DEBRE MARKOS UNIVERSITY

3. EMBANKMENT DAM
College of Engineering and Technology
3.1 Introduction
3rd CED
Embankment dams are built of soil or rock-fill or both. As soil and rock-fill are non-
rigid materials, the embankment dams are called non-rigid dams.
The embankment dams are broadly classified as:

Earth dams (mainly constructed from earth or soil)

Rockfill dams (mainly constructed from rockfill or pieces of rocks)

Composite dams (these are constructed from both soil and rockfill )

Earth dams can be constructed on almost all type of foundations, provided suitable
3. EMBANKMENT DAM measures are taken.

They are more suitable than gravity dams if strong foundation at a reasonable
depth is not available at the site for the construction of gravity dams.

It is cheaper than gravity dams if the soil in abundant quantity is available near the
1 site.

Rockfill dams require somewhat stronger foundation as compared to earth dams,
but need not to be strong as gravity dams.
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3.2 Classification of Earth Dams;

Earth dams can be divided into the three types based on the selection of the
materials:
a. Homogenous Earth dams: - usually composed only one material which is either semi-
impervious or impervious to limit seepage.
b. Zoned earth dam: it composes more than one type of soil.
It has a central impervious core flanked by shells of pervious material u/s and d/s side.
A transition filter is usually required b/n core and shell to prevent piping.
The central core is used to check seepage and is constructed from clay, silty clay or
clayey silt.
The pervious shell is used for stability and is constructed from sand, gravel, or mixture
of these.
The transition filter is used to prevent the migration of materials from the core to the
shell.
The d/s transition filter is useful during steady seepage conditions and the u/s filter is
useful during sudden drawdown conditions.

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 C. Diaphragm-type earth dam: it consist thin impervious core, called diaphragm
surrounded by pervious shell. The difference b/n zoned and diaphragm dam is the
thickness of the core.
If the thickness of the core at any elevation is less than the height of the
embankment above that elevation, the dam is generally considered to be
diaphragm type.
 Selection of the optimum type of embankments for a specific location is
determined largely by the nature and availability of different fill materials in
sufficient quantity.

3.3 Cause of Failures of Embankment Dams

Embankment dams may fail due to improper design: faulty constructions, lack of
maintenance, Generally, causes of failure are grouped into three classes:

Hydraulic failure,

Seepage failure, and

Structural failure.
i. Hydraulic failures: About 40% of earth dam failures have been attributed to these
causes due to;

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 Overtopping: ii. Seepage failure:- it may occur due to the following causes
The design flood is undermined; Piping through the dam: If the seepage is uncontrolled and concentrated, it may lead to
The spillway capacity is not adequate; piping and subsequent failure of earth dams.
The spillway gates are not properly operated; It is the progressive backward erosion starting from the exit point and subsequent
The free board is not sufficient; and removal of the soil from the body of the dam and the formation of pipe-like conduit
Excessive settlement of the foundation and dam occur. inside the dam.
 Erosion of upstream faces: Piping occurs when the seepage force is very large and concentrated. It starts at the
Wind waves of water developed due to wind near the top water (To prevent this, point where the water emerges from the body of the dam (d/s face of the dam).
upstream slope pitching or rip rap should be applied.)
 Erosion of downstream face: Heavy rains falling directly over d/s face and the It occurs due to:
erosive action of the moving water may lead to the formation of gullies on the d/s i. Poor construction: - if the soil of the dam is not properly compacted (b/n
face, ultimately leading to the dam failure. foundation and embankment material, successive layers)
To avoid this, suitable berms with collection drains should be provided to check the ii. Differential settlement
velocity of flowing water. iii. Burrowing animals
Erosion of d/s toe due to tail water: iv. Surface cracks
• It may occur due to the following: v. Presence of roots
Cross currents that originate from the spillway bucket, if a spillway is provided
along the dam.
• Waves developed in the tail water.
• To prevent this, pitching is provided up to the height slightly above normal tail
water depth. 7 8
 Piping through the foundation: it occurs when the rate pressure drop resulting from iii. Structural failure: - about 25% of the dam failures have been attributed to
seepage through the foundation exceeds the resistance of the soil particles. structural failures. Structural failures are generally caused by shear failures, causing
• The particle tends to move and piping occurs due to removal of the finer particles slides. It includes the following:
from the region just downstream of the toe of the embankment. i. Slides in embankment ii. Foundation slides
• It occurs when there are pockets of loose soil in the foundation. iii. Liquefaction slides iv. Failures by spreading
v. Failures due to earthquakes vi. Holes caused by animals
3.4 Design Features of Earth Dam
• The preliminary section of an earth dam should be selected to prevent failures that
can be caused by Hydraulic, Seepage and Structural. If it fails by one of them, the
section should be revised.
In the preliminary section, the following parameters should be decided:
1. Embankments crest width:
• The top width of larger earthen dam should be sufficient to keep the seepage line
well within the dam, when reservoir is full.
• The crest should have a width of not less than 4m, and should carry a surfaced and
well-drained access road.
Figure, Piping failure through the dam and foundation • The top width (W) of the earth dam can be selected as per the following
recommendation:
W = 0.2* H + 3 , For very low dams (H<10m)
W = 0 . 55 H + 0 . 2 H , For (10<H<30m)
W = 1.65(H + 1.5), For high dams (H> 30m)
1/ 2
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Where: H is the height of the dam.

3. U/S and D/S slopes of the dam

2. Freeboard:
• The slopes depend on the type of the material, foundation condition, height of
• The difference between maximum reservoir level and top of crest level.
the dam, and others.
• Free board should be adequate so that there is no possibility of dam being
•There is general rule for slopes but stability determines its final value.
overtopped. Table 3.1: -Tentative value of slopes recommended by Terzaghi for preliminary section
The free board should be adequate against the wave action and wind set-up,S, (, where
S represents the rise in water level above the normal horizontal reservoir surface).
Type of Section Type of Material U/S slope D/S slope
The free board is calculated based on Steven Son formula, which is modified by
well-graded material 2.5:1 2:1
Monitor:
Fb = hw + R + S; Where: Fb = Free board (cm) Coarse silt 3:1 2.5:1

Silty clay or Clay: H<15m 2.5:1 2:1

The wave height can be estimated from:
Homogenous section Silty clay or Clay: H≥ 15m 3:1 2.5:1
The Zuider Zee formula is commonly used to calculate wind setup
hw = 0 .032 V .F + 0 .76 − 0 .24 (F )
1/ 4
Sand or gravel shells with clay core 3:1 2.5:1

S = (V F cos α ) /( 63 , 000 D )
2

Zoned Section Sand or gravel shells with RCC core 2.5:1 2:1
Where:
F (fetch length, the maximum distance b/n reservoir remote to the dam face) [km], 4. Core thickness
V (wind velocity of the area) [km/hr], • The thickness of the core should be enough to keep the phreatic line within it.
D (average reservoir depth) [m], α (angle of the wind to the fetch) [degree], •The side slopes of the core in any case should not be greater than (x-0.5:1) on the
and S (wind setup) [m] upstream and (y-0.5:1) on the downstream, where x: 1 is the upstream slope of
R = Wave run-up: it can be taken as 50% of wave height 11 the shell and y: 1 is the d/s slope of the shell. 12
 5. Foundation seepage control
Seepage flows and pressure within the foundation are controlled by cut-offs and by
drainage.
Cut-offs is impervious barriers which function as extensions of the embankments core
into foundation.
The cut-offs are generally two types:
a) Fully penetrating cut-off: penetrate to impervious strata
b) Partially penetrating cut-off: terminate where the head loss across the cut-off is
sufficient to effect the required degree of control

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6. Downstream Drainage l
• It is required for all types of earth dams.
• The drainage system consists of materials more pervious than the embankment
material so that the water seeping through the embankment is easily drained
out.
The type of drainage systems includes the following:
a) Drainage of the dam
i. Horizontal drainage blanket
ii. Rock toe
iii. Chimney drain
b) Drainage of the foundation
i. Toe drain
ii. Relief walls
iii. Vertical sand drains
7. Upstream face protection:
• several options are available for protection of the upstream face against wave
erosion, ranging from traditional stone pitching with grouted joints through
concrete facing slabs to the use of concrete block work, rock armoring and
riprap. 15 16
 3.5 Seepage analysis  This is the Laplace equation of flow in two dimensions.
Seepage occurs through the body of all earthen dams and also through their
∂ 2Φ ∂ 2Φ
pervious foundation. + =0
The phreatic surface of the seepage regime, i.e. line within the dam section below ∂x 2 ∂y 2
which there is positive hydrostatic pressure, must be kept away from the
downstream face to avoid high pore water pressure which may promote slope For homogeneous embankments dam, discharge per unit width (q) of the dam passing
instability. through a flow net is described as:
q = k * H * N f / Nd
Assumptions:
1. Water is incompressible,
2. The rolled embankment and natural soil foundations are incompressible and Where: H is the head differential.
porous. The size of the pore space through which the water seeps remains Nf is number of stream lines.
the same, regardless of the water pressure. Nd id number of equipotential lines
3. The seepage water flows under a hydraulic gradient which is due only gravity
head loss.
4. The quantity of flow (water) entering the soil in a given time is the same as
the quantity flowing out of soil (steady state flow).
5. The hydraulic boundary conditions are known (exit and entry).

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A. Homogeneous dam section with horizontal filter Taking the focus (F) as the origin, equation of the parabola p(x, y) can be written as:
(a)
 It has been found that the seepage line is pushed down by the filter and it is very x 2
+ y 2
= x + FD
nearly parabolic except near its junction with u/s face.
Where; FD is the distance of the focus from the directrix, called focal distance and is
represented by S.
Hence the equation of the parabola of the seepage line becomes:
x2 + y2 = x + S

Location of A is approximately 0.3HB horizontal distance upstream from point B

according to Cassagrande. to compute S;
, hence: S = b 2 + H 2 − b
b +H
2 2
=b+S
Substituting the above value of S in equation (a), the complete equation of the parabola
is obtained: x 2 + y 2 = x 2 + S 2 + 2 xS ⇒ y 2 = S 2 + 2 xS
Figure :- phreatic line for homogenous dam section with horizontal filter
(b)
⇒ y = S 2
+ 2 xS
Equation of the base parabola ;
From the basic property of the parabola, the distance of the point P from the focus is Using different values of it possible to determine corresponding y from equation and
equal to that from the directrix: draw the curve.
Distance PF= Distance PR
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  The amount of seepage can also be calculated easily from the equation of the B. Homogeneous dam section without horizontal filter
seepage line as derived below. In this case, the phreatic line cuts the d/s faces at point J above the toe.
Darcy’s law is defined as, q = KiA.
 When steady conditions have reached, the discharge crossing any vertical plane
across the dam section (unit width) will be the same. Hence, the value i and A
can be taken for any point on the seepage line ????

i = dy / dx and A = y *1
q = K * ( dy / dx ) * y

But from the equation of the parabola, y = S 2

+ 2 xS

q=K
d
dx
( )[
2 xS + S . S + 2 xS
2 2
]
Figure :- phreatic line for homogeneous dam section without filter

q = K 
S 
[
. S 2 + 2 xS
 ]  The portion KF is known as discharge face and always saturated. Because the
 2 xS + S
2
 phreatic line can not go out side the limit of the dam, the base parabola needs
an exit correction.
q = KS
 The correction JK (say ∆a) by which the parabola is to be shifted downward
This equation is used to determine the unit discharge per unit length. 21 can be determined as follows from the table below. 22

Casagrande has shown that the exit correction ∆a depends up on the slope α of the As the permeability of the shell is very high as compared with the core, the phreatic
discharge face: line will be drawn for the core only by considering as a homogeneous section as
∆a
discussed earlier.
α in degrees ∆a
α in degrees a + ∆a
a + ∆a
30o 0.36 135o 0.14

60o 0.32 150o 0.10 L Directrix

0.3L
90o 0.26 180o 0.0 A B

120o 0.18

Phreatic line M K d/s shell Rock toe

u/s shell core
The value of a + ∆a can be obtained from the following equation: J
F C
S
a + ∆a =
1 − cos α Figure :- phreatic line for Zoned earth dam
Construction of flow net
c. Zoned earth dam with central core Some important properties of flow nets are discussed as below:
As the ratio of the permeabilities of the materials of the shell and core is very large, i. Flow lines and equipotential lines meet at right angles to each other
the effect of the outer shells on the phreatic line in the core is negligible. ii. Equipotential lines intersect the phreatic line at right angles
iii. The pressure at the phreatic line is zero, and the successive equipotential lines
make equal vertical intercepts on the phreatic lines
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iv. The flow field obtained by the intersections of the equipotential lines and the flow
lines are approximately squares in shape.
v. The discharge b/n any two adjacent flow lines is constant
vi. In a homogenous soil, every transition in the flow lines and equipotential lines is
smooth and gradual.
vii. The curves should be roughly elliptical or parabolic in shape.

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