THERAVADA BUDDHISM

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A major branch of the religion, Theravada Buddhism (“school of elder monks” or “school of the
ancients”) or the “Southern School of Buddhism” draws on the collected teachings of the oldest recorded
texts of Buddhist texts to become its central precept, the Pali Canon. This school claims to have
preserved the original teachings of Siddhartha with pristine purity (Clasper, 1992). Theravada
Buddhismhas gained considerable following in the West in modern times (Ong & Jose, 2016).

A. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The central figure in Buddhism is Siddharta Gautama, known as the Buddha, meaning “the
Enlightened One,” or “the One Who Knows.” He is also called Buddha Sakyamuni because he hailed
from the Shakyan people who resided in the northern parts of India and Nepal. Buddhism is a religion that
builds around Siddharta Gautama’s experience of enlightenment around 2 500 years ago, or around 500
B.C.E. The Buddha offered a pathway to understand the nature of suffering and how it can be overcome.
(Cornelio, Calano, & Sapitula, 2016)

A Buddhist looks to the Buddha’s teachings in order to attain enlightenment but does not worship
him as a god. The Buddha himself made it clear that he is not a god and that the individual is solely
responsible for his/her own enlightenment. (Cornelio, Calano, & Sapitula, 2016)

Buddhism stands different from the majority of world religions because of its status as a
“nontheistic religion.” While it believes that gods (devas) exist and encourages respect toward them, it
adheres that they are not to be worshipped. According to Buddhist teaching, the human condition has the
combination of pain and pleasure, which is the best training ground for virtue and the achievement of
liberation from suffering. (Cornelio, Calano, & Sapitula, 2016).

B. BUDDHA

Siddhartha Gautama
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The sage Siddhartha Gautama may have been born between 563 B.C.E. to 480 B.C.E. into the
Sakya Tribe in Lumbini (current Nepal) near the town of Kapilavastu (the capital city of the Sakya state) in
the foothills of the Nepalese Himalayas (Kulananda, 2001). Born into Kshatriya caste, his father was
Suddhodana, an aristocratic Hindu chieftain, and his mother was Mahamaya, a Koliyan princess. The
Buddha’s family name was Gautama or Gotama. (Ong & Jose, 2016)

According to tradition, at the time when Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Mahamaya dreamt of a
brilliant white light shining down on her from the sky. In the rays of the light was a magnificent white
elephant with six large tusks. The elephant moved closer to the queen and melted into her body. Ten
months later, Siddhartha was born. He emerged from the side of the queen, took seven steps, and said, “I
have been born to achieve awakening (Bodhi) for the good of the world: this is my last birth.” (Coogan,
2005) Mahamaya died shortly after giving birth to Siddhartha. The name “Siddhartha” means “he who
achieves his aim.” He was reared by Mahamaya’s younger sister Mahapayapati who became his father’s
second wife and the first woman to request ordination from the Buddha. The word “Buddha” means “the
awakened one” or the “enlightened one.” (Ong & Jose, 2016)

Since Suddhodana wanted Siddhartha to choose the life of a great king, he made sure that the
young boy experienced the comfort of wealth and power. In effect, Suddhodana kept his child shielded
from the harsh realities of human suffering outside the luxurious palace. He was given noble education
and instruction in science, horsemanship, and archery (Toula-Breysse, 2001). At the age of sixteen,
Suddhodana arranged Siddhartha’s marriage to a beautiful and refined young woman, Yasodhara (also
Siddhartha’s cousin), who later gave birth to their son Rahula. Siddhartha spent 29 years as a prince in
Kapilavastu and he began to develop a keen sense of discontent. As he felt constant emptiness despite
living a life of luxury and ease, he sought answers to his questions by leaving his wife, child, and social
status as he began to search for truth and liberation (Kulananda, 2001).

C. SACRED SCRIPTURES OF THERAVADA BUDDHISM

The earliest collection of Buddhist teachings is the Tripitaka (Tipitaka in Pali), written down by the
third century B.C.E. The Tripitaka is also known as the Pali Canon as it was first written in the language
of Pali (a Prakrit or Middle Indo-Aryan language native to the Indian subcontinent). It was during the First
Buddhist Council, shortly after the death of the Buddha, that the contents of the Tripitaka were
determined. (Mabaquiao Jr., 2016)

The word “Tripitaka” means “three baskets,” signifying the way in which these teachings were
originally written down and stored – they were written down on long, narrow leaves, which were sewn
together on one side and were grouped into bunches and stored in baskets. Accordingly, the Tripitaka
consists of three pitakas or baskets that are divided by subject matter. The first is the (1) Discipline
Basket (Vinaya Pitaka), (2) Discourse Basket (Sutta Pitaka), and (3) Special Teachings Basket
(Abhidhamma Pitaka).
Table 1: Tripitaka or Pali Canon (Mabaquiao Jr., 2016)

TRIPITAKA CONTENTS
Vinaya Pitaka  Contents were recalled by a monk named Upali.
(Discipline Basket)  It deals with the rules and guidelines for monks and nuns. These rules
and guidelines concern everything involved in living the monastic life
of the sangha – from basic morality, interaction between monks and
nuns and between the laity, to robe-making.

Sutta Pitaka  Contents were recited by Ananda, Buddha’s cousin and constant
(Discourse Basket) companion.
 It consists of records of the teachings and sermons mostly of the
Buddha on theological matters and moral behavior of all Buddhists.

Abhidhamma Pitaka  Contents were recited by Mahakashyapa, the successor of Buddha.

(Special Teachings  It is a collection of short texts consisting of songs and poetry, stories
Basket) of Buddha and his previous lives, and discussions of Buddhist
doctrines based on the everyday life of the Buddha.

1. Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline Basket)

It contains the disciplinary code required of Buddhist monks (bhikkhus) and nuns
(bhikkhunis). Various rules and regulations must be followed by the monastic community. It
consists of five books namely:
 Table 2: Vinaya Pitaka (Ong & Jose, 2016)

BOOKS MEANINGS
1. Parajika Pali Major Offences
2. Pacittiya Pali Minor Offences
3. Mahavagga Pali Greater Section
4. Cullavagga Pali Smaller Section
5. Parivara Pali Epitome of the Vinaya

2. Sutta Pitaka (Discourse Basket)

It contains the conventional teaching delivered by Siddhartha on different occasions.
Discourses of Siddhartha’s disciples, such as Sariputta, Moggallana, and Ananda, are also
part of the Sutta Pitaka. It is divided into five collections, namely:

Table 3: Sutta Pitaka (Ong & Jose, 2016)

COLLECTIONS MEANINGS
1. Digha Nikaya Collection of Long Discourses
2. Majjhima Nikaya Collection of Middle-length Discourses
3. Samyutta Nikaya Collection of Kindred Sayings
4. Anguttara Nikaya Collection of Discourses arranged in
accordance with number
5. Khuddaka Nikaya Smaller Collection

3. Abhidhamma Pitaka
It is a work on moral psychology. The reflective philosophies of Siddhartha’s teachings
are contained in the Abhidhamma Pitaka that is strictly a Theravada collection. It is
composed of seven works, namely:

Table 4: Abhidhamma Pitaka (Ong & Jose, 2016)

WORKS MEANINGS
1. Dhamma-Sangani Enumeration of Phenomena
 2. Vibhanga The Book of the Treatises
3. Katha Vatthu Point of Controversy
4. Puggala Pannatti Description of Individuals
5. Dhatu Katha Discussion with reference to Elements
6. Yamaka The Book of Pairs
7. Patthana The Book of Relations

D. BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES OF THERAVADA BUDDHISM

Siddhartha never intended to start a new religion especially, and so his teachings are focused
primarily on ethics and self-understanding as people work for their salvation on their own without needing
the assistance of any supreme being (Hopfe, 1983). Here lies tha main difference of Buddhism with other
religions – it has no place for God or savior, as salvation entirely lies within anyone’s control (Brown,
1987). Siddhartha did not claim to be a savior but a guide and teacher as he pointed the way for others to
follow and gain spiritual bliss in doing so. (Ong & Jose, 2016, p. 136)

Another unique feature of Buddhism is the belief that soul or the Hindu atman does not exist as
people live in a state of nonsoulness or anatman/anatta. Buddhism does not preach that humans have an
eternal and indestructible soul (Brown 1975). Nothing is permanent in this world, hence, all things change
and are impermanent. The mark of impermanence or anitya/anicca states that all conditioned things are
transitory and passing; they all have beginning and end to their existence (Skilton, 1994). Human
existence, or what we actually call soul, is a composite of five mental or physical aggregates or khandas.
These aggregates include the following:

1. Physical form or corporeality

2. Feelings or sensations
3. Understanding or perception
4. Will or mental formation
5. Consciousness

Hence, humans do not have a permanent, unchanging, real soul that dwells within them (Parrinder
1971). In effect, no soul is being reborn because there is no permanence in anything (Bowker, 1997).

1. THE TRIPLE GEM

Every morning, a devout Buddhist will go to an altar or a temple and recite the following verses as
part of his/her morning prayers:
I go to the Buddha for refuge.
I go to the Dharma for refuge.
I go to the Sangha for refuge.

For the second time, I go to the Buddha for refuge.

For the second time, I go to the Dharma for refuge.
For the second time, I go to the Sangha for refuge.

For the third time, I go to the Buddha for refuge.

For the third time, I go to the Dharma for refuge.
 For the third time, I go to the Sangha for refuge.
These three – the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha – are so important to Buddhism that they
are referred to as the “Triple Gem.” These three are the basis of “taking refuge” for Buddhists: To “take
refuge” is a profession of one’s faith and an intention to put oneself under another’s protection.

The first gem, the Buddha, refers to the inspiration from Siddhartha Gautama, the teacher who led
his disciples to enlightenment. Taking refuge in the Buddha means that the believer places his/her faith in
Buddha’s teaching as a way to liberate oneself from suffering in this world. Taking refuge in the Buddha
also means that the believer recognizes his/her capacity to be a buddha, an “enlightened one,” through
the practice of meditation and loving kindness to all beings.

The second gem, the Dharma, refers to the teaching of the Buddha. Dharma means “truth.”
Buddhists believe that the teachings of the Buddha found in the suttas (discourses) preserved by his
followers provide the path to enlightenment. The duty of the believer is to put the teachings to practice in
order to attain enlightenment.

The third gem, the Sangha, refers to the monastic order founded by the Buddha. The sangha
preserves the teachings, and passes them on to future generations. Ordained men (in other traditions
also women) give their whole lives to attain enlightenment and help others in the path of their own
liberation from suffering. In some traditions, the sangha includes all practitioners of Buddha’s teachings,
which include monks, nuns, and lay people. (Cornelio, Calano, & Sapitula, 2016)

2. THE THREE MARKS OF EXISTENCE

The Three Marks of Existence (or the Three Marks of Reality) refer to the Buddhist concept of the
three fundamental characteristics or traits of existence, namely: (1) Impermanence (Annica in
Pali; Anitya in Sanskrit); (2) No-self (Anatta in Pali; Anatma in Sanskrit); and (3) Suffering or
unsatisfactoriness (Duhhka in Pali; Duhkha in Sanskrit). (Molloy, 2010, pp. 132-133)

The realization of these three marks of existence was part of what the Buddha had come to know
after much meditation and his achievement of enlightenment. While some Buddhist scholars understand
existence here as limited to sentient beings (that is, beings that are conscious and that include humans
and animals), some understand it to include all beings, sentient and nonsentient alike. We shall, with
some qualifications, take the view that they apply to all beings.

o IMPERMANENCE
According to this mark of existence, anything that exists is subject to change. There is
nothing permanent in the world; nothing remains the same. What presently exists will later on
cease to exist. This fundamental Buddhist view of reality has many important consequences.
Recall that Hinduism believes in Brahman, the ultimate essence of the world which is eternal and
unchanging. Hinduism even believes that the multiplicity of the things that we observe,
presumably involving their changes, is maya, an illusion. Buddhism, with its view on the reality of
impermanence as a universal mark of existence, therefore rejects the Hindu belief in Brahman.
This Buddhist view apparently also comes into conflict with the belief in God, for God is regarded
as a being whose divine nature and existence are not subject to change. (Mabaquiao Jr., 2016)

o NO-SELF
The concept of self or I is what explains the personal identity of a human individual. It refers
to what makes the person the same person throughout the changes that he/she undergoes in
his/her lifetime. The usual explanation for what makes personal identity possible is the
individual’s possession of an enduring and independent self or I, corresponding to what is
traditionally called “soul”. The Buddhist teaching of no-self rejects this explanation. Buddhists do
 not believe in the existence of an enduring selg or an eternal soul. The Sanskrit Anatma literally
means “no Atman,” which implies that the no-self teaching literally rejects the idea of Atman, the
Hindu concept that corresponds to enduring selves or eternal souls. The alternative Buddhist
explanation is that the word self is just a convenient term for a collection of physical and mental
factors. The Buddhists, in particular, explain that the idea of a self is brought about by the
interplay of five aggregates, namely: (1) form or matter (Rupa); (2) sensation or feeling (Vedana);
(3) perception or memory (Samjna); (4) mental formations (Samskara); and (5) consciousness
(Vijnana). The form or matter refers to the material factor, while the others refer to the mental
factors (Santina 1984, 129-136).

The no-self teaching applies to all things, not just to humans. Things have no essences or
enduring selves that explain their respective identities. They are simply collections of various
elements overlapping and connected in certain ways, and these collections are what explain their
identities. (Mabaquiao Jr., 2016)

o SUFFERING
The word suffering is just a convenient translation of dukkha, a word that corresponds to
what a number of English terms convey like unsatisfactoriness, disquietude, pain, dissatisfaction,
and stress. Suffering is a universal characteristic of all things in so far as all things, being
impermanent and empty of essence, can be conditions for suffering. The experience of suffering,
however, is a trait only of sentient or conscious beings, which include humans and animals. The
impermanence of things does not cause suffering; what causes suffering in a sentient being, say
a human, is the attitude he/she adopts towards impermanence, which in turn is brought about by
his/her ignorance. If one is ignorant of the impermanence of things, one may easily get attached
to these things in the sense that he/she may desire or crave for these things to last. He/she
eventually suffers for things do not really last. It is therefore the attitude of craving in the context
of the reality of impermanence from where suffering arises (Santina 1984, 29-41).

3. FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

The teachings of Siddhartha include discourses on the basic tenets of Buddhism, such as the “Four
Noble Truths” and the “Noble Eightfold Path.” Siddhartha’s pursuit for enlightenment was due to the
dissatisfaction he continually experienced despite living an opulent life in the palace. Outside the real
world, Siddhartha began to witness the various manifestations of inescapable suffering – from old age,
illness, and eventual death. Siddhartha analyzed the problem of dukkha that led him to arrive to the basic
law of causation or the “Four Noble Truths.” Perhaps the most well-known among Siddhartha’s teachings,
this profound doctrine is the heart of Buddhism, summarized below. (Ong & Jose, 2016)
(1) THE FIRST NOBLE TRUTH (Suffering exists)
This identifies the origin of the problem – the dukkha. Suffering can be experienced throughout the
different stages of a person’s life – from birth, sickness, old age, to ultimate death. When one clings to
one of the previously stated aggregates, this leads to suffering. When one unites with the unpleasant, it
causes suffering. When one dissociates from the pleasant, it also results in suffering. (Ong & Jose, 2016)

(2) THE SECOND NOBLE TRUTH (Suffering arises from craving/desire)

This explains the cause of suffering or the samodaya – in craving or desire (or tanha), in the
perpetual thirst of humans to consume things, experiences, or ideas (Parrinder 1971). People are never
satisfied as they always want more or something else, want something new, or just want to discontinue
something. People crave for existence or non-existence and seek sensual pleasures. People search for
self-satisfaction from things they believe they can experience. However, since the nature of all these
things is impermanent, people become attached to these things due to ignorance that leads to desire and
eventual suffering (Brown 1975).

(3) THE THIRD NOBLE TRUTH (Eliminating craving eliminates suffering)

This asserts that there is a cessation or nirodha to suffering and bondage by eliminating craving and
desire. By dropping the bonds of craving, one gets to be released from the fundamental nature of reality.
(Ong & Jose, 2016)

(4) THE FOURTH NOBLE TRUTH (The way to eliminate craving and consequently suffering is by
following the eightfold path)
This directs an individual to the path or magga leading to the termination of craving and desire, and
to eventual cessation of pain. Likewise, one must avoid self-indulgence and self-torture since both are
pointless. This is the path toward moderation or the “Middle Way” aimed at ending suffering. Known as
“Noble Eightfold Path” which is an entirely practical path – and each described as “right” or samma – it is
divided into three aspects, namely: wisdom, morality, and meditation. (Ong & Jose, 2016, p. 137)

4. THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH

Table 5: The Noble Eightfold Path (Mabaquiao Jr., 2016)

NOBLE EIGHTFOLD WHAT ONE MUST DO

PATH
Right Understanding
Right Intention/Thought
Right Speech
Right Action
Right Work/Livelihood
Right Effort
Right Meditation (Right
Mindfulness)
Right Contemplation
Understanding of the true nature of things, specifically,
knowledge of the three marks of existebce, the four dharma
seals, and the four noble truths.
Speaking honestly and kindly; avoiding lies, exaggeration,
harsh words, and expressions that hurt people.
Cultivating thoughts and motives that are pure and not
selfish.
Doing actions that do not hurt people and animals, which
include not stealing and engaging in sexual misconduct.
Pursuing a means of livelihood that does not harm to oneself,
other people, and animals.
Improving oneself while avoiding extremes or observing
moderation or the middle way.
Fosucing one’s energies on the right and positive things.
Cultivating mental states or thoughts that bring inner peace.

All the steps above are interdependent and are divided into three groups of training: (1) the way of
morality or good conduct (consisting of right speech, right action, and right work); (2) the way of mental
development (consisting of right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration); and (3) the way of
wisdom (consisting of right understanding and right intention). (Mabaquiao Jr., 2016)

5. LAW OF DEPENDENT ORIGINATION

 The Law of Dependent Origination or Paticca-Samuppada is one of the most insightful teachings of
Siddhartha. With everything built upon a set of relations, it follows that every effect has a definite cause
and every cause has a definite effect (Mizuno, 1999). In short, nothing comes into being by mere accident
and actions do not happen in a random way. A short formula for this principle can be read in four lines as:
“When this is, that is; This arising, that arises; When this is not, that is not; This ceasing, that ceases.

In Buddhism, dependent origination is a twelve-linked chain that explicates how all things are
interconnected, how error and attachment to error occur, and how, if the chain is untangled, nirvana can
be achieved (Mizuno, 1999); (Bowker, 1997).

Both the “Four Noble Truths” and the concept of karma can be explained by dependent origination.
In the “Four Noble Truths,” there is the arising and cessation of the dukkha. Desire occurs because of
combination of existing conditions to support its arising. Craving ends when factors supporting its
presence change and ends, and then no longer sustain it. (Ong & Jose, 2016) Meanwhile, the law of
karma operates as a causal process that explains the problem of suffering and rebirth in samsara.
Everything is the result of some prior event or that every action has an effect. Virtuous actions produce
good results while bad deeds result in evil ones. Karma operates by itself and nothing can alter this law,
not even prayers or rituals. As a result of this law of action, a being will be born and reborn in different
states based on one’s accumulated good and bad actions in the past (Brown 1975).

6. IMPERMANENCE OF THINGS
Nothing in this world is fixed and permanent and everything is subject to change and alteration.
Impermanence is an unavoidable fact of human existence. Buddhism affirms five processes deemed
uncontrollable by any individual: old age, sickness, dying, decay, and death. However, when one is
released from samsara, a being escapes all these phenomena. That being has then reached a state
called nirvana wherein desire has been extinguished from one’s self. No more unpleasant karma can be
created while greed, hatred, and delusion have all been obliterated. (Ong & Jose, 2016)

When one achieves nirvana, a person’s mind is at perfect peace. Everyone is capable of attaining
nirvana in this life just as the saints of Buddhism did in their lives. Those who have achieved nirvana are
called arhat or one who is “worthy of honor.” (Ong & Jose, 2016)

7. SELECTED ISSUES

 War and Violence

In Buddhism, war is evil or akusala and some scholars state that it has no rationalization in
Siddhartha’s teachings. However, there are instances wherein Buddhist monks engaged themselves
in open conflict, such as those that occurred in China and Japan. Quite recently, monks have been in
the forefront of political and social activism in Asia, such as Myanmar’s “Saffron Revolution” in 2007
and the Tibet demonstrations in 2008. While most monks advocate non-violence, Sri Lankan monks
are part of the “Jathika Hela Urumaya” or the National Heritage Party, a political party founded in
2004 that supports military solutions to the country’s ongoing civil war. (Ong & Jose, 2016)

When Buddhists defend their nations, home, and family, this may not be necessarily wrong as
the religion’s morality is based upon principles, not rules. It is not righteous to ignore a circumstance
when innocent civilians are killed and slaughtered. Buddhists are taught not to yield to any form of
evil power, whether originating from humans or supernatural beings. They are compelled to go to war
when other people do not value the concept of brotherhood as preached by Siddhartha. They may
defend and protect their country’s sovereignty and have the duty to join in the struggle for amity and
 liberty. However, following Siddhartha’s teachings, everyone is encouraged to avoid hostilities and
instead find ways to resolve disagreements in a peaceful manner. (Ong & Jose, 2016)

 Women in Buddhism

Buddhist Women as Agents of Change

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Historically speaking, Siddhartha allowed women to participate in the sangha although there
were some stipulations. Siddhartha’s outlook is very different when one considers the status of
women in ancient India as being viewed as inferior to men. Considered at times belonging to the
lowest caste, women’s principal role was to become faithful and devoted housewives subject to the
whims of their husbands. In Buddhism, however, both sexes are seen as equally relevant in society
as they share equal responsibilities in their family duties. Within the sangha, Siddhartha recognized
the potential and value of the bhikkunis who were also experts in teaching the dharma. These include
Dhammadina, Khema, and Uppalavanna. (Ong & Jose, 2016)