Unit:- 1

Unit:- 2
Unit:- 3 & 4
Q.1 What is composite Transformation.
Ans: Composite Transformation :
As the name suggests itself Composition, here we combine two or more
transformations into one single transformation that is equivalent to the
transformations that are performed one after one over a 2-D object.

Example :
Consider we have a 2-D object on which we first apply transformation T1 (2-D
matrix condition) and then we apply transformation T2(2-D matrix condition) over
the 2-D object and the object get transformed, the very equivalent effect over the 2-
D object we can obtain by multiplying T1 & T2 (2-D matrix conditions) with each
other and then applying the T12 (resultant of T1 X T2) with the coordinates of the 2-D
image to get the transformed final image.

Step1: The object is kept at its position as in fig (a)

Step2: The object is translated so that its center coincides with the origin as in fig (b)

Step3: Scaling of an object by keeping the object at origin is done in fig (c)

Step4: Again translation is done. This second translation is called a reverse translation. It will
position the object at the origin location.

Above transformation can be represented as TV.STV-1

Advantages:-

1. It transformations become compact.

2. The number of operations will be reduced.
3. Rules used for defining transformation in form of equations are complex as compared
to matrix.
Q.2 explain 2d reflection in detail

Ans: It is a transformation which produces a mirror image of an object. The mirror image
can be either about x-axis or y-axis. The object is rotated by180°.

Types of Reflection:
1. Reflection about the x-axis
2. Reflection about the y-axis
3. Reflection about an axis perpendicular to xy plane and passing through the origin
4. Reflection about line y=x

1. Reflection about x-axis: The object can be reflected about x-axis with the help of the
following matrix

In this transformation value of x will remain same whereas the value of y will become negative.
Following figures shows the reflection of the object axis. The object will lie another side of the
x-axis.

2. Reflection about y-axis: The object can be reflected about y-axis with the help of following
transformation matrix
Here the values of x will be reversed, whereas the value of y will remain the same. The object
will lie another side of the y-axis.

The following figure shows the reflection about the y-axis

3. Reflection about an axis perpendicular to xy plane and passing through origin:

In the matrix of this transformation is given below
In this value of x and y both will be reversed. This is also called as half revolution about the
origin.

4. Reflection about line y=x: The object may be reflected about line y = x with the help of
following transformation matrix

First of all, the object is rotated at 45°. The direction of rotation is clockwise. After it reflection
is done concerning x-axis. The last step is the rotation of y=x back to its original position that
is counterclockwise at 45°.
Q.3 State how to obtain transformation matrix for 2D Rotation
about an arbitrary point.

Ans: Rotation about an arbitrary point: If we want to rotate an object or point about an
arbitrary point, first of all, we translate the point about which we want to rotate to the origin.
Then rotate point or object about the origin, and at the end, we again translate it to the original
place. We get rotation about an arbitrary point.

Example: The point (x, y) is to be rotated

The (xc yc) is a point about which counterclockwise rotation is done

Step1: Translate point (xc yc) to origin

Step2: Rotation of (x, y) about the origin

Step3: Translation of center of rotation back to its original position
Q.4 Derive equation for window-viewport transformation.
Ans: Window to Viewport Transformation is the process of transforming 2D
world-coordinate objects to device coordinates. Objects inside the world or clipping
window are mapped to the viewport which is the area on the screen where world
coordinates are mapped to be displayed.

General Terms:
• World coordinate – It is the Cartesian coordinate w.r.t which we define
the diagram, like Xwmin, Xwmax, Ywmin, Ywmax
• Device Coordinate –It is the screen coordinate where the objects are to be
displayed, like Xvmin, Xvmax, Yvmin, Yvmax
• Window –It is the area on the world coordinate selected for display.
• ViewPort –It is the area on the device coordinate where graphics is to be
displayed.
Mathematical Calculation of Window to Viewport:
It may be possible that the size of the Viewport is much smaller or greater than the
Window. In these cases, we have to increase or decrease the size of the Window
according to the Viewport and for this, we need some mathematical calculations.
(xw, yw): A point on Window
(xv, yv): Corresponding point on Viewport
We have to calculate the point (xv, yv)
Now the relative position of the object in Window and Viewport are same.

For x coordinate,

For y coordinate,

So, after calculating for x and y coordinate, we get

Where sx is the scaling factor of x coordinate and sy is the scaling factor of y

coordinate
Q.5 Explain Cohen Sutherland line clipping algorithm with
example
Ans: Description:- In this algorithm, we are given 9 regions on the screen. Out of
which one region is of the window and the rest 8 regions are around it given by 4
digit binary. The division of the regions are based on (x_max, y_max) and (x_min,
y_min).
The central part is the viewing region or window, all the lines which lie within this
region are completely visible. A region code is always assigned to the endpoints of
the given line.
To check whether the line is visible or not.

Region Codes

Formula to check binary digits:- TBRL which can be defined as top, bottom, right,
and left accordingly.

TBRL Rule
Algorithm
Steps
1) Assign the region codes to both endpoints.
2) Perform OR operation on both of these endpoints.
3) if OR = 0000,
then it is completely visible (inside the window).
else
Perform AND operation on both these endpoints.
i) if AND ≠ 0000,
then the line is invisible and not inside the window. Also,
it can’t be considered for clipping.
ii) else
AND = 0000, the line is partially inside the window
and considered for clipping.
4) After confirming that the line is partially inside the window, then we find the
intersection with the boundary of the window. By using the following formula:-
Slope:- m= (y2-y1)/(x2-x1)
a) If the line passes through top or the line intersects with the top boundary of the
window.
x = x + (y_wmax – y)/m
y = y_wmax
b) If the line passes through the bottom or the line intersects with the bottom
boundary of the window.
x = x + (y_wmin – y)/m
y = y_wmin
c) If the line passes through the left region or the line intersects with the left
boundary of the window.
y = y+ (x_wmin – x)*m
x = x_wmin
d) If the line passes through the right region or the line intersects with the right
boundary of the window.
y = y + (x_wmax -x)*m
x = x_wmax
5) Now, overwrite the endpoints with a new one and update it.
6) Repeat the 4th step till your line doesn’t get completely clipped
Q.6 Explain Parallel and Perspective Projection
Ans: 1. Parallel Projection :
Parallel projections are used by architects and engineers for creating working
drawing of the object, for complete representations require two or more views of an
object using different planes.
Parallel Projection use to display picture in its true shape and size. When projectors
are perpendicular to view plane then is called orthographic projection. The parallel
projection is formed by extending parallel lines from each vertex on the object until
they intersect the plane of the screen. The point of intersection is the projection of
vertex.

2. Perspective Projection :
Perspective projections are used by artist for drawing three-dimensional scenes.
In Perspective projection lines of projection do not remain parallel. The lines
converge at a single point called a center of projection. The projected image on the
screen is obtained by points of intersection of converging lines with the plane of the
screen. The image on the screen is seen as of viewer’s eye were located at the centre
of projection, lines of projection would correspond to path travel by light beam
originating from object.
Two main characteristics of perspective are vanishing points and perspective
foreshortening. Due to foreshortening object and lengths appear smaller from the
center of projection. More we increase the distance from the center of projection,
smaller will be the object appear.
Q.7 Explain 3D Translation, Scaling and Rotation.
Ans: 3-D Transformation: In very general terms a 3D model is a mathematical
representation of a physical entity that occupies space. In more practical terms, a 3D
model is made of a description of its shape and a description of its color
appearance.3-D Transformation is the process of manipulating the view of a three-D
object with respect to its original position by modifying its physical attributes
through various methods of transformation like Translation, Scaling, Rotation,
Shear, etc.
Properties of 3-D Transformation:
• Lines are preserved,
• Parallelism is preserved,
• Proportional distances are preserved.
One main categorization of a 3D object’s representation can be done by considering
whether the surface or the volume of the object is represented:
Boundary-based: the surface of the 3D object is represented. This representation is
also called b-rep. Polygon meshes, implicit surfaces, and parametric surfaces, which
we will describe in the following, are common representations of this type.
Volume-based: the volume of the 3D object is represented. Voxels and Constructive
Solid Geometry (CSG) Are commonly used to represent volumetric data.
Types of Transformations:

Translation
It is the movement of an object from one position to another position. Translation is done using
translation vectors. There are three vectors in 3D instead of two. These vectors are in x, y, and
z directions. Translation in the x-direction is represented using Tx. The translation is y-direction
is represented using Ty. The translation in the z- direction is represented using Tz.

If P is a point having co-ordinates in three directions (x, y, z) is translated, then after translation
its coordinates will be (x1 y1 z1) after translation. Tx Ty Tz are translation vectors in x, y, and z
directions respectively.

x1=x+ Tx
Q.8 What is hidden surface? Explain it with an algorithm.
Ans: When we view a picture containing non-transparent objects and surfaces, then we
cannot see those objects from view which are behind from objects closer to eye. We must
remove these hidden surfaces to get a realistic screen image. The identification and removal of
these surfaces is called Hidden-surface problem.
There are two approaches for removing hidden surface problems − Object-Space
method and Image-space method. The Object-space method is implemented in physical
coordinate system and image-space method is implemented in screen coordinate system.
When we want to display a 3D object on a 2D screen, we need to identify those parts of a screen
that are visible from a chosen viewing position.

Depth Buffer Z−BufferZ−Buffer Method

This method is developed by Cutmull. It is an image-space approach. The basic idea is to test
the Z-depth of each surface to determine the closest visiblevisible surface.
In this method each surface is processed separately one pixel position at a time across the
surface. The depth values for a pixel are compared and the closest smallestzsmallestz surface
determines the color to be displayed in the frame buffer.
It is applied very efficiently on surfaces of polygon. Surfaces can be processed in any order.
To override the closer polygons from the far ones, two buffers named frame buffer and depth
buffer, are used.
Depth buffer is used to store depth values for x,yx,y position, as surfaces are
processed 0≤depth≤10≤depth≤1.
The frame buffer is used to store the intensity value of color value at each position x,yx,y.
The z-coordinates are usually normalized to the range [0, 1]. The 0 value for z-coordinate
indicates back clipping pane and 1 value for z-coordinates indicates front clipping pane.
Algorithm
Step-1 − Set the buffer values −
Depthbuffer x,yx,y = 0
Framebuffer x,yx,y = background color
Step-2 − Process each polygon OneatatimeOneatatime
For each projected x,yx,y pixel position of a polygon, calculate depth z.
If Z > depthbuffer x,yx,y
Compute surface color,
set depthbuffer x,yx,y = z,
framebuffer x,yx,y = surfacecolor x,yx,y
Advantages
• It is easy to implement.
• It reduces the speed problem if implemented in hardware.
• It processes one object at a time.
Disadvantages
• It requires large memory.
• It is time consuming process.
Q.9 Define Z-Buffer Algorithm in Detail
Ans: When viewing a picture containing non transparent objects and surfaces, it is
not possible to see those objects from view which are behind from the objects closer
to eye. To get the realistic screen image, removal of these hidden surfaces is must.
The identification and removal of these surfaces is called as the Hidden-surface
problem.
Z-buffer, which is also known as the Depth-buffer method is one of the commonly
used method for hidden surface detection. It is an Image space method. Image
space methods are based on the pixel to be drawn on 2D. For these methods, the
running time complexity is the number of pixels times number of objects. And the
space complexity is two times the number of pixels because two arrays of pixels are
required, one for frame buffer and the other for the depth buffer.
The Z-buffer method compares surface depths at each pixel position on the
projection plane. Normally z-axis is represented as the depth. The algorithm for the
Z-buffer method is given below :

Algorithm :

First of all, initialize the depth of each pixel.

i.e, d(i, j) = infinite (max length)
Initialize the color value for each pixel
as c(i, j) = background color
for each polygon, do the following steps :

for (each pixel in polygon's projection)

{
find depth i.e, z of polygon
at (x, y) corresponding to pixel (i, j)

if (z < d(i, j))

{
d(i, j) = z;
c(i, j) = color;
}
}
Q.10 Define Area-subdivision method with example.

Ans: It was invented by John Warnock and also called a Warnock Algorithm. It is based on
a divide & conquer method. It uses fundamental of area coherence. It is used to resolve the
visibility of algorithms. It classifies polygons in two cases i.e. trivial and non-trivial.

Trivial cases are easily handled. Non trivial cases are divided into four equal subwindows. The
windows are again further subdivided using recursion until all polygons classified trivial and
non trivial.
Classification of Scheme
It divides or classifies polygons in four categories:

1. Inside surface
2. Outside surface
3. Overlapping surface
4. Surrounding surface

1. Inside surface: It is surface which is completely inside the surrounding window or specified
boundary as shown in fig (c)

2. Outside surface: The polygon surface completely outside the surrounding window as
shown in fig (a)

3. Overlapping surface: It is polygon surface which completely encloses the surrounding

window as shown in fig (b)

4. Overlapping surface: It is surface partially inside or partially outside the surface area as
shown in fig (c)
Unit:- 5
Q.1 What is multimedia and uses of multimedia.
Ans:- Multimedia is the presentation of text, pictures, audio, and video with links and
tools that allow the user to navigate, engage, create, and communicate using a computer.

Multimedia refers to the computer-assisted integration of text, drawings, still and moving
images(videos) graphics, audio, animation, and any other media in which any type of
information can be expressed, stored, communicated, and processed digitally.

To begin, a computer must be present to coordinate what you see and hear, as well as to
interact with. Second, there must be interconnections between the various pieces of
information. Third, you’ll need navigational tools to get around the web of interconnected
data.

Multimedia is being employed in a variety of disciplines, including education, training, and

business.

Categories of Multimedia
• Linear Multimedia
It is also called Non-interactive multimedia. In the case of linear multimedia, the end-user
cannot control the content of the application. It has literally no interactivity of any kind.
Some multimedia projects like movies in which material is thrown in a linear fashion from
beginning to end. A linear multimedia application lacks all the features with the help of
which, a user can interact with the application such as the ability to choose different options,
click on icons, control the flow of the media, or change the pace at which the media is
displayed. Linear multimedia works very well for providing information to a large group of
people such as at training sessions, seminars, workplace meetings, etc.

• Non-Linear Multimedia:
In Non-Linear multimedia, the end-user is allowed the navigational control to rove through
multimedia content at his own desire. The user can control the access of the application. Non-
linear offers user interactivity to control the movement of data. For example computer games,
websites, self-paced computer-based training packages, etc.
Applications of Multimedia
Multimedia indicates that, in addition to text, graphics/drawings, and photographs, computer
information can be represented using audio, video, and animation. Multimedia is used in:

• Education
In the subject of education, multimedia is becoming increasingly popular. It is often used to
produce study materials for pupils and to ensure that they have a thorough comprehension of
various disciplines. Edutainment, which combines education and entertainment, has become
highly popular in recent years. This system gives learning in the form of enjoyment to the
user.

• Entertainment
The usage of multimedia in films creates a unique auditory and video impression. Today,
multimedia has completely transformed the art of filmmaking around the world. Multimedia
is the only way to achieve difficult effects and actions.

The entertainment sector makes extensive use of multimedia. It’s particularly useful for
creating special effects in films and video games. The most visible illustration of the
emergence of multimedia in entertainment is music and video apps. Interactive games
become possible thanks to the use of multimedia in the gaming business. Video games are
more interesting because of the integrated audio and visual effects.

• Business
Marketing, advertising, product demos, presentation, training, networked communication,
etc. are applications of multimedia that are helpful in many businesses. The audience can
quickly understand an idea when multimedia presentations are used. It gives a simple and
effective technique to attract visitors’ attention and effectively conveys information about
numerous products. It’s also utilized to encourage clients to buy things in business marketing.
 • Technology & Science
In the sphere of science and technology, multimedia has a wide range of applications. It can
communicate audio, films, and other multimedia documents in a variety of formats. Only
multimedia can make live broadcasting from one location to another possible.

It is beneficial to surgeons because they can rehearse intricate procedures such as brain
removal and reconstructive surgery using images made from imaging scans of the human
body. Plans can be produced more efficiently to cut expenses and problems.

• Fine Arts
Multimedia artists work in the fine arts, combining approaches employing many media and
incorporating viewer involvement in some form. For example, a variety of digital mediums
can be used to combine movies and operas.

Digital artist is a new word for these types of artists. Digital painters make digital paintings,
matte paintings, and vector graphics of many varieties using computer applications.

• Engineering
Multimedia is frequently used by software engineers in computer simulations for military or
industrial training. It’s also used for software interfaces created by creative experts and
software engineers in partnership. Only multimedia is used to perform all the minute
calculations.
Q.2 What is text compression explain.
Ans: Text compression seems natural for Huffman coding. In text, we have a discrete
alphabet that, in a given class, has relatively stationary probabilities. For example, the
probability model for a particular novel will not differ significantly from the probability
model for another novel. Similarly, the probability model for a set of C programs is not going
to be much different than the probability model for a different set of C programs. The
probabilities in Table 3.32 are the probabilities of the 26 letters (upper- and lowercase)
obtained for the U.S. Constitution and are representative of English text. The probabilities in
Table 3.33 were obtained by counting the frequency of occurrences of letters in an earlier
version of this chapter. While the two documents are substantially different, the two sets of
probabilities are very much alike.

Table 3.32. Probabilities of Occurrence of the Letters in the English Alphabet in the U.S.
Constitution

Letter Probability Letter Probability

A 0.057305 N 0.056035

B 0.014876 O 0.058215

C 0.025775 P 0.021034

D 0.026811 Q 0.000973

E 0.112578 R 0.048819

F 0.022875 S 0.060289

G 0.009523 T 0.078085

H 0.042915 U 0.018474

I 0.053475 V 0.009882

J 0.002031 W 0.007576

K 0.001016 X 0.002264

L 0.031403 Y 0.011702

M 0.015892 Z 0.001502
Table 3.33. Probabilities of Occurrence of the Letters in the English Alphabet in This Chapter

Letter Probability Letter Probability

A 0.049855 N 0.048039

B 0.016100 O 0.050642

C 0.025835 P 0.015007

D 0.030232 Q 0.001509

E 0.097434 R 0.040492

F 0.019754 S 0.042657

G 0.012053 T 0.061142

H 0.035723 U 0.015794

I 0.048783 V 0.004988

J 0.000394 W 0.012207

K 0.002450 X 0.003413

L 0.025835 Y 0.008466

M 0.016494 Z 0.001050

We encoded the earlier version of this chapter using Huffman codes that were created using
the probabilities of occurrence obtained from the chapter. The file size dropped from about
70,000 bytes to about 43,000 bytes with Huffman coding.

While this reduction in file size is useful, we could have obtained better compression if we
had first removed the structure existing in the form of correlation between the symbols in the
file. Obviously, there is a substantial amount of correlation in this text. For example, Huf is
always followed by fman! Unfortunately, this correlation is not amenable to simple numerical
models, as was the case for the image files. However, there are other somewhat more
complex techniques that can be used to remove the correlation in text files.
 Q.3 What are lossy and lossless Compression Techniques.
Ans:
S.NO Lossy Compression Lossless Compression

Lossy compression is the method While Lossless Compression does not

which eliminate the data which is not eliminate the data which is not
1. noticeable. noticeable.

In Lossy compression, A file does not While in Lossless Compression, A file

2. restore or rebuilt in its original form. can be restored in its original form.

In Lossy compression, Data’s quality But Lossless Compression does not

3. is compromised. compromise the data’s quality.

Lossy compression reduces the size But Lossless Compression does not
4. of data. reduce the size of data.

Algorithms used Algorithms used

in Lossy compression are: Transform in Lossless compression are: Run
coding, Discrete Cosine Transform, Length Encoding, Lempel-Ziv-
Discrete Wavelet Transform, fractal Welch, Huffman Coding, Arithmetic
5. compression etc. encoding etc.

Lossy compression is used in Images, Lossless Compression is used in Text,

6. audio, video. images, sound.

Lossless Compression has less data-

Lossy compression has more data- holding capacity than Lossy
7. holding capacity. compression technique.

Lossy compression is also termed as Lossless Compression is also termed

8. irreversible compression. as reversible compression.
Q.4 What are principal of Animation and also explain 3D
animation.
Ans: There are 12 major principles for an effective and easy to communicate animation.

1. Squash and Stretch:

This principle works over the physical properties that are expected to change in any process.
Ensuring proper squash and stretch makes our animation more convincing.

For Example: When we drop a ball from height, there is a change in its physical property. When
the ball touches the surface, it bends slightly which should be depicted in animation properly.

2. Anticipation:
Anticipation works on action.Animation has broadly divided into 3 phases:

1. Preparation phase

2. Movement phase

3. Finish

In Anticipation, we make our audience prepare for action. It helps to make our animation look
more realistic.

For Example: Before hitting the ball through the bat, the actions of batsman comes under
anticipation. This are those actions in which the batsman prepares for hitting the ball.

3. Arcs:
In Reality, humans and animals move in arcs. Introducing the concept of arcs will increase the
realism. This principle of animation helps us to implement the realism through projectile
motion also.

For Example, The movement of the hand of bowler comes under projectile motion while doing
bowling.
 4. Slow in-Slow out:
While performing animation, one should always keep in mind that in reality object takes time
to accelerate and slow down. To make our animation look realistic, we should always focus on
its slow in and slow out proportion.

For Example, It takes time for a vehicle to accelerate when it is started and similarly when it
stops it takes time.

5. Appeal:
Animation should be appealing to the audience and must be easy to understand. The syntax or
font style used should be easily understood and appealing to the audience. Lack of symmetry
and complicated design of character should be avoided.

6. Timing:
Velocity with which object is moving effects animation a lot. The speed should be handled
with care in case of animation.

For Example, An fast-moving object can show an energetic person while a slow-moving object
can symbolize a lethargic person. The number of frames used in a slowly moving object is less
as compared to the fast-moving object.

7. 3D Effect:
By giving 3D effects we can make our animation more convincing and effective. In 3D Effect,
we convert our object in a 3-dimensional plane i.e., X-Y-Z plane which improves the realism
of the object.

For Example, a square can give a 2D effect but cube can give a 3D effect which appears more
realistic.

8. Exaggeration:
Exaggeration deals with the physical features and emotions. In Animation, we represent
emotions and feeling in exaggerated form to make it more realistic. If there is more than one
element in a scene then it is necessary to make a balance between various exaggerated elements
to avoid conflicts.
 9. Stagging:
Stagging is defined as the presentation of the primary idea, mood or action. It should always
be in presentable and easy to manner. The purpose of defining principle is to avoid unnecessary
details and focus on important features only. The primary idea should always be clear and
unambiguous.

10. Secondary Action:

Secondary actions are more important than primary action as they represent the animation as a
whole. Secondary actions support the primary or main idea.

For Example, A person drinking a hot tea, then his facial expressions, movement of hands, etc
comes under the secondary actions.

11. Follow Through:

It refers to the action which continues to move even after the completion of action. This type
of action helps in the generation of more idealistic animations.

For Example: Even after throwing a ball, the movement of hands continues.

12. Overlap:
It deals with the nature in which before ending the first action, the second action starts.

For Example: Consider a situation when we are drinking Tea from the right hand and holding
a sandwich in the left hand. While drinking a tea, our left-hand start showing movement
towards the mouth which shows the interference of the second action before the end of the first
action.
What Is 3-D Animation:
The 3D animation definition that describes its most common usages is: the process of
creating three-dimensional moving images and placing them into a digital environment.
These objects are generated in software designed specifically for 3D animation. Such
programs allow 3D Animators to create the illusion of movement needed to bring objects to
life.

The process of giving movement and life to these objects is divided into three main parts:
modeling, layout and animation, and rendering.

Modeling is the stage in which the objects or characters are generated. This can be done
either by using a modeling tool or by scanning real objects into a computer. Both techniques
are incredibly useful, and offer different benefits. By creating a model completely on your
own, using a tool, you have much more control over the entire look of it. Scanning real world
objects into your computer, however, saves a lot of time. No matter which method is used,
textures must be added to the object or character before moving onto the next stage. Textures
allow for a more realistic look, and give the model some personality.

Once the models are completed, they are moved into the layout and animation stage. Here,
they are positioned and animated into a particular scene. First, a layout must be determined
by creating a set and adding objects into it. Then, the objects and characters must be animated
by assigning animation variables. From there, models within the scene can be given life
through either keyframing or motion capture.

The final stage, rendering, is where the scene is generated into the finished image. This is
done using specific software, as the process of rendering is not something a typical computer
could handle. A project can be rendered to favor more realistic results, or can be rendered to
apply a particular art style. Either option depends on the project and its requirements, as well
as general visual preference.

Each of these stages of the process requires a lot of planning and work. 3D Artists will spend
a lot of time on the entire process, ensuring that each model is tailored to their clients’
expectations.
Q.5 Define multimedia architecture along with Multimedia
Database.
Ans: Multimedia encompasses a large variety of technologies and integration of multiple
architectures interacting in real time. All of these multimedia capabilities must integrate with
the standard user interfaces such as Microsoft Windows.

The following figure describes the architecture of a multimedia workstation environment. In

this diagram.

The right side shows the new architectural entities required for supporting multimedia
applications.

For each special devices such as scanners, video cameras, VCRs and sound equipment-, a
software device driver is need to provide the interface from an application to the device. The
GUI require control extensions to support applications such as full motion video

High Resolution Graphics Display

The various graphics standards such as MCA, GGA and XGA have demonstrated the
increasing demands for higher resolutions for GUls.
Combined graphics and imaging applications require functionality at three levels. They are
provided by three classes of single-monitor architecture.

(i) VGA mixing: In VGA mixing, the image acquisition memory serves as the display
source memory, thereby fixing its position and size on screen:

(ii) VGA mixing with scaling: Use of scalar ICs allows sizing and positioning of
images in pre-defined windows.

Resizing the window causes the things to be retrieved again.

(iii) Dual-buffered VGA/Mixing/Scaling: Double buffer schemes maintain the

original images in a decompression buffer and the resized image in a display buffer.

The IMA Architectural Framework

The Interactive Multimedia Association has a task group to define the architectural
framework for multimedia to provide interoperability. The task group has C0ncentrated on
the desktops and the servers. Desktop focus is to define the interchange formats. This format
allows multimedia objects to be displayed on any work station.

The architectural approach taken by IMA is based on defining interfaces to a multimedia

interface bus. This bus would be the interface between systems and multimedia sources. It
provides streaming I/O service"s, including filters and translators Figure 3.4 describes the
generalized architectural approach
Multimedia Database:
Multimedia database is the collection of interrelated multimedia data that includes text,
graphics (sketches, drawings), images, animations, video, audio etc and have vast amounts of
multisource multimedia data. The framework that manages different types of multimedia data
which can be stored, delivered and utilized in different ways is known as multimedia
database management system. There are three classes of the multimedia database which
includes static media, dynamic media and dimensional media.

Content of Multimedia Database management system :

• Media data – The actual data representing an object.

• Media format data – Information such as sampling rate, resolution, encoding scheme
etc. about the format of the media data after it goes through the acquisition,
processing and encoding phase.
• Media keyword data – Keywords description relating to the generation of data. It is
also known as content descriptive data. Example: date, time and place of recording.
• Media feature data – Content dependent data such as the distribution of colors, kinds
of texture and different shapes present in data.

Types of multimedia applications based on data management characteristic are :

• Repository applications – A Large amount of multimedia data as well as meta-

data(Media format date, Media keyword data, Media feature data) that is stored for
retrieval purpose, e.g., Repository of satellite images, engineering drawings, radiology
scanned pictures.

• Presentation applications – They involve delivery of multimedia data subject to

temporal constraint. Optimal viewing or listening requires DBMS to deliver data at
certain rate offering the quality of service above a certain threshold. Here data is
processed as it is delivered. Example: Annotating of video and audio data, real-time
editing analysis.

• Collaborative work using multimedia information – It involves executing a

complex task by merging drawings, changing notifications. Example: Intelligent
healthcare network.
There are still many challenges to multimedia databases, some of which are :

• Modelling – Working in this area can improve database versus information retrieval
techniques thus, documents constitute a specialized area and deserve special
consideration.

• Design – The conceptual, logical and physical design of multimedia databases has not
yet been addressed fully as performance and tuning issues at each level are far more
complex as they consist of a variety of formats like JPEG, GIF, PNG, MPEG which is
not easy to convert from one form to another.

• Storage – Storage of multimedia database on any standard disk presents the problem
of representation, compression, mapping to device hierarchies, archiving and
buffering during input-output operation. In DBMS, a ”BLOB”(Binary Large Object)
facility allows untyped bitmaps to be stored and retrieved.

• Performance – For an application involving video playback or audio-video

synchronization, physical limitations dominate. The use of parallel processing may
alleviate some problems but such techniques are not yet fully developed. Apart from
this multimedia database consume a lot of processing time as well as bandwidth.

• Queries and retrieval –For multimedia data like images, video, audio accessing data
through query opens up many issues like efficient query formulation, query execution
and optimization which need to be worked upon.
Q.6 What is meant by scan code?
Ans: Scan Code:
A scan code is created by a computer keyboard each time a key is pressed and when it is
depressed. After the keyboard has created the scan code, it is received serially by the
computer on I/O port 60h. After being received, the keyboard controller informs the
microprocessor that a scan code is ready to be read by issuing interrupt 9h. The computer
then uses the BIOS codes to match the scan code with the corresponding key that was
pressed. After the scan code is matched, the software can read the pressed keys by issuing
interrupt 16h.

In the keyboard are little switches. When you press a key one of the switches is activated and
when you release that key the switch is activated again. The keyboard makes note of these
happenings and stores them in a small buffer (memory area) in the keyboard while it notifies
the computer that something has happened at the keyboard (an interrupt). The computer, once
notified of keyboard activity reads the buffer and takes the necessary action.

Each key on the keyboard has its own code that it sends when pressed and when released; this
is called its scan code. When listing scan codes here we’ll list the “press” scan code. The
“release” scan code is that number plus 128 (80 hex).

While the original scan code specification allowed for a single number, newer keyboards with
the movement keys repeated in the center of the keyboard forced a change and those keys
carry a two-number scan code with the first number always being hex E0 (so programs
reading scan codes first test for the E0 character; if not found process the code directly, if
found, process the next code as one of the center movement keys).

At first blush the release code may seem redundant but when you think about how often you
might press and hold the shift, control, or alt keys down while typing something else it
becomes clear why it’s needed.
Q.7 Discuss the various image and sound file formats in
multimedia.
Ans: Image Format:
Image Format describes how data related to the image will be stored. Data can be stored in
compressed, Uncompressed or vector format. Each format of the image have a different
advantage and disadvantage. Image types such a TIFF are good for printing while JPG or
PNG, are best for web.

• TIFF(.tif, .tiff):- Tagged Image File Format this format store image data without
losing any data. It do not perform any compression on images have a high-quality
image is obtained but size of image is also large, which is good for printing,
professional printing.

• JPEG (.jpg, .jpeg):- Joint Photographic Experts Group is a loss-prone (lossy) format
in which data is lost to reduce size of image. Due to compression, some data is lost
but that loss is very less. It is a very common format and are good for digital cameras,
nonprofessional prints, E-Mail, Powerpoint etc., making it ideal for web use.

• GIF (.gif):- GIF or Graphics Interchange Format files are used for web graphics.They
can be animated and are limited to only 256 colors, can allow for transparency. GIF
files are typically small is size and are portable.

• PNG (.png):- PNG or Portable Network Graphics files are a lossless image format. It
was designed to replace gif format as gif supported 256 colors unlike PNG which
support 16 million colors.

• Bitmap (.bmp):- Bit Map Image file is developed by Microsoft for windows. It is
same as TIFF due lossless, no compression property. Due to BMP being a proprietary
format, it is generally recommended to use TIFF files.

• EPS (.eps):- Encapsulated PostScript file is a common vector file type. EPS files can
be opened in applications such as Adobe Illustrator or CorelDRAW.
Sound Format:
Audio format defines the quality and loss of audio data. Based on application different type
of audio format are used. Audio formats are broadly divided into three parts:

• Uncompressed Format
• Lossy Compressed format
• Lossless Compressed Format

1. Uncompressed Audio Format:

PCM –
It stands for Pulse-Code Modulation. It represents raw analog audio signals in digital form.
To convert analog signal into digital signal it has to be recorded at a particular interval.
Hence it has sampling rate and bit rate (bits used to represent each sample). It a exact
representation of the analog sound and do not involve compression. It is the most common
audio format used in CDs and DVDs

WAV –
It stands for Waveform Audio File Format, it was developed by Microsoft and IBM in 1991.
It is just a Windows container for audio formats. That means that a WAV file can contain
compressed audio. Most WAV files contain uncompressed audio in PCM format. It is just a
wrapper. It is compatible with both Windows and Mac.

AIFF –
It stands for Audio Interchange File Format. It was developed by Apple for Mac systems in
1988. Like WAV files, AIFF files can contain multiple kinds of audio. It contain
uncompressed audio in PCM format. It is just a wrapper for the PCM encoding. It is
compatible with both Windows and Mac.
2. Lossy Compressed Format:
It is a form of compression that loses data during the compression process. But difference in
quality no noticeable to hear.

MP3 –
It stands for MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3. It was released in 1993 and became popular. It is most
popular audio format for music files. Main aim of MP3 is to remove all those sounds which
not hearable or less noticeable by humans ears. Hence making size of music file small. MP3
is like universal format which is compatible almost every device.

AAC –
It stands for Advanced Audio Coding. It was developed in 1997 after MP3.The compression
algorithm used by AAC is much more complex and advanced than MP3, so when compared a
particular audio file in MP3 and AAC formats at the same bitrate, the AAC one will generally
have better sound quality. It is the standard audio compression method used by YouTube,
Android, iOS, iTunes, and PlayStations.

WMA –
It stands for Windows Media Audio. It was released in 1999.It was designed to remove some
of the flaws of MP3 compression method. In terms of quality it is better than MP3. But is not
widely used.

3. Lossless compression:
This method reduces file size without any loss in quality. But is not as good as lossy
compression as the size of file compressed to lossy compression is 2 and 3 times more.

FLAC –
It stands for Free Lossless Audio Codec. It can compress a source file by up to 50% without
losing data. It is most popular in its category and is open-source.

ALAC –
It stands for Apple Lossless Audio Codec. It was launched in 2004 and became free after
2011. It was developed by Apple.

WMA –
It stands for Windows Media Audio. But it is least efficient in term of compression and is not
open-source. It has limited hardware support.