CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW, CONCEPT, THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK,

AND RESEARCH MODEL

2.1 Literature Review

The study of slang entitled “Form, Function, and Meaning of English

Slang Used in Harry Potter and The Goblet Fire Movie Script” by Pratiwi (2008),

took three problems: they are the form of slang, the function of slang, and the

meaning of slang. The writer found that the meaning of English slang depends on

the situation of the context in which slang language is used, and based on the

communicative function of language, the directive and phatic functions were the

most dominant and were directly involved in their conversation. This study just

focused on the slang function in the script. Slang is related to culture; therefore,

the author could not analyze slang words deeply just used the script. Slang is

different from jargon, which is the technical vocabulary of a particular profession,

and which meets only the second of the criteria given above. Jargon, like many

examples of slang, may be used to exclude non–group members from the

conversation, but, in general, jargon has the function of allowing its users to talk

precisely about technical issues in any given field. The author sometimes misleads

between slang and jargon and makes the data and analysis unclear.

Another study about slang word is entitled “The Analysis of English Slang

in Dictionary, Internet, and Magazine” by Lestary (2006), which discussed four

problems, they are: the process of creating slang, the types of slang, the meaning

9
 10

of slang and the reason of using slang. The writer found that slang was created

from unlimited sources; there are two types of slang, the primary and secondary

slang; the user of slang introduced many new words into the language by

recombining old words into new meaning; and the reason why people used slang

is individual uniqueness. The weakness of this study is hard to define the reason

of people using slang if the data a retaken from magazines, internet, or newspaper.

It will be more suitable if we can find the data directly direct conversations. One

use of slang is to express social taboos, as mainstream language tends to shy away

from evoking certain realities. For this reason, slang vocabulary is particularly

rich in certain domains, such as violence, crime, drugs, and sex. Alternatively,

slang can grow out of mere familiarity with the things described.

Among wine drinkers, for example, Cabernet Sauvignon is often known

as "Cab Sav," Chardonnay as "Chard" and so on; this means that naming the

different wines expends less superfluous effort; it also helps indicate the user's

familiarity with wine. Even within a single language community, slang, and the

extent to which it is used tends to vary widely across social, ethnic, economic, and

geographic strata. Slang may fall into disuse over time; sometimes, however, it

grows more and more common until it becomes the dominant way of saying

something, at which time it usually comes to be regarded as mainstream,

acceptable language (e.g. the Spanish word caballo), although in the case of taboo

words there may not be an expression which is considered mainstream or

acceptable. Numerous slang terms pass into informal mainstream speech, and

sometimes into formal speech, though this may involve a change in meaning or
 11

usage. The weakness of this study is hard to define the reason why people use

slang if the data were taken from magazines, internet, or newspaper. It will be

more suitable if we can find the data from direct conversations.

There is also a study about slang entitled “The Use of Slang in The

Adventure of Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens” by Agusrini (2005). In this study

the writer took two problems, they are: the meaning of slang and the reason why

slang was used. The writer found that slang in the real communication society is

frequently used informal spoken rather than written language; slang is created,

used and understandable by the members but not by outsider, even, they are in the

same group. This study found some conclusions in the process of the analysis of

slang word as below:

1. It lowers, if temporarily, "the dignity of formal or serious speech or

writing"; in other words, it is likely to be considered in the context of a

"glaring misuse of register."

2. Its use implies that the user is familiar with whatever is referred to, or with

a group of people who are familiar with it and use the term.

3. "It's a taboo term in ordinary discourse with people of a higher social

status or greater responsibility."

4. It replaces "a well-known conventional synonym". This is done primarily

to avoid discomfort caused by conventional phrases or by further

elaboration.
 12

This study just focuses on the process creating slang and why people use

slang. There is no new finding about how slang develops and how slang word is

transferred into different languages. The author just explains slang theoretically

and focuses on the form of slang.

A study about the process of translating slang which is entitled

“Translation French Slang: A study Four French Novels and Their English

Translations “by Glewwe (2012). In this study the writer analyzed the technique

used to translate French slang word into English. The main theory that she used

was Formal and Dynamic Equivalence proposed by Eugene Nida (2004 (1964)).

The writers found that the translator occasionally used the practice, whereby

standard language was translated into slang to composite for places where slang

was translated into standard language. From this study, it seems that English

translation consistently has less slang words than the original French text from

which they are derived. The process of creating slang cannot only be explained

theoretically, but it must be analyzed from the author (the speaker). The previous

studies wrote same problems on their studies which made there were no new

finding or information which can be given to other people (reader).

The study of how to translate slang word entitled “Translating the Use of

Slang” by Eriksen (2010). This thesis talked about how slang was transferred

from source text dialogue into target text subtitle with the American Film, I Love

You, Man as the data, with a view to seeing whether the use of slang in source

text is maintained in the target text. The main theory of this study is Gottlieb’s

typology of subtitling strategies. This study is focused on subtitling of slang word

 13

in the movie. Eriksen’s thesis has the same basic theory as this present study but

we choose different genres of movie. This thesis was more focused on the effect

of the culture on the result of the translation of the slang word.

Therefore, more information about culture is provided in this study. It

makes the concept and result of the study different. The theory used in this study

is Audio Visual Translation Theory; Hendrik Gottlieb’s typology of subtitling

strategies is the supporting theory. That is why this study is different from the

previous studies. In this study, the technique used to translate slang word into

Indonesian includes the combination of two basic theories of Hendrik Gottlieb’s

typology of subtitling strategies and Molina and Albir Translation Technique

Theory. This also determines why culture affects the translator when choosing the

technique to translate slang word.

Some articles about Subtitling also support this thesis such as the article

entitled “Subtitled Method and Team Translation” by Diana Sanchez. The writer

talks about the main method of subtitling and the process of subtitling itself. She

proposed four main methods of subtitling. The other article about subtitling used

is entitled “Parameter for classification of subtitles” by Eduard Bartoll. He offers

a classification of different types of subtitling; the majority of subtitling studies

focuse on two basic aspects: The linguistic and the technical aspects. Thus,

Gottlieb (1997: 71-72) characterizes subtitles from linguistic and technical

perspectives: Linguistically, perspective is intra-lingual subtitling and inter-

lingual subtitling and technically perspective is open subtitle and closed subtitle.
 14

2.2 Concept of Slang, Translation and Subtitling

This part describes the concept related to this study. This study uses three

basic concepts; they are the concept of English slang word and the concept of

translation and subtitling. These two concepts are described as follows:

2.2.1 Concept of Slang

Slang is the use of informal words and expressions that are not considered

standard in the speaker's language or dialect but are considered acceptable in

certain social settings. Slang expressions may act as euphemisms and may be used

as a means of identifying with one's peers. The definition of slang can be found in

literature of slang. In the book "Slang & Sociability" about the use of slang among

college students in the USA, slang is defined as: "Slang is an ever changing set of

colloquial words and phrases that speakers use to establish or reinforce social

identity or cohesiveness in society at large" (Eble 1996: 11). Eble’s definition

differs significantly from the definitions presented in dictionaries. While she

agrees that slang is colloquial, Eble’s definition highlights the social aspects of

slang which the dictionaries ignore or do not find relevant to explain.

2.2.2 Concept of Translation and Subtitling

In her book Understanding Translation, Anne Schjoldager says that “a

translation is a text that expresses what another text has expressed in another

language” (Schjoldager 2008: 19). This confirms the etymology of the word

translation in that something is carried across to somewhere new: one language

 15

being carried across to a new language in the translation process. According to

Jeremy Munday in his book “Introducing Translation Studies”, most translation

processes require changing an original written text (the source text or (ST) in the

original verbal language (source language or SL) into a written text (target text or

TT) in a different verbal language (target language or TL). This is called

interlingual translation (Munday 2001: 4-5). Translation does not necessarily have

to be a transfer of one language into another as there are other types of translation:

1. Interlingual translation: the translation proper which is an interpretation of

verbal signs by the means of some other language (E.g. from Danish into

English)

2. Intralingual translation: the rewording which is an interpretation of verbal

signs by means of other signs of the same language. (E.g. changing the

register of a patient information leaflet from one expert in the area

communicating with another expert in the area or from an expert in the

area communicating with a layman).

3. Intersemiotic translation: the transmutation which is an interpretation of

verbal signs by means of signs of non-verbal sign systems (e.g. a written

text translated into music).

Subtitles represent a type of translation that belongs to the category label

of ‘screen translation’ (Gottlieb in Schjoldager 2008: 205). Screen translation is a

discipline in which the translation is “the translation of transient polysemiotic

texts presented on screen to mass audiences” . The word ‘transient’ is used by

 16

Gottlieb to ensure that the definition does not include static pictures as well. From

this follows that translation of static text on websites and tele-text cannot be called

screen translation.

Gottlieb explains that subtitling is a special area within translation that

appears within the world of TV, DVD and cinema, and is one or more lines of

written text displayed in sync with the original dialogue. Gottlieb does not

mention internet media, but it must be argued that subtitles are also quite practical

and applicable in the event that anyone follows e.g. news broadcasts, movies or

TV-series online. Subtitling is a style of translation called diamesic translation,

which means that the text switches from speech in the ST to written text in the

TT. Subtitling contrasts with dubbing, which is a translation of the on-screen

dialogue in which you try to attain synchrony between the original speaker in the

ST and the TT language speaking dubbing actor, essentially transferring one set of

speech in one language into another set of speech in another language.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

This part describes the theories related to this study. This study uses two

basic theories; they are the theory of English slang word and the theory of

translation and subtitling, as described as follows.

 17

2.3.1 Slang Words Theory

According to Chapman (1988), there are two types or forms of slang, the

primary slang and secondary slang.

A. Primary Slang

Primary slang is the pristine speech of subculture members; it is so natural

to its speakers that it seems they might be mute without it. Of course, they would

not be, since we know that slang is by definition always an alternative idiom, to

be chosen rather than required. Much of teenage talk and the speech of urban

street gangs would be examples of primary slang. Primary slang can be detected

by contrast, their oral language is often rich, complex, and powerful, and they live

by using it effectively. Chapman (1988) calls the specialized social vocabulary of

subculture primary slang. The primary slang of groups is often appropriated into

general slang. It strikes members of the mainstream as novels which are rich in

imaginative things. It suggests a way of life with greater fun and excitement than

the well-regulated lives of most.

Adopting the vocabulary is a way of sharing vicariously in the daring

while remaining apart from what is unsafe or objectionable about the way of life

in the subculture. From the sixteen samples of lyrics, fifteen lyrics that consist of

eighteen slang words and phrases are identified as primary slang. They are Yo,

fuckin bitch, ain't, 'sposed, hoes, back, 'bout, dis, stole, I-L-Y, fuck ya, Crib, cryin’

up a storm, hit, sleepin, tryna, and baby. The slang words and phrases are

identified as primary slang because this kind of slang is used to express anger, as
 18

a general expression used by English people on their daily communication, or it is

an alternative pronunciation used by a rapper or hip hop singer to shorten, alter, or

change the sound of a word. It is not related to someone’s attitude or something

secret.

B. Secondary slang

Secondary slang is chosen not so much to fix one group to express one’s

attitudes and resourcefulness by pretending momentarily, in a little stick of

guerrilla theatre to be the member of street gang or criminal or gambler or a drug

user or a professional football player, and hence to express someone’s contempt,

superiority, cleverness by borrowing someone’s verbal dress. It is also a matter of

stylistic choice rather than true identification. In Notorious B.I.G’s song Love No

Ho only one sample is identified as secondary slang. It is the word bankroll. The

word bankroll in data 10 is commonly used to name money. This slang word is

used to express something secretly in which just restricted people who understand

the meaning of those words. It is the reason why the slang word ‘bankroll” is

classified as a secondary slang. Eventually, the users of slang are not only limited

to underworld people but spread out through certain groups of people in the

society.

Most slang words are metaphoric and cannot be directly found through

their literary meaning, for example, “what is the hell?” it is quite far from our

imaginary of a place for punishment by god but here the aim of saying that

expression is to show something which is surprising which means “what is this?.

 19

This paragraph discusses a definition of what the function of slang is. To sum up,

we have learned that slang is used to:

1. Establish group relations and identity

2. Separate one group of people from another

3. Rebel against standard language through the use of words and expressions

that are not defined in standard language

4. Lead a conversation towards informality

5. Suggest ‘insider-knowledge’ with the people to whom you are speaking

6. Show the speaker’s attitude through the use of words and expressions that

differ from standard language

These elements show us the function of slang as follows: a social

instrument of words and expressions employed in speech and informal settings in

order to create group relations with people you identify with and to rebel against

standard language, and to signal the speaker’s attitude and the speaker’s belief in

the listener’s ability to relate to and understand what is being said. In the analysis

of the data, we refer to this as ‘the use of slang’.

Slang is always known for its vocabulary, but that does not mean that it

follows regular syntax, grammar, phonetics, pragmatics, etc. of standard language.

The formation of sentence, pronunciation, intonation, gesture, etc. can be very

different from the normal official language, and, therefore, assist with the
 20

differentiation of the slang group. Nevertheless, these elements of slang other than

vocabulary are in general not limited to the slang: they are typically elements of

more widespread informal or vernacular speech. According to Zore (1993) word

formations supporting the creativeness in creating slang are:

1. Clipped Word: One never-ending source of slang is clipped word. It is

simply one where element of a word has been dropped in common use.

This occurs when parent word having more than one syllables stemmed

into one syllable. It may come from the beginning, as well as parent

words. e.g. – phone from telephone.

2. Compounding: compounding or composition is the use of two or more

roots from a word. One particular type of compounding is the phrasal verb.

It is a type of composition where several words are combined to form a

verb, but instead of combining into a single word, they combine into a

phrase. Overtime, the spaces between the words in the phrase are often

lost, forming a single word. e.g. – happy dust for cocaine, - lazy bone for a

loafer.

3. Borrowing: borrowed root taken from another language. The creation of

slang is not limited to the speaker’s own language. It is also taken over

from another language. This process is labelled borrowings. e.g. chow (

from Chinese) for food.

4. Backward Formation: backward formation is a form of slang where words

are reversed. Slang consists of saying a parent word backward with any
 21

alternation necessary to make it pronounceable. A backward formation

occurs when component of the original are cut off. The only way to

distinguish a back formation is by dating. The older term is the original,

even if it is the more complex form. e.g. – emag from game, - kennurd

from drunk, -tekram from market.

5. Abbreviation: the initial portion of the word or syllables of a phrase are

used to form a word. e.g. –BBC for ‘British Broadcasting Corporation’, -

OD for ‘overdose’, - BF for ‘Bloody Fool’.

6. Blending: a blend or portmanteau is the result of a specific type of

compounding one where several words are fused into one. Thus, breakfast

and lunch blend to brunch

2.3.2 Componential Analysis

Componential analysis, also called feature analysis or contrast analysis,

refers to the description of the meaning of words through structured sets of

semantic features, which are given as “present”, “absent” or “indifferent with

reference to feature”. The method thus departs from the principle of

compositionality. Componential analysis is a method typical of structural

semantics which analyzes the structure of a word's meaning. Thus, it reveals the

culturally important features by which speakers of the language distinguish

different words in the domain (Ottenheimer, 2006, p. 20). This is a highly

valuable approach to learning another language and understanding a specific

semantic domain of Ethnography.

 22

Structural semantics and the componential analysis were patterned on the

phonological methods of the Prague School, which described sounds by

determining the absence and presence of features. On one hand, componential

analysis gave birth to various models in generative semantics, lexical field theory

and transformational grammar. On the other hand, its shortcoming was also

visible:

1. The discovery procedures for semantic features are not clearly

objectifiable.

2. Only part of the vocabulary can be described through more or less

structured sets of features.

3. Metalinguistic features are expressed through language again.

4. Features used may not have clear definitions.

5. Limited in focus and mechanical in style.

As a consequence, entirely different ways to describe meaning were developed,

such as prototype semantics.

2.3.3 Theory of Translation Strategies

There are technical constraints to subtitling, namely, what is called as

formal and textual constraints (Gottlieb in Schjoldager 2008: 205). The formal

constraints are:

a) A maximum of two lines of subtitles are allowed on screen, with approx.

35 characters per line. The time factor, which is the time that the viewer
 23

uses to read the subtitles before new subtitles replace the old ones. In

general, Gottlieb states that five to six seconds are considered sufficient

for the viewers to be able to read the subtitles.

b) The textual constraints are those imposed by the visual context on screen

which essentially means that the subtitles must render synchronously the

exact context that is conveyed on screen. With a limit to the number of

characters that can be used in subtitles, the subtitler may not always be

able to render all the words used in the ST-dialogue. This means that the

subtitler must find alternate ways in which to render the ST meaning in the

TT without losing the effect of the ST in TT. The translator should apply

his/her cultural and linguistic knowledge to find a way to work around the

technical limitations and still convey the message of the ST in the TT.

Additionally, if the subtitles change too fast or too slowly, the TT-

audience may lose track of the film’s plot and thereby lose interest in what

they are watching.

Another important factor is that subtitles must be in-sync with the on-

screen context because the viewer might be confused if the subtitles suddenly

disrupt the context, and/or in the event that the TT audience has a solid knowledge

of the source language and is able to see that the subtitles do not correspond to

that which is being said on-screen. There are some strategies or techniques of

translation proposed by Gottlieb:

 24

1. Expansion - used when the original requires an explanation because of

some cultural nuance not retrievable in the target language

2. Paraphrase - resorted to in cases where the phraseology of the original

cannot be reconstructed in the same syntactic way in the target language

3. Transfer - translating the source text completely and correctly

4. Imitation - maintains the same forms, typically with names of people and

places

5. Transcription - used in those cases where a term is unusual even in the

source text, for example, the use of a third language or nonsense language

6. Dislocation - adopted when the original employs some sort of special

effect, for example, a silly song in a cartoon film, where the translation of

the effect is more important than the content

7. Condensation - the shortening of the text in the least obtrusive way

possible

8. Decimation - an extreme form of condensation where, perhaps, for reasons

of discourse speed, even potentially important elements are omitted

9. Deletion - the total elimination of parts of a text

10. Resignation - adopted when no translation solution can be found and

meaning is inevitably lost

 25

2.3.4 Pragmatic Approach

Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It studies how utterances

are interpreted, taking special note of the situation(s) surrounding such utterances.

Levinson (1983:s24) asserts that “it is a branch of study concerned with the ability

of language users to pair sentences with the context in which they would be

appropriate”. It is a term coined out of a Greek word “pragma” meaning action.

According to Adegbite (2000:60), it is of the view that “the term pragmatics

originated in philosophical studies”; it has, however, been used in several

disciplines both scientific and humanistic. Pragmatics is a reaction to structural

linguistics as outlined by Ferdinand de Saussure. The structural linguists believe

that language has an analyzable structure composed of parts that can be defined in

relation to others. Hence, they believe that the meaning of an utterance is solely

determined by its structure (surface arrangement of words). Conversely, scholars

interested in pragmatics believe that language use is of crucial importance and

they draw attention to the fact that, the occasion of an utterance is important and

that the specific context of such occasion must be fully understood before the

meaning of an utterance can be fully grasped. Pragmatics is studied as part of

semantics (the general study of meaning).

Udofot (1998:126-146) states that while nominal theories, conceptual

theories and contextual theories are the early theories of semantics, componential

analysis and truth conditional semantics are its later theories, while pragmatics

falls into the category of the theory of semantics which evolves as a result of

further advances in the study of meaning. However, Adegbite (2000:60) asserts

 26

that pragmatics can be studied as part of semantics, only “if semantics is

considered with the wider consideration of meaning as cognitive meaning plus

social meaning and contextual meaning”. But if semantics is considered in the

narrow sense of cognitive meaning alone, then pragmatics will function alone to

cater for the remaining aspects of meaning.

In summary and conclusively, in the context of this research work,

pragmatics is the study and analysis of language use, meaning encoding and

decoding, utterance understanding and interpretation in particular communicative

situation (specifically the hip-hop genre of music), which specially takes

cognizance of the message being passed, the singer’s intention, the object being

referred to in the song and also the relevant aspects of the physical or social

setting of the movie.

According to Levinson (1983:35-43), the goals of pragmatics are;

1. To serve as a reaction or antidote to Chomsky’s treatment of language as

an abstract device, dissociable from the uses, users and functions of

language.

2. To erect a radical simplification of semantics

3. To bridge the very substantial gap between semantics (including syntax

and phonology), and a complete theory of linguistic communication.

4. To offer a significant functional explanation for linguistic facts to establish

the effect(s) of the uses of language on language structures.

 27

5. To build up ideas about which aspect(s) of the context of utterances are

likely in general to exert functional pressure on language.

The Webster’s Universal Dictionary and Thesaurus (2007:683) defines a

theory as “assumption, conjecture, hypothesis, idea, plan, postulation, principle,

scheme, speculation, surmise, system, doctrine, philosophy…” Considering the

goals of pragmatics, Olukoya (2010:7) believes any of the pragmatic theories

serves as a guideline for the analysis of language use and understanding of

utterance meaning(s) in different communicative contexts.

Adegbija (1998:198) states that the principal goals of pragmatic theories are:

a) To explain how utterances convey meaning in context

b) To explain how meaning is decoded from utterances in contexts and in

particular situations

c) To explain how context contributes to the encoding and decoding of

meaning.

d) To explain how speakers and hearers of utterances perceive them as

conveying the meaning they are considered as conveying in particular

utterances.

e) To explain how speakers can say one thing and mean something else, and

f) To explain how deductions are made in context with respect to what

meaning has been encoded in a particular utterance

 28

The British philosopher, John Langshaw Austin, was intrigued by the way

that we can use word to do different things. He, therefore, propounded a theory to

explicate this in his posthumously published work “How to Do Things with

Words”. The major concern of his theory is captioned “doing things with words”.

Lawal, et al.(1996:641)citing Austin (1962) says, “engaging in a speech act means

performing the complimentary acts of locution, illocution and perlocution” Austin

broadly distinguishes between speech acts as either `constantives’ or

`performatives’.

Leech (1981:61) asserts that “we should study meaning in terms of

situation, use, context, outward and observable correlates of language behavior”.

From this assertion, we can see that context is the social or physical settings of a

discourse, it is the situation or environment surrounding the utterance of an

expression which automatically dictates what the meaning of the expression will

be. Four major types of context aid utterance interpretation. However,

classifications of context, two other subtypes are added to these four (4). These

six types of context are:

1. Physical context: Medubi (2003:133) opines that it is “the pragmatic

object to which a word refers”.

2. Social-cultural context: it refers to the cultural values, norms, beliefs and

habits of those involved in the communication.

 29

3. Linguistic context: refers to the nature of the words used and the co

occurrence of other words, together with their implications on the physical

and socio-cultural settings of the utterance.

4. Social context: it refers to the social roles of the interlocutors and the

relationship occurring between these social roles of the hearer and speaker

in a social interaction.

5. Psychological context: it refers to the mental consciousness, the

psychological state of mind of the interact ants in a communicative

process at that particular point in time.

6. Deictic context: Olukoya (2010:15) opines that deixis are words that

cannot be interpreted unless the physical context of the speaker is known”.

Deictic features are of three types; place, time and person.

2.4 Research Model

Slang words are grouped based on their characteristics. After that the

theories from the source book were used to analyze the data. Especially, for the

data of Indonesian translation of English slang word was categorized based on its

concepts whether it has the same or not in both the source language and the target

language based on the theory of subtitling technique by Gottlieb. Finally, the

collected data identify the affect of culture in the process of translation English

slang word into Indonesian. The last step was describing the result of analysis

descriptively in strings of word. Based on the problems and the theories used in
 30

this research, a diagram can be drawn to show the way of the problem and the

procedure applied in this thesis.

Figure 2.1: Research Model of Translation of Slang Word into Indonesian in

Subtitle of Movie ”The Departed”

TRANSLATION OF SLANG WORD INTO INDONESIAN IN

SUBTITLE OF
MOVIE “THE DEPARTED”

Source Language Target Language

(English) (Indonesian Language)

Problem 1: The Type of Problem 2: Strategies used by the

English Slang Word translator to translate the slang
Translation into Indonesian words into Indonesia
Language in the Movie “The
Departed”

Chapman (1988) proposed 2 Gottlieb’s typology of subtitling

types of slang. Primary Slang strategies (199: 71-72) and
and Secondary Slang. Pragmatic Approach

Qualitative Method

ANALYSIS

RESULT