detection results when no obvious decay symptoms
could be found outside the fruit with decay inside. When slight decay
occurred outside, information fusion could help avoid misjudgment to
the greatest extent, leading to better detection results. In general, in­
formation fusion of HSI and LF-NMR could generate optimal detection
results.
According to the test results in Table 2, Table 4 and Table 5, the
detection performance of the BPNN model is better than that of the PNN
and PLS-DA models, regardless of the training set or the test set. The
possible reason is that there is nonlinear relationship between hyper­
spectral imaging data and LF-NMR data and whether the blueberries are
decayed. The advantange of the BPNN model lies in its strong nonlinear
mapping ability and generalization ability (Ni and Li, 2016), so the
classification performance is better. The PLS-DA model is a linear clas­
sification method (Lee et al., 2018), and its classification performance of
nonlinear relation data in this study is not as good as that of the BPNN
Spearman Parameters Pearson Spearman
correlation correlation correlation
0.436 P21 0.504 0.494
0.874** P22 0.864** 0.871**
− 0.873** P23 − 0.866** − 0.872**
Q. Shicheng et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 184 (2021) 106100

Fig. 9. Selection of relaxation parameters of Pearson correlation (A) and Spearman correlation (B). Note: T21, T22 and T23 are relaxation time; A21, A22 and A23 are
signal amplitudes; P21, P22, and P23 are amplitude ratios.

Table 4
Detection performances of models with relaxation parameters. FP = full parameters.
Models Selection algorithm Training set (240) Test set (136)

Sound(120) Decayed(120) Accuracy(%) Sound(68) Decayed(68) Accuracy(%)

PLS-DA FP 110 111 92.08 61 62 90.44

Pearson 112 113 93.75 63 62 91.91
Spearman
PNN FP 110 108 90.83 59 59 86.76
Pearson 112 111 92.92 61 62 90.44
Spearman
BPNN FP 112 112 93.33 62 63 91.91
Pearson 112 114 94.17 64 62 92.65
Spearman

Table 5
Detection performances of models with information fusion.
Models Selection algorithm Training set (240) Test set (136)

Sound (120) Decayed(120) Accuracy(%) Sound (68) Decayed (68) Accuracy(%)

PLS-DA CARS + Spearman 115 116 96.25 65 65 95.59

SPA + Spearman 116 116 96.67 66 65 96.32
PNN CARS + Spearman 114 115 95.42 63 64 93.38
SPA + Spearman 116 117 97.08 64 66 95.59
BPNN CARS + Spearman 117 116 97.08 66 66 97.06
SPA + Spearman 118 118 98.33 66 67 97.79

model. The PNN model requires high representativeness of training
samples and it is difficult to determine smoothing factor (Chen et al.,
2018), which reduces the detection accuracy.
4. Conclusion
LF-NMR parameters, the BPNN model obtained the best detection re­
sults. The identification accuracy of the training set was 98.33%, and
that of the prediction set was 97.79%. Hence, this study showed that the
combination of these two nondestructive techniques could help improve
the detection results of the decayed fruit.

In this paper, the decayed fruit were detected by using information
fusion of HSI and LF-NMR in a nondestructive manner. HSI system was
employed to acquire the hyperspectral images of the fruit and the MT-
SIS algorithm was proposed to segment decayed ROI. The CARS algo­
rithm and SPA algorithm were used to extract the characteristic wave­
lengths, which were input into the PLS-DA, PNN and BPNN models to
detect decayed fruit. Then Pearson correlation and Spearman correla­
tion analyses were used to select relaxation parameters, which were
input into three models to detect decayed fruit. Finally, the information
was fused and input into the models to detect decayed fruit. The test
results show that when SPA algorithm was used to extract characteristic
wavelengths and Spearman correlation analysis was adopted to select
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Qiao Shicheng: Data curation, Methodology, Software, Visualiza­
tion. Tian Youwen: Conceptualization, Writing - original draft. Wang
Qinghu: Supervision, Investigation, Writing - review & editing. Song
Shiyuan: Software, Validation. Song Ping: Software.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.

9
Q. Shicheng et al.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of
China (Project No: 31701318, 61662057), Basic Research Project of
Liaoning Education Department (Project No: LSNJC201906), Doctoral
Startup Foundation of Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities
(BS603), Science and Technology Project of Inner Mongolia Autono­
mous Region (2020GG0190) and Higher Education Science Research
Project of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China (Project No:
NJZY19155, NJZY21419). Thanks for the editor and anonymous re­
viewers for their helpful suggestions on the quality improvement of our
present paper.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.compag.2021.106100.
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