1

CHAPTER - 1

CAPACITANCE

1. Charge A quantity of electricity associated with a space, particle, or body is called

charge.

2. Electrostatic Charge The potential energy contained in an electrostatic field is

called an electrostatic charge. e. g. Energy stored in a charged capacitor.

3. Coulomb’s Law. Coulomb’s law refers to law of Electrostatics. The two laws of
Coulomb’s are as follows:-

(a) First Law. Like charges of electricity repel each other while unlike
charges attract each other.

(b) Second Law. The force exerted between two point charges is

(i) Directly proportional to their strength.

(ii) Inversely proportional to the square of distance between them.
(iii) Inversely proportional to absolute permitivity of the medium (є)
Mathematically if Q1 and Q2 are two charges, distance between them is d and force
exerted between them is F, then;
F Q1 Q2
є d2
F = K Q1 Q2
d2
Where, K is constant with value of 1/4πє in S.I system when the charges are placed
in any medium other than vaccum. є is the absolute permittivity and is represented
as,

є = є0 x єr

where є0 is the permittivity of space and єr is the relative permittivity of the medium
where the charges are placed.

Capacitor

4. It is a passive component consisting of two metal electrodes or plates separated by a

dielectric (insulator). When voltage is applied to the plates, one plate is charged with positive
charge while the other one will be charged by the same amount of negative charge.
Capacitors are used to store electrical energy.
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5. In basic form, capacitor consist of two conducting sheets/ plates placed one on top of
the other, separated by a thin, non conducting (dielectric) layer such as paper, mica etc, and
then the whole assembly can be rolled up to get a large effective surface area to exhibit
significant capacitance. The voltage that a capacitor can handle depends on the thickness of
the metal sheets or strips, on the spacing between them, and on the type of dielectric used.
Capacitance is directly proportional to the surface area of the conducting plates or sheets.
Capacitance is inversely proportional to the separation between conducting sheets. In other
words, the closer the sheets are to each other, the greater the capacitance. The capacitance
also depends on the dielectric constant of the material between the plates.

Capacitance of capacitor, C = AE
d
(A= Area of plates, E= Dielectric constant, d= Distance between plates)
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Capacitance

6. The property of capacitor to store electricity is called its capacitance. Capacitance of

a capacitor may be defined as the amount of charge required to create a unit potential
difference between its plates.

Capacitance, C = Q / V (Its unit is “Farad”)

Where, C = Capacitance
V = Voltage
Q = Charge in coulomb
7. Unit of capacitance Farad is the unit of capacitance. By definition unit of
capacitance is coulomb/ volt which is also called Farad in honour of Mr. Michael Faraday.
One Farad is defined as the capacitance of a capacitor which requires a charge of one
coulomb to establish a potential difference of one volt between its plates.

One Farad = 1 coulomb/ volt

Types of Capacitor

8. The classification of capacitors as per dielectric used is as follows:-

(a) Mica capacitors

(b) Ceramic capacitors
(c) Paper capacitors
(d) Electrolyte capacitors
(e) Air capacitors

(a) Mica Capacitor In mica capacitor the plates are of metal foil separated by
thin mica sheets, the assembly is rigidly clamped together in a metal or ebonite case
having two metal wire ends to which the plates are connected. Mica capacitors have
very low power factors on alternating current and hence are very suitable for use at
radio frequencies. Mica capacitors are used in the range of 100 – 500 V and in the
range of pF to μF.

(b) Ceramic Capacitor Ceramic Capacitor consist of discs of ceramic material

whose opposite faces are coated with metallic silver, the ceramic discs acts as the
dielectric and silver coating as plates. It has very low power factor which decreases
with increase in frequency. These can be made for very low value capacitance,
hence are suitable for high freq applications.

(c) Paper Capacitor Paper Capacitor consist of sheets of metal foils usually
aluminum with thin paper is filled with oil or wax. The foils and papers are then rolled
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into a compact form and are housed in hermetically sealed tubes of bakelized paper
or oil filled metal boxes. These are suitable for use in audio frequency stages of radio
receivers as bypass capacitors and coupling capacitors.

(d) Electrolyte Capacitor These are either wet type or dry type. The wet type
consists of an aluminum anode which is centrally mounted in a metal cylinder filled
with an electrolyte solution which acts as a cathode, when current is passed between
anode and cathode, a very thin layer of aluminum oxide is formed on the anode
surface, this thin layer of aluminum oxide acts as insulator between anode and
cathode. The dry type electrolyte capacitor consists of positive and negative
electrodes of aluminum foil separated by porous paper and electrolytic paste.
Electrolyte capacitors have very large capacitance. These must be used with proper
polarity. These capacitors are generally used in filter circuits.

(e) Air capacitors These capacitors have two sets of metal foils (aluminum
or brass) and the in between medium is ordinary air, these capacitors are used in
ranges 100V to 3000V and the capacity varies up to 500 ΜF.

Multiplate and Variable Capacitors

9. Multiplate Capacitor Multiplate capacitors are shown as figure below. The

arrangement of figure (a) is equivalent to two capacitors joined in parallel. Hence, its
capacitance is double that of a single capacitor. Similarly the arrangement of figure (b) has
four times the capacitance of a single capacitor.

A B
B
A

Figure (a) Figure (b)

10. Variable Capacitors If one set of plates is fixed and the other is capable of
rotation, then capacitance of such a multiple capacitor can be varied. Such variable-
capacitance air capacitors are widely used in radio work. The set of fixed plates is insulated
from the other set which can be rotated by turning the knob. The common area between the
two sets is varied by rotating knob; hence, the capacitance between the two is altered.
When knob is completely rotated i.e. when the two sets of plates completely overlap each
other, maximum capacitance is obtained.
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Capacitors in Series

C1 C2 C3

V1 V2 V3

V
11. In above figure three capacitors of capacitance C 1, C2, and C3 are connected in series
across supply voltage of ‘V’. The combined capacitance of the circuit is C and the voltage
developed across three capacitors is V1, V2 and V3 .

In series combination charge on all capacitors is the same but potential difference
across each is different.

V = V1 + V2 + V3
We know that C = Q/V or V = Q/C

so, Q/C = Q/C1 + Q/C2 + Q/C3

Dividing by Q on both sides,

1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 (C = combined or equivalent capacitance)

Since charge across each capacitor is same,

 Q = C1.V1 = C2.V2 = C3.V3

 V1 = Q/C1, V2 = Q/C2, V3 = Q/C3

12. Voltage across Series- Connected Capacitors The three capacitors of

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capacitances C1 C2 and C3 are connected in series across a supply voltage of V as shown in

Figure. If V1, V2 and V3 are the voltage developed across them, then, V = V 1 + V2 + V3
C1 C2 C3

V1 V2 V3

V
Here,
V = V1 + V2 + V3
Q =C1 V1 =C2 V2 =C3 V3
V2=V1 C1 and V3= V1 C1
C2 C3
Substituting these values in the equation, we have

V= V1 + V1 C1 + V1 C 1 = V1 1 + C1 + C1
C2 C3 C2 C3

V1 = V ____C2C3________
C1C2 + C2C3 +C3C1
Also,
V2 = V _____C1C3________ and V3 = V _____C1C2______
C1C2 + C2C3 +C3C1 C1C2 + C2C3 +C3C1
Example 1: Two capacitors with values of 0.0010 μF and 100 pF are connected in series.
What is the total capacitance?
Solution: The capacitors here are connected in series
Here, C1 = 0.0010 μF = 1000pF and C2 = 100 pF
The total capacitance in series is,

1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2

1/C = 1/ 1000 + 1/100
1/C = 1/ 103 + 1/ 102
1/C = 10-3 + 10-2
1/C = 10-5 C = 105 pF = 0.1 μF

Example 2: A 10μF, a 20μF and 40μF capacitors are connected in series, to a 399 Volts
source of EMF.

(a) What is equivalent capacitance?

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(b) What is the magnitude of charge across each capacitor?

(c) What is the potential difference across capacitors?

10 μF 20 μF 40 μF

399V

Solution: (a) The three capacitors given are connected in series. The equivalent
capacitance is

1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3

1/C = 1/10 + 1/20 + 1/40
= 7 / 40
Or C = 40 / 7 μF

(b) The total charge across the combined capacitance is,

Q = CV = (40/7) x 399
= 15.960 / 7
= 2280 μC
The charge across each capacitor is same i.e. 2280 μC
(c) The potential difference across each capacitor is
V1 = Q / C 1
= 2280 /10
= 228V
V2 = Q / C 2
= 2280 / 20
= 114V
V3 = Q / C 3
= 2280 / 40
= 57 V
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Example 3: Three capacitors are connected in series across 135-V supply. The voltages
across them are 30, 45 and 60 and charge on each is 4500 micro coulombs.
Find the capacitance of each capacitor and that of the combination.
Solution: C1 = Q = 4500μC = 150μF
V1 30V

C2 = 4500μC = 100μF and C3 = 4500μC = 75μF

45V 60V

But, 1= 1 +1+ 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 9 = 3
C C1 C2 C3 150 100 75 300 100

C = 100 = 33.4μF
3
or C = Q = 4500 = 33.3μF
V 135

Capacitors in Parallel

Q1 C1

Q2 C2

Q3 C3
Q

13. In above figure three capacitor of capacitance C 1, C2 and C3 are connected in parallel
across supply voltage of ‘V’. The potential difference in across each capacitor remains the
same and the charge on each capacitor is different. Hence, the total charge is

Q = Q1+ Q2+Q3
Since; Q =CV
Thus, CV = C1V + C2V + C3V
Or C = C1+C2+C3
Thus the total capacitance in parallel connection is the sum of all the capacitance.
Example 1: Five capacitors, each of 100 pF, are in Parallel. What will be the total
capacitance?

Solution: The capacitors here are connected in parallel,

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Given, C1= C2 = C3 = C4 = C5 = 100pF

Since the equivalent capacitance in parallel connection is
C = C1+C2+C3+………..Cn
Hence, C = 100+100+100+100+100
C = 500pF

Example 2: Two capacitors with values of 0.0010 μF and 100 pF are connected in parallel.
What is the total capacitance?

Solution: The capacitors here are connected in parallel

Here C1 = 0.0010 μF = 1000pF
And C2 = 100 pF
The total capacitance in parallel is,

C = C1 + C2 + C3 +…………
Thus, C = 1000 + 100
C = 1100pF

Example 3: A 10μF, a 20μF and a 40μF capacitors are connected in parallel, to a 399
Volts source of EMF.

(a) What is equivalent capacitance?

(b) What is the potential difference across capacitors?
(c) What is the magnitude of charge across each capacitor?

10 μF

20 μF

40 μF

399v

Solution: (a) The three capacitors given are connected in series. The equivalent
capacitance is

C = C1 + C2 + C3
C = 10 + 20 + 40
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C = 70 μF
(b) In parallel combination the potential difference across each capacitor is
same i.e., 399V.

(c) The charge across each capacitance is,

Q1 = C1V = 10 x 399
= 3990 μC
Q2 = C2V = 20 x 399
= 7980 μC
Q3 = C3 V = 40 x 399
= 15960 μC
RC Time Constant

14. It is defined as the time during which capacitor voltage rises to 63.2 % of its final
value. It is also defined as the time during which the charging current falls to 37% of its
maximum value. It is denoted by λ.
λ = RC seconds.
Time constant depends upon both R and C. If the value of C is greater, it will take
longer time to charge, similarly if the resistance is greater then it reduces the rate of
charging, hence capacitor take longer time to charge.

Imax

P.D across Capacitor

Vmax

0.63 V

Charging Current

0.37 Im
Time

AC through Capacitance
I
C V

I
900
θ t

VC
V = Vm sin ωt
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15. When an alternating voltage is applied to the plates of a capacitor, it is charged first in
one direction and then in the opposite.
Let, v = potential difference at any instant.
q = charge on plates at that instant.
Then q = Cv ….C is the capacitance
= C Vm sin ωt ….(putting value of v)
Now, current i is given by the rate of flow of charge

Therefore, i = dq = _d_ (C Vm sin ωt ) = VmωC cos ωt

dt dt
Or i = __Vm__ sin (ωt + π/2)
1/ωC

Im = __Vm__ = ωCVm
1/ωC

I = Im sin (ωt + π/2)

It is seen that if the applied voltage is given by

v = Vm sin ωt

The current is given by, i = Im sin (ωt + π/2)

Hence, we find that the current in a pure capacitor leads its voltage by a quarter
cycles, or phase difference between its voltage and current is π/2 with the current leading.

Capacitive Reactance

16. Capacitor offers opposition to the passage of altering current or voltage through it.
This opposition is known as capacitive reactance. It is denoted by X C. Good capacitor
completely blocks the passage of direct current (DC) through it.

Capacitive reactance, XC = 1 / ωC = 1 / 2πfC

The unit of reactance is Ohm (Ω), Where C is in Farads and ω is in radian/second.

17. Applications of Capacitor

(a) As a Freq dependent voltage divider. Such as in bypass filter & coupling cct.
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(b) Energy storage device. As motor starter.

(c) In Resonant ccts or Tuned cct in oscillators.
(d) In AC-DC filtering cct.
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CHAPTER – 2

INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTORS

Introduction

1. Electric currents and magnetic fields are closely related. Whenever an electric current
flows through a wire or conductor, the charge carrier move and a magnetic field
accompanies the current. Magnetic field is produced by aligning of the atoms themselves
due to flow of current in certain materials (such as Iron). In a straight wire, the magnetic
lines of flux surround the wire in circles, with the wire at the center. (Actually, it is just a
convenient way to represent the magnetic field)

The arrows indicate current flow

2. Electromagnets Any electric current, or movement of charge carriers, produces a

magnetic field. This field can become extremely intense in a tightly coiled wire having many
turns, and that carries a large electric current. When a ferromagnetic core is placed inside
the coil, the magnetic lines of flux are concentrated in the core and the field strength in and
near the core become large. The magnetic field produced by the current results in
magnetization of the core.

Magnetic field

3. The space or region around a magnetic body or current carrying conductor which is
permeated by the magnetic lines of force or flux is called magnetic field. It is assumed that
lines of force emanate from North Pole, pass through the surrounding medium and re-enter
the South Pole to complete their path.
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4. The lines of force never cut or cross or merge into each other. Measuring unit of
magnetic field is Weber (Wb), which is mathematically equivalent to one volt-second, for
weaker magnetic fields, a smaller unit, called the Maxwell, is sometimes used. One Maxwell
is equal to 0.00000001 (one hundred-millionth) of a Weber, or 0.01 microvolt-second.

Magnetic flux

5. The intensity of a magnetic field through a given area is called magnetic flux, the unit
of magnetic flux is the Weber, and the symbol is F. It can loosely be expressed as the
number of lines passing through a region of a certain area or of a unit area, such as one
square meter. It is denoted by Ф.
Ф = BA (B = Magnetic flux density and A = Area)

S N
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Flux Density

6. Flux density is the degree of concentration of magnetic lines of force at unit cross
section area of the magnetic field; it is measured in tesla (T). One tesla represents a flux
density of one volt-second per square meter (V•s/m 2), or a flux density of one Weber per
square meter (1 Wb/m2) is called one tesla. Flux density is denoted by ‘B’.

Electric Field Intensity

7. The electric field intensity at a point is defined as the mechanical force per unit
charge placed at that point. The direction of intensity is same as direction of the force
exerted on a positive charge. Thus, if F be the force experienced by a test charge q placed
at a point in an electric field, the intensity E at the point is given by
E = F/q
Electric field intensity E is expressed in newton per coulomb or volt/metre (V/m).
Let us assume a positive charge Q is placed at a distance of d from test charge q.
The force F experienced by q is given by

F = ___Qq__
4πє0d2
Since intensity E is given by F/q, we can write

E = ____Q___
4πє0d2

The direction of E is towards the point charge or away from it is according to the
charge whether it is negative or positive.

Permeability

8. It is designated by symbol ‘µ’. Permeability is the quantitative indicator of the extent

to which a material concentrates magnetic flux. In a given constant magnetic-field intensity,
the ratio of magnetic flux density in the material to the magnetic flux density in air is called
permeability. Its unit is henry/metre.

Reluctance

9. It is designated by symbol ‘S’ and is analogus to resistance of an electric circuit. Flux

in magnetic circuit is limited by reluctance. Thus, reluctance is a measure of the opposition
offered by a magnetic circuit to the establishment of magnetic flux. It is directly proportional
to the length and inversely proportional to the area of cross section of the magnetic path.
S l/a S = ____l_____
µ0 µr a
Where µ0 is the absolute permeability of air and µr is the relative permeability.
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Magneto-Motive force (MMF)

10. It is the amount of work done (in joules) required to carry a unit magnetic pole once
through the entire magnetic field. In fact, it is a kind of magnetic flux through a magnetic
circuit and is called the magneto motive force. It is the product of number of turns (N) in the
coil of a magnetic circuit, and the current (I) in amperes required to produce the magneto
motive force.
FMMF = N.I (AT/m). It’s unit is Ampere-turns (AT).

Retentivity

11. Retentivity, also sometimes called remanence, is a measure of how well the
substance will “memorize” the magnetism, and thereby become a permanent magnet.
Certain ferromagnetic materials stay magnetized better than others, when a substance,
such as iron, is subjected to a magnetic field as intense as it can handle, say by enclosing it
in a wire coil carrying a massive current, there will be some residual magnetism left when
the current stops flowing in the coil.

Magnetic Hysteresis

12. The tendency of a magnetic material to saturate and retain some of its magnetism
after the alternating magnetic field reverses its polarity, thus causing magnetization to lag
behind the magnetizing force is called Magnetic hysteresis. The graph of varying magnetic
field (H) versus intensity of magnetization (B) for a ferromagnetic material is shown below.

Bm b

c
-Hm d
o g +H
-H Hm

-Bm
e

Eddy Current

13. When a metallic body is moved in a magnetic field in such a way that the flux through
it changes or is placed in a changing magnetic field, induced currents circulates throughout
the body. These currents are called eddy currents. If the resistance of the said conductor is
small, then the magnitudes of the eddy currents are large and the metal gets heated up.
This heating effect is a source of power loss in iron cored devices such as dynamos, motors
and transformers.
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Admittance

14. Admittance is the property denoting comparative ease with which an alternating
current flows through a circuit or device. It is reciprocal of impedance (Z ). Y = 1/Z and is
denoted by symbol ‘Y’. It is measured in Siemens (formerly mho).

Conductance

15. The ability of a circuit, conductor, or device to conduct electricity is called

conductance. It is denoted by symbol ‘G’. Conductance is measured in Siemens and is
reciprocal of resistance. G = 1/R, where R is the resistance in ohms.

Susceptance

16. The reactive component of admittance, is called susceptance. It is denoted by symbol

‘B’. Its unit is Siemens.

Reactance

17. The opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by pure capacitance, pure
inductance, or a combination of the two is called reactnace. Reactance introduces phase
shift. It is denoted by symbol ‘X’ and Its unit is ohm.

Impedance

18. Impedance is the total opposition offered by a circuit or device to the flow of
alternating current. It is the vector sum of Resistance and Reactance. This is a complex
number whose real-number component is resistance R, and whose imaginary-number
component is reactance jX; mathematically, Impedance ‘Z’ = R + jX. Its measuring unit is
ohm (Ω).

Q factor

19. It is the quality factor of the component. Q factor is the figure of merit of a capacitor,
inductor, or inductance-capacitance (LC) circuit and is equal to the reactance divided by the
resistance. High quality factor component has low resistance.
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Faraday’s Law

(a) Faraday’s First Law Faraday’s first law states that, whenever magnetic
flux linked with a close coil changes, an induced emf is set up in the coil and the
induced emf lasts as long as the change in magnetic flux continues.

If Ф is the magnetic flux linked with the coil [coil of (N) turns] at any instant, then the
induced emf’s expression in differential form is:-

d (NФ) dФ
= e =N
dt dt V

(b) Faraday’s Second Law In the second law states that the magnitude of
the induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic lines of force. Since
the induced emf (e) sets up a current in a direction that opposes the very cause of
producing magnetic field, so a minus sign is given to the induced emf.

Therefore, e= -N dФ
dt
Lenz’s Law
20. Even though Faraday’s laws give no idea regarding the directions of induced emf.
The direction of induced emf is, however, given by Lenz’s law which is based on the law of
conversion of energy and it states that “the direction of the induced current (or emf) is such
that it opposes the very cause producing this current (or emf), i.e. it opposes the changes in
magnetic flux.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

21. This rule is used to determine the direction of force acting on a current carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field. According to this rule, if the middle finger, forefinger
and the thumb of the left hand are at right angles to one another and if the middle finger
and forefinger represent the direction of current and magnetic field respectively, then the
thumb will indicate the direction of force acting on the conductor as shown in the figure.
Thumb (motion) of force

Fore -finger (Field or flux)

Middle finger (Current)

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Fleming Right Hand Rule

22. This direction of the induced emf (and hence the induced current) in a conductor
which is moved in a magnetic field is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.

(a) It states that “stretch the fore finger, middle finger and the thumb of right hand
in such a way that all three are mutually perpendicular to each other.
(b) If fore finger points in the direction of magnetic field, thumb points in the
direction of motion of conductor, then middle finger will point along the direction of
induced conventional current”, as shown in the fig.

Thumb (motion of conductor)

Fore- finger (field)

middle-finger (current)

Inductor

23. It is a coil of wire wound according to various designs, with or without a core of
ferromagnetic material, to concentrate the magnetic flux resulting from current flowing in the
wire. The coiling of the wire and/or the addition of a ferromagnetic core increases the self-
inductance compared with that of a straight wire having the same length.
L Inductor

AC
24. Inductance The inertial property of a conductor (caused by an induced
reverse voltage) that opposes the flow of current when a voltage is applied is called
inductance. It opposes a change in current that has been established. It is denoted by
symbol ‘L’ and the measuring unit is Henry.

Inductance ‘L’ = μ0 μr A N2
l
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Inductance is directly proportional to the relative permeability of the core, area of

cross section (A) and square of No. of turns (N) and inversely proportional to length of the
core (l).

25. Self Inductance A current carrying coil establishes magnetic flux. If the current in
coil changes, the magnetic flux linked with the coil also changes. It is observed that this
change in the value of current or flux in the coil is opposed by the instantaneous induction of
the opposing emf. This production of self induced emf in the coil is called self inductance.
Self inductance is simply called inductance ‘L’.

26. Mutual Inductance Whenever a change in current occurs in a coil and the
induced emf is set up due to magnetic flux in the neighbouring coil; the process is called
mutual inductance.

If a current I1 flows in the primary coil, the magnetic flux linked with the secondary
coil will be Ф2 = M.I1 (M is the mutual inductance between two coils), then the emf E 2
induced in the secondary coil is given by:-
E2 = dФ2 = -M dI1
dt dt
Mutual inductance (M) when two coil are placed closer is given by;
M = μ0 μr A N1N2
l
Where, µ0 = absolute permeability of air
µr = relative permeability
N1 = Number of turns in primary coil.
N2 = Number of turns in secondary coil.

27. Concept of Magnetic Coupling The coils are said to be magnetically

coupled if either or part of the magnetic flux produced by one links that of the other.
(a) If L1 = self-inductance of coil 1 and L 2 be the self-inductance of coil 2 and M be
the mutual inductance of the two coils,
then M = K L1 L2
( where K is co-efficient of coupling).
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(b) IF the total flux produced by coil 1 links with the flux produced by coil 2, then
K = 1 and M = L1 L2.

(c) On the other hand, if there is no common flux between the two coils, then they
are said to be magnetically isolated. Therefore,
Co-efficient of coupling K between the coils = ‘Actual’ Mutual Inductance
Maximum possible value

(d) When the two coils are closely coupled magnetically through an iron core, K is
close to unity.

(e) On the other hand, when the two coils are loosely coupled magnetically, K is
equal to 0.5 or even less.

(f) In the magnetically isolated case, K = 0, i.e. M = 0.

Inductance in series without M (Mutual Inductance)

28. When inductors are connected in series, neglecting mutual inductance the change in
current with respect to time remains same.

L1 L2 L12

=
VL1 VL2 E

E = VL1 + VL2
= L1 d i + L2 d i
dt dt
L di = (L1+L2) di
dt dt
L= L1 + L2
In general,
L = L1+L2 +L3+…………………
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Inductance in Parallel without M (Mutual Inductance)

29. When inductance connected in parallel, the voltage drop across each inductor
remains same.
__1__ = _1_ + _1_
L L1 L2
_1__ = _L1 + L2_
Parallel L L1 L2
L1 L2
L = __L1 L2__
L 1 + L2

Inductance in Series having Mutual Inductance

30. Case 1: When the coils are so connected that their fluxes are in same direction

L1 M L2

N1 N2
1 2

In above diagram, flow of current is in same direction in both inductors connected in

series. The flux produced by the two coils is additive in nature.

Let L1 and L2 be the self inductance of the Coils 1 and 2 and M is the mutual
inductance between the coils. The self induced emf and mutual induced emf for coil 1
will be:

Self induced emf, e1 = - L1 di/dt

Mutual induced emf = - M di/dt

The self induced emf and mutually induced emf for coil 2 will be:
Self induced emf, e2 = - L2 di/dt

Mutually induced emf = - M di/dt

Therefore total induced emf for the above connection can be written as,

e = - L1 di/dt – L2 di/dt – 2M di/dt

= - (L1+ L2+ 2M) di/dt … (i)

If LS is the equivalent inductance of the coil in series then it can be expressed as,
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e = -LS di/dt … (ii)

By comparing the above two equations, we have
-LS di/dt = - (L1+ L2+ 2M) di/dt
Or LS = L1 + L2 + 2M

Case II: When the coils are so connected that their fluxes are in opposite direction
L1 L2

A B

In the above diagram the fluxes of inductors are subtractive. Only the difference from
case I is the total inductance here is, Ls = L1 + L2 – 2M

Q Factor (Quality Factor) of Inductor

31. The quality or merit of the coil is measured in terms of Q factor. It is given by,

Q factor = XL = 2 πfL
R R
Where, F = frequency, R = resistance of the coil and L = Inductance of the coil.

Q factor is high when DC resistance of the coil is low. In a Radio tuned receiver, high value
of Q factor increases sensitivity and sharpness of signal.
Inductive Reactance
32. It is denoted by symbol, XL. The reactance exhibited by an ideal inductor, considered
as a positive imaginary-number quantity; XL= jωL = 2 πfL, where XL is in ohms, f is the
frequency in Hertz, L is the inductance in henrys, and j is the unit imaginary number (the
square root of –1). In a pure inductive reactance, current lags 90 degrees behind voltage.
Series RL Circuit

33. A pure resistance of R ohms and a pure inductive coil of inductance L henrys are
connected in series as shown in figure below;
R L

I
VR VL

V
AC through RL cct
 24

V = r.m.s value of applied voltage

I = r.m.s value of resultant current
VR = IR = voltage drop across R (in phase with I)
VL = IXL = voltage drop over coil (at right angles to I)
These voltages drops are shown in the voltage triangle given below.

V VL

Ф
I
VR
Voltage triangle

V = V2R +V2L
= [(IR)2 +(IXL)2]

=I R2 +XL2

Or, I = ____V_____
R2 +XL2

The quantity R2 +XL2 is known as the impedance (Z) of the circuit.

(a) Impedance.

Z XL

Ф
I
R
Impedance triangle
As seen from the above impedance triangle, Impedance Z is given as,

Z = R2 + XL2

Z = R2 + ω2L2

Z = R2 + (2πfL)2
 25

Or, Z2 = R2 + (2πfL)2

(b) Phase Angle. It is seen in the figure of voltage triangle that the current I
lags behind the applied voltage by an angle Ф. The same fact is illustrated
graphically in figure given below.

V
I

Phase diagram of voltage and current

tan Ф = IXL / IR = XL/R

Ф = tan -1XL/R

(c) Circuit current. It is noticed that current in inductor lags behind the voltage
by 90 .
0

Im = Vm ( Where, Z = Impedance)
Z
Hence, If applied voltage is given by v = V m sin ωt, then the current equation
is, i = Im sin (ωt – Ф)
Or i = Vm sin (ωt – Ф)
Z
(d) Power factor. Power consumed ‘P’ = VI cos Ф (where V and I represent
r.m.s value), Cos Ф is called the power factor.
Series RC Circuit

34. A pure resistance of R ohms and a pure capacitor of capacitance C farads are
connected in series as shown in figure below:-

R C

I
VR VC

V
AC through series RC cct
 26

Let, VR = IR = drop across R (in phase with I)

VC = IXC = drop across capacitor (lagging I by π/2)
VR
I
θ
VC
V

Voltage triangle

As capacitive reactance (XC) is taken negative, VC is shown along negative

directions of Y-axis as shown in voltage triangle.

Now V= VR2 + VC2 = (IR)2 + (-IXC)2

= I R2 + XC2

or I = ____V_____ = V
R2 +XC2 Z

(a) Impedance.
R
I
Ф
θ XC
Z

Impedance triangle

Z = R2 + XC2

Z = R2 + 1 / ω2C2

Z = R2 + 1 / (2πfL)2

(b) Phase angle. From the above figure it is found that current I leads
voltage V by angle Ф. This fact is shown graphically in figure below:-
I
V

Ф t

Phase diagram of voltage and current

 27

tan Ф = XC / R
Ф = tan-1 XC / R

(c) Circuit current. It is noticed that current in capacitor leads the applied
voltage by 900
I=V (Z = Impedance)
Z
Hence, If applied voltage is given by v = Vm sin ωt, then the current equation
is,
i = Im sin(ωt + Ф)

i = Vm sin(ωt + Ф)
Z

(d) Power factor. Power consumed ‘P’ = VI cos Ф (where V and I represent
r.m.s value, Cos Ф is the power factor). Power factor is unity for a pure resistance
circuit ( .. . Voltage and current are in phase and Ф = 0, Cos Ф = 1).

(e) RL Time Constant It is defined as the time during which current

through RL cct rises to 63.2 % of its final value. It is also defined as the time during
which the current falls to 37% of its maximum value while decaying through RL cct. It
is denoted by λ.

λ = L/R seconds.
Where L is in Henrys and R is in Ohms.

Resonance

35. A circuit is said to be in electrical resonance when its net reactance is zero. The
frequency f0 at which this happens is known as `resonant frequency’. At resonant condition
the circuit behaves like a pure resistive circuit and current is in phase with the applied
voltage. Obviously, the power factor of the circuit is unity under resonant conditions.

R very small

R very large

I
f0
f
 28

Series Resonance
R L C

AC Voltage

36. If a sinusoidal voltage of variable frequency is applied across RLC series circuit, it
encounters different impedances at different frequencies. As frequency increases Inductive
reactance (XL) increases, whereas capacitive reactance (X C) decreases. The frequency at
which XL = XC, then the circuit is said to be Resonant. The frequency at which resonance
condition occurs, is called resonant frequency (f 0). At resonance condition network behaves
as purely resistive.
In RLC cct Impedance is given by;

Z = R2 + (XL - XC) 2

Z = R2 + (ωL - 1 / ωC) 2

The current in the circuit is

I = V = _____ V________
Z R2 + (ωL - 1 / ωC) 2

The power factor is cos Ф = R = _____ R________

Z R2 + (ωL - 1 / ωC) 2
At resonance Z = R
Therefore, ωL –_ 1_ = 0
ωC
Or ω = __1__
LC
If f0 be the resonant frequency then,
2 πf0 = __1__
LC
f0 = __1__
2 π LC

The Power factor at resonance, Cos Ф = R/Z = R/R =1 (at resonance, Z = R)

and the current I = V/Z, = V/R
 29

37. Properties of Series Resonant Circuit Properties of Series resonance circuit are
as under:-

(a) The circuit impedance Z is minimum and equal to the circuit resistance R.
(b) Power factor is unity.
(c) The circuit current I = V/R, and the current is maximum.
(d) Power dissipated is maximum, i.e. P0 = V2 /R
(e) Resonant frequency is f0 = ____1___
2π LC
Parallel Resonance
IL R Coil L

I IC C

38. Under resonant as the power factor is unity and the reactive component of the total
current is zero. The reactive component of the current (I C - IL sin Ф) = 0, where Ф is the
power factor angle of the coil.

IC = IL sin Ф

Or V = V x XL
XC ZL ZL
Where ZL is the impedance of the coil (ZL = R2 + XL2)
Or XCXL = ZL2

ωL = ZL2 = R2 + ω2L2
ωC

ω2L2 = L - R2
C

At resonant ω0 = _1_ - R2
LC L2
And at resonant condition frequency f 0 = _1_ 1 - R2
2π L C L2

If resistance is neglected then, ω0 = _1_

LC
And resonant frequency f0 = ___1___ is the same as series resonant circuit.
 30

2π LC

39. Properties of Parallel Resonant Circuit Properties of parallel resonant circuits

are as under:-

(a) At resonance the net reactive component of the line current is zero and the
circuit current is equal to the active component of the total current, i.e. I = IL cos Ф.

(b) Line current is minimum at resonance, I = __V___

L/CR
(c) Power factor is unity.
(d) Net susceptance is zero at resonance.
(e) Resonant frequency, f0 = _1_ 1 - R2
2π L C L2
 31

CHAPTER – 3

TRANSFORMERS

1. Transformer is a static electric device which transfers electrical energy from one cct
to another. It transfers electrical energy at the same frequency but with changed voltage or
current or both, through electromagnetic induction. Simple transformer consists of two
inductive coils wounded on a magnetic core. One coil is the input coil, called primary and
other which is output coil is called secondary coil.

2. Principle of Operation
Flux Ф
I1
P S
V1 E1 N1 N2 E2 V2

When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer,

current flows in the primary coil. This current produces alternating flux ( Ф) in the core. This
flux links with the both primary and secondary windings as per faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction. The emf induced in the primary is equal and opposite to the
applied voltage. If load is connected to the secondary side, current will start flowing in the
secondary winding. Voltage induced in the secondary is responsible to deliver power to the
load connected to it.

3. Construction of Transformer A single phase transformer consists of primary

and secondary windings placed on a magnetic core. The magnetic core is of thin silicon
steel laminations. Lamination are used to reduce the eddy current loss and silicon steel
reduces hysteresis loss. There are two general types of transformers, shell type and core
type.
(a) Core type In core type transformers, the windings surround a considerable
part of the steel core. The core consists of two vertical legs (or limbs) and the horizontal
portions (called yokes) as shown in the figure. In this type of transformers the flux has a
single path around the legs. Concentric coils are used for core type transformers.
 32

Core type
(b) Shell type In shell type transformers the steel core surrounds a major part
of the winding. The windings are wound over a central limb. Shell type transformer requires
more conductors as compared to the core type transformer. In this type of transformers the
flux in the central limb divides equally and returns through the outer two legs. Interleaved (or
sandwiched) coils are used for shell type transformers.

Shell type

4. E.M.F Equation of a Transformer

Let N1 = Number of turns in the primary winding

N2 = Number of turns in the secondary winding
Фm= Maximum flux in the core in webers = Bm x A,
(where Bm = maximum flux density and A = area of the core) .
f = frequency of a.c input in Hz

Cycle

Фm

As shown in figure, the core flux increases from its zero value to maximum value Фm in one
quarter of the cycle i.e., in ¼f second.
 33

 average rate of change of flux = Фm = 4f ФmWb/s

¼f
Now, rate of change of flux per turn means induced e.m.f. in volts.
 average e.m.f induced/turn = 4f Фm volt

If flux Ф varies sinusoidally, then r.m.s. value of induced e.m.f. is obtained by

multiplying the average value with form factor.
Form factor = r.m.s. value = 1.11
average value

 r.m.s. value of e.m.f./turn = 1.11 x 4f Фm = 4.44f Фm volt

Now, r.m.s. value of induced e.m.f. in the whole of primary winding

= (induced e.m.f./turn) x No of primary turns

 E1 = 4.44fN1 Фm = 4.44fN1BmA
Similarly, r.m.s value of induced e.m.f. in secondary is
E2 = 4.44fN2 Фm = 4.44fN2BmA

In an ideal transformer on no load,

V1 = E1 and E2 = V2 where V2 is the terminal voltage.

Flux Ф
I1

V1 E1 E2 V2

5. Transformation Ratio (or Turn ratio)

Let, N1 = Number of turns in the primary winding

N2 = Number of turns in the secondary winding
E1 = RMS value of the primary induced emf.
E2 = RMS value of the secondary induced emf.
Using the EMF equation, we can write:-
E1 = 4.44 f N1 Фm and E2 = 4.44 f N2 Фm
E 1 = N1
E 2 N2

The ratio N1 / N2 is known as the transformation ratio (or turns ratio). It is

usually denoted by K).
 34

By selecting this ratio properly, transformation can be done from any input
voltage to any convenient output voltage. There can be two cases:

(a) If N1>N2, then E2 < E1; the transformer is known as a step-down

transformer (k>1).

(b) If N2>N1, then E2 > E1; the transformer is known as a step-up

transformer k<1).

If I1 and I2 are the currents in the primary and secondary of an ideal

transformer (i.e. having no losses), we should have.

E1I1 = E2I2

[ E1I1 and E2I2 are primary and secondary powers (volt amperes)]

or I1 = E2 = N2 = 1 = V2
I2 E1 N1 K V1

Thus we find that the current is transformed in the reverse ratio of the voltage. If a
transformer steps up the voltage, it steps down the current. If it steps down the
voltage, it steps up the current.

6. Impedance Transformation
I1 N1: N2 I2

N2
V1 V2
P E1 E2 S Z2

Core

Z1 = Impedance across the primary winding.

Z2 = Impedance across the secondary winding.
N1 = Number of turns in the primary winding.
N2 = Number of turns in the secondary winding.
E1 = RMS value of the primary induced emf.
E2 = RMS value of the secondary induced emf.
 35

V1 = Voltage across primary winding

V2 = Voltage across secondary winding

(a) Assuming the transformer to be ideal.

V1 = E1 = N 1 = K (turns-ratio)
V2 E 2 N 2

(b) The impedance Z2, can be easily obtained by dividing voltage V 1 by I1

It can be written as:-

Z2 = V1 = V1 x (V2I2)
I1 I1 x (V2I2)

= V1 x I2 x V2 = K x K x Z2 = K2Z2 i.e.
V2 I1 I2
Z 2 = K2
Z1

(c) Therefore, Impedance transformation ratio is equal to the square of turn’s

ratio, referring to the primary or secondary side, this transferred impedance is known
as the equivalent impedance on that side.

Regulation of a transformer

7. The regulation of a transformer is generally expressed as percentage of regulation. It

is defined as the percentage decrease in the terminal voltage of the transformer from no
load to full load condition at a constant applied voltage.

The percentage regulation is = Secondary no load voltage - Secondary full load voltage
Secondary no load voltage
Ideal Transformer

8. An ideal transformer is one which has no losses i.e., whose windings have no ohmic
resistance, so that there is no I 2R loss and no core loss and in which there is no magnetic
leakage. In other words, an ideal transformer consists of two purely inductive coils wound on
a loss-free core. However, it is impossible to realize such transformer in practice.

9. Characteristics of an ideal transformer

(a) Voltages are transformed in the direct ratio of turns. (V 1/V2 = K)

(b) Currents are transformed in the inverse ratio of turns. (I 2 / I1 = 1/K)
(c) Volt-amperes of two sides are equal. (V1I1 = V2I2)
 36

(d) Impedances are transformed in proportion to the square of turns-ratio.

Losses in Transformers

10. There are two types of losses in transformers, Copper losses and Iron losses.
(a) Copper losses (or I2R losses or ohmic losses) take place in the primary and
secondary windings. The copper losses (PC) have two components:-

(i) The primary winding copper loss.

(ii) The secondary winding copper loss

 Copper losses, (PC) = I21R1 + I22R2

= I21R1 + I22R2’ = I21R01
Also, PC = I21R2 + I22R1’ = I22R02
(Where, R01 and R02 are equivalent resistance referred to the primary and secondary
respectively)

(For correct determination of copper losses, the winding resistance should be

determined at the operating temperature of windings).

(b) Iron losses (or core losses) take place in the core. This also has two
components:

(i) Hysteresis losses.

(ii) Eddy current losses.

When alternating current flows through the windings, the core material
undergoes cyclic processes of magnetization and demagnetization. This
process is called hysteresis.

The hysteresis losses (in watts) is given as, Ph = Kh Bnm f v

Where,

Kh = hysteresis coefficient whose value depends upon the material (K h is

0.025 for cast steel, 0.001 for silicon steel and 0.0001 for permalloy)

Bm = maximum flux density (in tesla)

n = a constant, 1.5 < n < 2.5 depending upon the material
f = frequency (in hertz)
v = volume of the core material (in m3)
 37

The eddy currents are the circulating currents set up in the core. These are
produced due to magnetic flux being cut by the core. The loss due to these
eddy currents is called eddy current losses. This loss (in watts) is given
by

Pe = KeB2mf2t2v
where, Ke = constant dependent upon the material
t = thickness of laminations (in metre)

A comparison of the expressions of hysteresis and eddy current losses reveals

that the eddy-current loss varies as the square of the frequency, whereas the
hysteresis loss varies directly with the frequency. The hysteresis losses can be
minimized by selecting suitable ferromagnetic material for the core. The eddy-
current losses can be minimized by using thin laminations in building the core.

Efficiency of Transformer

11. Like any other machine, the efficiency of a transformer is defined as

η = Power output
Power input
= ___________Power output______________
Power output + Power losses in transformer

The total iron losses (Pi) is given as Pi = Ph + Pe and copper losses by Pc

Thus the efficiency of the transformer is given as

η = Power output = P0_____

Power input P0 + P c + P i

= V2I2 cosФ2______
V2I2 cosθ2 + I22R02 + Pi
 38

Step Up and Step Down Transformers

Step Up Step Down

12. Comparison between Step Up and Step Down Transformer

Ser Step Up Transformer Step Down Transformer

No
(a) Secondary voltage is more than Secondary voltage is less than
primary voltage. primary voltage.
(b) Secondary winding has more N2 < N1.
number of turns i.e. N2 > N1.
(c) Secondary current is less than Secondary current is more than
primary current. primary current.
(d) Transformation ratio is more than K is less than 1.
1 i.e. K = V2/V1 is greater than 1.
(e) Power transformer at a power Transformer used in rectifiers is an
generating station is an example example of this type
of step up transformer
 39

13. Types of Transformer

(a). Power Transformer Power transformer is also called as main

transformer i.e. it is meant to operate having AC mains supply applied to its primary
winding. They have one primary and several secondary windings. These secondary
windings provide various values of operating voltages, depending upon the
secondary winding turns. These voltages are required for the functioning of various
circuits in electronic equipment.

(b). RFT (Radio Frequency Transformer) Radio frequency (RF) transformers

operate at very high frequencies. They are generally used with capacitor to form
resonant circuits. At higher frequencies the eddy current becomes excessive. To
reduce eddy current losses, the RF transformer’s core is made of air. Radio
frequency transformer is also used for inter stage coupling in electronic circuits, and
for coupling a signal to and from antenna.

(c). IFT (Intermediate Frequency Transformer) These transformers are meant

to operate at a fixed frequency, known as intermediate frequency. Intermediate
frequency transformers are commonly used in radio receivers at IF stage. These
transformer also used in inter carrier sound section and video IF section of television.

Screw to adjust the permeativity of air core

 40

(d). Audio Frequency Transformer Audio frequency transformer is made to

operate at audio frequencies in the range of 20Hz to 20 KHz. These transformers are
always used to couple one stage to another. These transformers are used in audio
amplifiers. These are available in both types as step up and as well as step down
transformer. In power output stage of radio receiver step down transformer is used to
match the impedance of the amplifier with speaker.

Example 1: The no-load ratio of a 50Hz, single-phase transformer is

6,000/250 V. Estimate the number of turns in each winding if the maximum flux
is 0.06 Wb in the core.

Solution Using the transformer e.m.f. equation, we get

E1 = 4.44fN1Фm
 6,000 = 4.44 x 50 x N1 x 0.06  N1 = 450
Similarly, 250 = 4.44 x 50 x N2 x 0.06  N2 = 19
or N2 = KN1 = (250/6000) x 450 = 19

Example 2: A 200 KVA, 3300/240 volts, 50 Hz single-phase transformer has

80 turns on the secondary winding. Assuming an ideal transformer, calculate
(i) primary and secondary, currents on full-load, (ii) the maximum value of flux
and (iii) the number of primary turns.

Solution : A 3300/240 V transformer is one whose normal primary and

secondary voltages are 3300 V and 240 V respectively.

K = 240/2200 = 12/165

(i) N2 = 80 = 12 N1 = 1100
N1 N1 165

(ii) I2 = 200,000/240 = 833A

I1 = KI2 = (12/165)833 = 60.6 A

(iii) 3300 = 4.44 x 50 x 110.0 x Фm;

Фm = 13.5 mWb
 41

Example 3: A 200 KVA, 6600/400 Volts, 50 Hz single-phase transformer has

80 turns on the secondary. Calculate (i) the approximate values of the primary
and secondary current, (ii) the approximate number of primary turn and (iii)
the maximum value of flux.

Solution
(i) Secondary current, I2 = 200,000/400 = 500 A

Assuming input kVA to be equal to the output kVA, we have

I1 = 200,000/6,600 = 30.3 A
Alternatively, I1 = KI2. Now, K = 400/6,600 = 2/33
 I1 = (2/33) x 500 = 30.3 A

(ii) K = N2 = E2_
N1 E1
 80 = 400 , N1 = 1320
N1 6600

Alternatively, voltage drop per turn in secondary = 400/80 = 5. It has the same
value for primary as well. Hence, the number of turns in primary = 6600/5 =
1320

(iii) Using voltage equation of the transformer, we have

E1 = 4.44fN1Фm or 6600 = 4.44 x 50 x 1320 x Фm
or Фm = 0.0225 Wb or 22.5 mWb

Three Phase Power System

14. A three-phase electric system may be considered as three separate single-phase

system displaced from each other by 1200.

1200 1200
Amplitude

R Y B

ωt
1800

3600
 42

15. Necessity and Advantages over single phase system The advantages of a three
phase system over a single phase system are as follows:-

(a) The amount of conductor material required is less for three- phase system.

(b) Domestic power and industrial/commercial power can be provided from the
same source.

(c) Voltage regulation of a three-phase system is better.

(d) Three-phase motors are self-starting while single-phase motors are not self-
starting.

Generation of Three Phase Supply

16. When three identical coils are placed with their axes at 120 0 displaced from each
other and rotated in a uniform magnetic field, a sinusoidal voltage is generated across the
coil. In the figure three sets of coils RR’, YY’ and BB’ displaced from each other by 120 0 and
rotating in an anticlockwise direction with angular velocity  in a uniform magnetic field.
Since the three coils are identical the generated voltages have the same magnitude. The
generated voltages in the coils are given by the equation:-

R = Vm sin t
Y = Vm sin (t - 1200)
B = Vm sin (t - 2400)
= Vm sin (t + 1200)

[Here the voltage generated in coil R is taken as references. So Y lags R by 1200

and B lags R by 2400]

N
VR

B Y’
1200
R’ R 1200 VY
1200

Y B’

S VB

Three- phase emf generation

 43

17. Interconnection of Phases If the three phases are not interconnected and kept
separate then each phase would require two conductors and so the total number of
conductors would be six. This would make the whole system complicated. Hence the three
phases are usually interconnected which results in substantial saving of copper. In general
two methods are used for inter connections of phases which are as follows:-

(a) Star (or Y) Connection

(b) Delta (∆) or Mesh Connection
18. Star Connection In star connection the three identical coils are placed with their
axes at 1200 displaced from each other. The similar ends of the coils are joined together at a
point N known as neutral point or star point. It is also known as three-phase four wire
system.
IR
R

VR VR
R
VR
N
N
B
VY
VB 600
Y Y
-VY
IY 1200
IB
B
VB 1200 VY

Vectorial addition
of phase voltages
Star Connection
 44

VRY

VR

IR -VB
300
-VY θ

IB VYB
θ 300
θ
300
VB VY
IY

-VR

VB

Vector Diagram of Voltages and Currents

If a balanced symmetrical load Z is connected across terminals RY, YB, and BR then;

(a) Current The current in each phase will be exactly equal in magnitude but
in difference of 1200 from each other. The resultant current is then given by
iR + iY + iB = Im sin ωt + Im sin (ωt-1200) + Im sin (ωt-2400)
The current through the neutral in case of balance load is zero
i.e. iR + iY + iB =0

(b) The relation between line and phase voltages in star connection
Line voltages are also 1200 apart and are 300 ahead of their respective phase
voltages.
VL = VPh 3

VR = VY = VB = VPh (the phase emf)

 45

VRY = VYB = VBR = Line voltage VL .

(c) Power Power in star connection is the sum of all three phase powers.
Hence, total active power ‘P’ = 3 VPH IPH cosθ
= 3 x VL IL cosθ
3
= 3 VL ILcosθ {VL = 3 VPH and IL IPH}

(Here, θ is the angle between phase voltage and phase current and V L,
IL are magnitude vectors)

19. Delta or Mesh Connection In this configuration, the dissimilar ends of three
phase windings are joined together. In other words, the three windings are joined in series to
form a close mesh as shown in figure below. The leads are taken out from the three
junctions for external connections. It is also known as three-phase three wire system. If the
system is balanced then the sum of the three voltages round the closed mesh is zero, hence
no current can flow when the terminals are open. At any instant, the emf of one phase is
equal and opposite to the resultant of those in the other two phases.
I1 = IR – IB
R
B R
VRY
I2 = IY – IR
VRB
Y
Y
VYB

I3 = IB – IY
B
Delta connection
VRY
 46

-IY IR
I3 =(IB - IY) I1 =(IR – IB)
1200 θ

1200
IB -IB
θ
θ
1200
VBR
VYB
-IR
IY

I2= (IY - IR)

Vector Diagram of Current and Voltages

(a) Relation between line voltages and phase voltages The voltage between
any pair of lines is equal to the corresponding phase voltage. Since the common
phase sequence is RYB, VRY leads VYB by 1200, VYB leads VBR by 1200.

If VRY = VYB = VBR = VL line voltage, then it is seen that VL = VPH

(b) Relation between line currents and phase currents Current in each
line is the vector difference of the two phase current flowing through that line (for
example current in line R is = IR - IB). Line currents are 1200 apart and are 300 behind
the respective phase currents.

(c) Power. Three phase power ‘P’=3 VPH IPH cosθ

= 3 x VL IL cosθ
3

=3 VL_IL_ cosθ = 3 x VL IL cosθ

3
{VL = VPH and IL = 3 IPH}
 47

Earthing

20. Earthing is an electrical ground connection intended to reduce the chances of electric
shock to people and electrical/electronic equipment damage. It is a common connection to
an electrode buried in the earth so that good conductivity is maintained between the
common circuit point and the earth itself. It must be low-resistance connection to the earth.
Earth resistance depends on composition of the soil, amount of moisture, soil electrolytic
action, and the area of contact to the earth.

21. When talking about grounding it is actually two different subjects, earth grounding
and equipment grounding. Earth grounding is an intentional connection from a circuit
conductor usually the neutral to a ground electrode placed in the earth. Equipment
grounding is to ensure that operating equipment within a structure is properly grounded.
These two grounding systems are required to be kept separate except for a connection
between the two systems to prevent differences in potential from a possible flashover from a
lightning strike.

22. Need for Earthing The purpose of a ground besides the protection of people plants
and equipment is to provide a safe path for the dissipation of Fault Currents, Lightning
Strikes, Static Discharges, EMI and RFI signals and Interference.

23. Procedure For Making Good Earthing For good earth, high conductivity (low
resistance) is desired characteristic . To achieve good earthing, high conductivity metal rod or
plate should be driven 10-15 feet deep into the surface of the earth for use as a common
circuit connection. The earthing duct should be filled with a layer of earthing chemical or
water-coal-salt mixture to increase the conductivity of the ground. Earth wire should be of
copper and properly connected to the ground plate/ rod for good conductivity. Watering of
earth point should be carried out regularly. Connection of earth bread with equipment should
be proper.

24. Methods of Reducing Earth Resistance For Telecom/IT systems, Earth

resistance should be less than 5 ohms. Earth resistance can be reduced by followings:-

(a) By adding mixture of salt and water to the earth pit.

(b) By adding salt, charcoal and sand mixture to the pit.
(c) By using a bigger grounding plate By burying the ground plate as deep as
possible.
(d) By having parallel ground plates with a distance of 10m between grounds.
(e) By using salt, charcoal etc., to reduce resistivity.
 48

CHAPTER – 4

ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS FUNDAMENTALS

Introduction

1. Instruments which measure electrical quantities like voltage, current, power, energy
etc. are called electrical instruments. These instruments are generally named after the
electrical quantity to be measured. The instruments which measure current, voltage, power
and energy are called ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter and energy meter respectively.

Working Principle of Electrical Instruments

2. Since an electrical quantity cannot be observed physically, it is necessary to convert

the given electrical quantity into a mechanical force and then measure that force. This
mechanical force moves the pointer on a calibrated scale and indicates the value of
electrical quantity to be measured. This conversion of electrical quantity under measurement
is achieved by utilizing the following effects of electrical current:-

(a) Magnetic effect is used in ammeters, voltmeters and watt meters.

(b) Electrodynamics Effect is used in ammeters, voltmeters and wattmeter.
(c) Electromagnetic induction effect used in ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeter and
watt-hour meters.
(d) Thermal Effect used for ammeters and voltmeters.
(e) Chemical Effect is used for D.C. ampere- hour meters.
(f) Electrostatic Effect is used for voltmeters only.

Indicating Instruments
 49

3. The instruments which directly indicate the instantaneous value of an electrical

quantity at the time when it is being measured are called indicating instruments. All
indicating instruments have a pointer which sweeps over a calibrated scale and it directly
gives the magnitude of the electrical quantity. Ammeters, voltmeters, and wattmeters are
examples of indicating instruments which are commonly used. Generally all indicating
instruments which are used measures electrical properties of a circuit are galvanometers.

4. An indicating instrument indicates the value of electrical quantity at the time when it is
being measured. It consists of a pointer attached to the moving system pivoted in jewelled
bearings which moves over a graduated scale.

Essentials of Indicating Instruments

5. In order to have the proper operation of indication instruments, following torques are
essential:-

(a) Deflecting (or operating) torque (T0).

(b) Controlling (or restoring) torque (Tc).
(c) Damping torque (Td).

6. Deflecting Torque . The deflecting torque (or operating torque) is an essential

requirement of an indicating instrument in order to initiate the movement of the pointer. The
deflecting torque causes the moving system to move from zero position to the required
value when the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure the electrical quantity. The
deflecting torque is developed by utilizing any of the known effects of current (or voltage).

7. Controlling Torque . Once the deflecting torque is developed, the pointer

will continue to move and will continue to move and will be independent of the value of
electrical quantity to be measured. It is then essential to control the movement of the pointer
and this requirement makes that the controlling torque must be provided. The controlling
torque opposes the deflecting torque of the moving system so that the pointer comes to the
rest position when the two opposing torques are equal. The purpose of providing the
controlling torque is three-fold.

(a) To oppose the deflecting torque and get increased with the deflection of the
moving system.

(b) To make the pointer come to rest when TC = T0.

(c) To bring the pointer back to zero position when the deflecting torque is
removed.
8. Damping Torque. When the moving system in indicating instrument is acted upon
simultaneously by deflecting and controlling torques then the pointer due to its inertia will
oscillate about the final position before coming to rest. These oscillations are undesirable
and need to be prevented.
 50

In order to prevent these oscillations of the pointer and to bring it quickly to its deflected
position, damping torque is provided in indicating instrument. Damping torque opposes the
movement of the pointer and operates only when the system is in motion.

Under -damped

Critically -damped
Deflection

Over-damped

Time
9. The damping torque acts only when the pointer is in motion. When the pointer is in
the final position, both deflecting and controlling torques are still acting on the moving
system but the damping torque becomes zero. The pointer is then gets steady position and
there is no movement of the moving system. The damping torque acts like a brake on the
moving system.

10. If the instrument is under damped, the pointer will oscillate about the final position
and take some time to come to rest. On the other hand, if the instrument is over damped,
the pointer will become slow to move. However, if the degree of damping is adjusted to such
a value that the pointer moves and quickly halts to its final position, the instrument is said to
be dead-beat or critically damped. The above figure shows the profile of under damping,
over damping and critical damping.

11. Errors with both DC and AC Measurement

(a) Error due to Hysteresis. Since the iron parts move in the magnetic field,
hysteresis loss occurs in them. The effect of this error will result in higher readings
when current increases than when it decreases. The hysteresis error can be
eliminated by using “mumetal” or “permalloy” which have negligible hysteresis loss.

(b) Error due to Stray Fields . Since the operating magnetic field is
comparatively weak, therefore such instruments are susceptible to stray fields. This
may give rise to wrong readings. This error is eliminated by shielding the instrument
with iron enclosure.

(c) Error due to Temperature. Changes in temperature affects the circuit

resistance of the coil and stiffness of the control springs.
 51

(d) Error due to Friction. Due to friction of moving parts, slight error may be
introduced. This can be avoided by making torque-weight ratio of the spindle high.

12. Error with AC Measurement only. With the change in frequency, the impedance
of the instrument coil changes. This in turn changes the deflecting torque. This is of
particular importance in Voltmeters. This error can be eliminated by connecting a
capacitor of suitable value in parallel with swamp resistance R of the voltmeter. The value of
capacitor C is given by: C = L/R2

Ammeter

13. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name . Smaller values of
current can be measured using a milliameter or a microammeter . Ammeter is a low
resistance galvanometer, used to measure current in a circuit. The current to be measured
must pass through it. Hence, it is connected in series combination. An ideal ammeter should
have zero resistance. The diagram below shows the connection of ammeter to the circuit for
measuring current.

Types of Ammeters
 52

14. Moving Coil Ammeter. The D'Arsonval galvanometer is a moving coil ammeter. It
uses magnetic deflection, where current passing through a coil causes the coil to move in a
magnetic field. The voltage drop across the coil is kept to a minimum to minimize resistance
across the ammeter in any circuit into which it is inserted. The modern form of this
instrument uses two spiral springs to provide the restoring force. By maintaining a uniform
air gap between the iron core of the instrument and the poles of its permanent magnet, the
instrument has good linearity and accuracy.

15. Moving Iron Ammeters. This type of ammeter responds to both direct and
alternating currents. The iron element consists of a moving vane attached to a pointer, and a
fixed vane, surrounded by a coil. As alternating or direct current flows through the coil and
induces a magnetic field in both vanes. The vanes repel each other and the moving vane
deflects against the restoring force provided by fine helical springs. The non-linear scale of
these meters makes them unpopular.

16. Electrodynamic Ammeters. An electrodynamic movement uses an

electromagnet instead of the permanent magnet of the d'Arsonval movement. This
instrument can respond to both alternating and direct current.

17. Hot-Wire Ammeters. In a hot-wire ammeter, current passes through a wire which
expands as it heats. Although these instruments have slow response time and low accuracy,
they were sometimes used in measuring radio-frequency current.

18. Digital Ammeters. Digital ammeter designs use an analog to digital converter to
measure the voltage across the shunt resistor. The digital display is calibrated to read the
current through the shunt.

Voltmeter

19. A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring the electrical potential difference
between two points in an electric circuit. It is a high resistance galvanometer, used to
measure potential difference between two points.
It is connected across the component’s ends potential difference across which is to be
measured. Hence, it is in parallel to that component. An ideal voltmeter must have infinite
 53

resistance. The diagram below shows connection of voltmeter to a circuit to measure the
potential difference across a resistor.

20. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the voltage of the
circuit. Digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an analog to digital
converter. Digital meters can be made with high accuracy, typically better than 1%. Specially
calibrated test instruments have higher accuracies, with laboratory instruments capable of
measuring to accuracies of a few parts per million. Meters using amplifiers can measure tiny
voltages of micro volts or less.

21. A moving coil galvanometer can be used as a voltmeter by inserting a resistor in

series with the instrument. It employs a small coil of fine wire suspended in a strong
magnetic field. When an electrical current is applied, the galvanometer's indicator rotates
and compresses a small spring. The angular rotation is proportional to the current through
the coil. For use as a voltmeter, a series resistance is added so that the angular rotation
becomes proportional to the applied voltage. One of the design objectives of the instrument
is to disturb the circuit as little as possible and so the instrument should draw a minimum of
current to operate.

Types of Voltmeter

(a). Moving-coil Voltmeters. Moving-coil instruments with a permanent-magnet

field respond only to direct current. Measurement of AC voltage requires a rectifier in the
circuit so that the coil deflects in only one direction. Moving-coil instruments are also made
with the zero position in the middle of the scale instead of at one end; these are useful if the
voltage reverses its polarity.

(b). Electrostatic voltmeters . Voltmeters operating on the electrostatic principle

use the mutual repulsion between two charged plates to deflect a pointer attached to a
 54

spring. Meters of this type draw negligible current but are sensitive to voltages over about
100 volts and work with either alternating or direct current.

(c). Digital voltmeters. Digital voltmeters are usually designed around a

special type of analog-to-digital converter called an integrating converter. Voltmeter
accuracy is affected by many factors, including temperature and supply voltage variations.
To ensure that a digital voltmeter's reading is within the manufacturer's specified tolerances,
they should be periodically calibrated. Digital voltmeters necessarily have input amplifiers,
and, like vacuum tube voltmeters, generally have a constant input resistance of 10 mega
ohms regardless of set measurement range.

Ohmmeter

22. Ohmmeter is an instrument that uses an internal Wheatstone bridge to measure the
value of a resistor in an electric circuit. The Wheatstone bridge measures the value of an
unknown resistance by comparing it to three known resistances.

23. The Wheatstone bridge shown below consists of four resistances connected together
to form four arms of a diamond-shaped loop. Of the four resistances, the values of three (R 1,
R2, and R3) are known and one (Rx) is unknown. R1, R2, and R3 are variable resistors. The
user can vary the value of each resistor’s resistance. The resistors are arranged so that
electric current splits at one corner of the diamond and flows through R 1 and R3 on one side
and R2 and Rx on the other side.

24. A galvanometer, a meter that measures electric current, is connected at the point of
null as shown in figure above. Current flows through the galvanometer if the bridge is
 55

unbalanced. The user varies the resistance of R 1, R2, and R3 until the galvanometer reads
zero. In balance condition, the ratio of resistance of R 1 to the resistance of R3 equals the
ratio of the resistance of R2 to the resistance of Rx. The values of R1, R2, and R3 are known,
so the user can easily calculate the value of R x.

25. Other electrical bridges use techniques similar to the Wheatstone bridge to determine
the value of capacitors and inductors. Bridge circuits are often used with transducers,
devices that convert one type of energy into another. The transducers used with bridge
circuits convert types of energy such as heat, light, or sound into electrical energy. When the
output of a transducer forms an element of a bridge circuit, changes in the level of the
energy input to the transducer result in dramatic and easily detectable changes in the output
of the bridge circuit.

Wattmeter

26. The power consumed by any part of an electric circuit is most easily measured by a

wattmeter, an instrument resembling the electrodynamometer. The wattmeter has its fixed
coil connected so that the whole current of the circuit passes through it, and the moving coil
is connected in series with a high resistance so that the current passing through it is
proportional to the voltage of the source. The resulting deflection of the moving coil depends
on both the current and the voltage and can be calibrated directly in power, because power
is the product of voltage and current.

27. The watt-hour meter, also known as a service meter, is a device to measure the total
energy consumed in a circuit such as a home electrical circuit. It resembles the wattmeter
except that the movable coil is replaced by a motor armature. The armature, which is
regulated by a magnetic governor, revolves at a speed proportional to the amount of power
consumed. The armature shaft is geared to a series of dials that indicate the total energy
consumed.

28. Dynamometer Type Wattmeter. A dynamometer type wattmeter is most commonly

employed for measurement of the power in a circuit. It can be used to measure power in AC
as well as DC circuits.

29. Construction. In a dynamometer type wattmeter as shown in the figure, the fixed
coils are connected in series with the load and carry the circuit current. These coils are
called current coils. The moving coil is connected across the load and carries current
proportional to the voltage. It is called potential coil. Usually a high resistance is connected
in series with the potential coil to limit the current through the potential coil. The controlling
torque is provided by springs also the additional purpose of leading current into and out of
the moving coil. Air friction damping is employed in such instruments.
 56

30. Working. When power is to be measured in a circuit, the instrument is suitably

connected in the circuit. The current coil is connected in series with the load so that it carries
the circuit current. The potential coil is connected across the load so that it carries current
proportional to the voltage. Due to the currents in both the coils mechanical force exists
between them. As a result, the moving coil moves the pointer over the scale. The pointer
comes to rest at a position where deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque.
Reversal of the current reverses the field due to fixed coils as well as the current in the
moving coil so that the direction of the deflecting torque remains unchanged. Therefore,
such instruments can be used for the measurement of AC as well as DC power.

Digital Multimeter

31. Multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several

measurement functions in one unit. A typical Multimeter may include features such as the
ability to measure voltage, current and resistance. Digital multimeters essentially a voltage-
to-display device and are designed for electronics technicians and engineers. Digital
multimeters give an output in numbers, usually on a liquid crystal display. Digital multimeters
have additional circuitry which makes it capable of measuring A.C., D.C. voltages and
current and resistance. A.C measurements are generally calibrated to indicate R.M.S value
of sinusoidal waveforms. The resolution of a multimeter is often specified in "digits" of
resolution. For example, the term 5½ digits refer to the number of digits displayed on the
readout of a multimeter. By convention, 5 digits are for the magnitude of the parameter (V, I)
being measured and ½ digit is for its sign.

Block Diagram of Digital Multimeter

 57

Measuring I/P Signal sensing and A to D Display 7 Segments/

conditioning section Converter drive cct LCD Display

32. A functional block diagram of a digital multimeter is shown in above diagram. It

consists of three sections signal sensing and conditioning, Analog to Digital converter and
Display drive circuit for 7 Segment display/ LCD.

33. The measuring input signal is applied to the signal sensing and conditioning section.
In signal sensing and conditioning section, the signal to be measured is sensed in the form
of voltage. The ranges of signal value can change depending on the range the meter
selects. The sensed and conditioned signal is then applied to the A to D converter, where it
is converted into digital form and fed to Display drive cct. In display drive cct, the digital
signal is coded generally in BCD form to drive 7 segments display. The 7 segments display
or LCD displays the value in form of numbers.

Types of Digital Multimeter

34. Switched Range Digital Multimeter. The diagram below shows a switched range
multimeter. Its central knob has many positions and you must choose which one is
appropriate for the measurement you want to make. If the meter is switched to 20 V DC, for
example, then 20 V is the maximum voltage which can be measured, This is sometimes
called 20 V FSD, where FSD is short for full scale deflection. For taking measurements
with the multimeters, the black lead is always connected into the socket marked COM, short
for COMMON. The red lead is connected into the socket labeled V mA. The 10A socket is
used for high current measurements.
 58

35. Auto Ranging Digital Multimeter. An alternative style of multimeter is the Auto
ranging multimeter. The central knob has fewer positions and all you need to do is to switch
it to the quantity you want to measure. Once switched to V, the meter automatically adjusts
its range to give a meaningful reading, and the display includes the unit of measurement, V
or mV. This type of meter is more expensive, but obviously much easier to use.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

 59

36. The cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is a very useful and a versatile laboratory
instrument used for display, measurement and analysis of waveforms and other phenomena
in electrical and electronic circuits. CROs are in fact very fast X-Y plotters, displaying an
input signal versus another signal or versus time. The “stylus” of the “plotter” is a luminous
spot which moves over the display area in fluorescent screen. The extremely low inertia
effects associated with a beam of electrons enables such a beam to be used for following
the changes in instantaneous values of rapidly varying voltages.

37. The normal form of a CRO uses a horizontal input voltage which is an internally
generated ramp voltage called Time Base. This horizontal voltage moves the luminous spot
periodically in a horizontal direction from left to right over the display area or screen. The
vertical input to the CRO is the voltage under investigation. The vertical input voltage moves
the luminous spot up and down in accordance with the instantaneous value of the voltage.
The luminous spot thus traces the waveform of the input voltage with respect to time. When
the input voltage repeats itself at a fast rate, the trace (display) on the screen appears
stationary on the screen. The CRO thus provides a means of visualizing time varying
voltages.

38. CROs operate on voltages. However, it is possible to convert current, strain,

acceleration, pressure and other physical quantities into voltages with the help of
transducers and thus to present visual representations of a wide variety of dynamic
phenomena of CROs. CROs are also used to investigate waveforms, transient phenomena,
and other time varying quantities from a very low frequency range to the radio frequencies.
 60

39. Working of Oscilloscope. An outline explanation of how an oscilloscope works

can be given using the block diagram shown below.

40. Like a television screen, the screen of an oscilloscope consists of a cathode ray
tube. Although the size and shape are different, the operating principle is the same. Inside
the tube is a vacuum. The electron beam emitted by the heated cathode at the rear end of
the tube is accelerated and focused by one or more anodes, and strikes the front of the
tube, producing a bright spot on the phosphorescent screen.

41. The electron beam is bent, or deflected, by voltages applied to two sets of plates
fixed in the tube. The horizontal deflection plates or X-plates produce side to side
movement. As you can see, they are linked to a system block called the time base. This
produces a sawtooth waveform. During the rising phase of the sawtooth, the spot is driven
at a uniform rate from left to right across the front of the screen. During the falling phase, the
electron beam returns rapidly from right to left, but the spot is 'blanked out' so that nothing
appears on the screen. In this way, the time base generates the X-axis of the V/t graph.

42. The slope of the rising phase varies with the frequency of the sawtooth and can be
adjusted, using the TIME/DIV control, to change the scale of the X-axis. Dividing the
oscilloscope screen into squares allows the horizontal scale to be expressed in seconds,
 61

milliseconds or microseconds per division (s/DIV, ms/DIV, µs/DIV). Alternatively, if the

squares are 1 cm apart, the scale may be given as s/cm, ms/cm or µs/cm.

43. The signal to be displayed is connected to the input. The AC/DC switch is usually
kept in the DC position (switch closed) so that there is a direct connection to the Y-
amplifier. In the AC position (switch open) a capacitor is placed in the signal path. The
capacitor blocks DC signals but allows AC signals to pass.

44. The Y-amplifier is linked in turn to a pair of Y-plates so that it provides the Y-axis of
the V/t graph. The overall gain of the Y-amplifier can be adjusted, using the VOLTS/DIV
control, so that the resulting display is neither too small nor too large, but fits the screen and
can be seen clearly. The vertical scale is usually given in V/DIV or mV/DIV.

45. The trigger circuit is used to delay the time base waveform so that the same section
of the input signal is displayed on the screen each time the spot moves across. The effect of
this is to give a stable picture on the oscilloscope screen, making it easier to measure and
interpret the signal.

46. Changing the scales of the X-axis and Y-axis allows many different signals to be
displayed. Sometimes, it is also useful to be able to change the positions of the axes. This is
possible using the X-POS and Y-POS controls. For example, with no signal applied, the
normal trace is a straight line across the centre of the screen. Adjusting Y-POS allows the
zero level on the Y-axis to be changed, moving the whole trace up or down on the screen to
give an effective display of signals like pulse waveforms which do not alternate between
positive and negative values.

47. Function of Oscilloscope. The function of an oscilloscope is extremely simple, it

draws a V/t graph, a graph of voltage against time, voltage on the vertical or Y-axis, and
time on the horizontal or X-axis.

Volts
Vertical axis
Y-axis

Time
48. As you can see, the screen of this oscilloscope has 8 squares or divisions on the
Horizontal axis
vertical axis, and 10 squares or divisions on the horizontal axis. Usually, these squares are
X-axis
1 cm in each direction. Many of the controls of the oscilloscope allow you to change the
 62

vertical or horizontal scales of the V/t graph, so that you can display a clear picture of the
signal you want to investigate. 'Dual trace' oscilloscopes display two V/t graphs at the same
time, so that simultaneous signals from different parts of an electronic system can be
compared.

49. Dual-Beam Oscilloscope. A dual-beam oscilloscope is used to compare one

signal with another. There were two beams produced in a special type of CRT. A dual-beam
oscilloscope simultaneously produced two separate electron beams, capturing the both
signals. It may have a beam-splitter plate in its CRT, and single-ended vertical deflection
following the splitter. Some other dual-beam oscilloscopes have two complete electron
guns, requiring tight control of axial (rotational) mechanical alignment in manufacturing the
CRT. In the latter type, two independent pairs of vertical plates deflect the beams. Vertical
plates for channel A had no effect on channel B's beam. Similarly for channel B, separate
vertical plates existed which deflected the B beam only.

50. On some dual-beam oscilloscopes, the time base, horizontal plates and horizontal
amplifier were common to both beams (the beam-splitter CRT worked this way). Most
multichannel 'scopes do not have multiple electron beams. Instead, they display only one
trace at a time, but switch the later stages of the vertical amplifier between one channel and
the other either on alternate sweeps (ALT mode) or many times per sweep (CHOP mode).
Very few true dual-beam oscilloscopes were built. With the advent of digital signal capture,
true dual-beam oscilloscopes became obsolete, as it was then possible to display two truly
simultaneous signals from memory using either the ALT or CHOP display technique, or
even possibly a raster display mode.

Clamp On Meter
51. In electrical and electronic engineering, a current clamp is an electrical device
having two jaws which open to allow clamping around an electrical conductor. This allows
the electrical current in the conductor to be measured, without having to make physical
contact with it, or to disconnect it for insertion through the probe. Current clamp are used to
induce current in the conductor.

52. In order to use a clamp meter, only one conductor is normally passed through the
probe; if more than one conductor were to be passed through then the measurement would
be a vector sum of the currents flowing in the conductors and could be very misleading
depending on the phase relationship of the currents. In particular if the clamp is closed
around a 2-conductor cable carrying power to equipment the same current flows down one
conductor and up the other, with a net current of zero. The reading produced by a conductor
carrying a very low current can be increased by winding the conductor around the clamp
several times; the meter reading divided by the number of turns is the current, with some
loss of accuracy due to inductive effects.

53. Clamp meters are used by electricians, sometimes with the clamp incorporated into a
general purpose multimeter.
 63

54. It is simple to measure very high currents (hundreds of amperes) with the appropriate
current transformer. Accurate measurement of low currents (a few milliamps) with a current
transformer clamp is more difficult.

Types of Current Clamps

55. Current Transformer. The most common form of current clamp comprises a split
ferrite ring. A wire coil is wound round one or both halves, forming the secondary winding of
a current transformer. The conductor to be measured forms the primary. Like any
transformer this type only works with AC or pulse waveforms, with some examples
extending into the megahertz range. This type may also be used to inject current into the
conductor, for example in EMC susceptibility testing to induce an interference current.
Usually, the injection probe is specifically designed for this purpose.

56. Iron Vane. In the iron vane type, the magnetic flux in the core directly affects a
moving iron vane, allowing both AC and DC to be measured, and gives a true RMS value for
non-sinusoidal AC waveforms. Due to its physical size it is generally limited to power
transmission frequencies up to around 100 Hz. The vane is usually fixed directly to the
display mechanism of an analogue (moving pointer) clamp meter.

57. Hall Effect. The Hall effect type is more sensitive and is able to measure both DC
and AC, in some examples up to the kilohertz (thousands of hertz) range. This type is often
used with oscilloscopes, and with high-end computerized digital multimeters.

Digital Clamp Meter

58. To measure electrical current, you normally have to insert the meter into the circuit. In
many instances, opening up wiring connections, whether live or not, is impractical and
hazardous. However, to measure AC current, you can use a clamp meter. The clamp
surrounds the wire and uses its magnetic field to determine the current. This is safe, quick
 64

and accurate. Modern digital clamp meters act like two meters in one: They can do standard
measurements for voltage and resistance, and they can use the clamp to measure AC
current.

(a) Turn the multimeter on and set it to read AC current.

(b) Use the clamp meter to measure the current in a household two-wire lamp
cord. Turn the lamp on. Open the clamp and close it so it surrounds the lamp's power
cord. Do not pinch the wire inside clamp parts that meet together. Though the lamp is
on, you should be reading nearly a zero current. Since the clamp is around two
conductors carrying current in opposite directions, the magnetic fields cancel out.

(c) Prepare an extension cord by carefully separating the two parallel conductors.
Separate them for a length of about one foot. Check that the copper wire is still
insulated and not exposed.

(d) Plug the extension cord into a wall outlet and connect the lamp into the
extension. Turn the lamp on and close the meter's clamp around one of the
extension's conductors. You should now be getting a clear current reading of
between .5 and 1.5 amps. Since the clamp surrounds only one conductor, you can
get an accurate reading. Whenever you're using the clamp, it must surround only a
single conductor; multiple conductors will distort the reading. When you're done
testing the meter, unplug the extension cord from the lamp and discard the cord.

(e) Using a digital clamp meter is an uncomplicated and safe way to measure
current in a circuit. Unlike regular meters, the clamp type does not put the meter into
the circuit, but measures the field induced by a current passing through the clamp. It
is suitable for moderate (<480V) voltage and current applications.

Earth Meter or Ground Resistance Tester

59.. Ground resistance testers are devices that are used to measure and test electrical
grounding systems. Grounding enables optimum electrical continuity between
electrical/electronic equipments and earth. Effectively grounded equipment is permanently
connected to earth through a ground connection with a sufficiently low impedance and
sufficient current- carrying capacity that a ground fault current cannot cause dangerous
voltage buildups.
 65

60. Ground resistance testers can take several different measurements, including
grounding system resistance, insulation resistance, earth continuity, current leakage, and
ground bond. Grounding system resistance and insulation resistance are common
measurements made with ground resistance testers. Grounding system resistance testers
are used to measure grounding systems for construction projects and roads,
telecommunications projects, and other applications. Insulation resistance testers measure
the resistance of insulators or insulation. 

61. Ground resistance testers can be used to measure earth continuity, current leakage,
and ground bond. Earth continuity devices are used to test electronic instruments and
appliances. Current leakage testers measure the amount of current that leaks into the
ground. These devices are important for maintaining the safety of instruments that come into
contact with people. Ground-bond ground resistance testers are used in ground bond or
high-current continuity testing. These tests are performed to confirm the electrical integrity of
an instrument.

62. Most ground resistance testers have an analog or digital display, or an LED indicator.
Analog meters display values on a dial, typically with a needle that moves when a signal is
applied. Digital meters provide a numeric reading. Light emitting diode (LED) and liquid
crystal display (LCD) are common types of digital displays. LED indicators use a light to
indicate that a test is occurring. In some models, the LED light blinks on and off throughout
the test.

63. Earth Resistance Measurement using Digital Earth Resistance Meter/ Earth Tester
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Earth Tester
E1 P1 P2 E2

50’-70’ 50’-70’

Earth

Earth Plate

(a) Digital earth resistance meter has four terminals (E1, P1, E2 and P2).

(b) Short the terminals E1 and P1 and connect the lead to the earth electrode.

(c) Connect E2 and P2 terminals leads to the earthen spikes (provided with
meter) at 20 to 30 mtrs away from each other in a line.

(d) Press the test push button on the meter. The meter will now read the
resistance of the earth.