First Year Handout March 2021

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES POWER SERIES II
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER 1...................................................................................................3
1.1 Basic Electrical Symbols..........................................................................3
1.2 Electrical Quantities, Symbols And Units................................................4
1.3 Prefixes For S.I. Units..............................................................................4
1.4 Conversions..............................................................................................5
CHAPTER 2...................................................................................................7
2.1 Ohms Law................................................................................................7
2.2 Electric Circuit.........................................................................................8
2.3 Part of a circuit.........................................................................................9
2.4 Ammetter, Voltmeter And Wattmeter......................................................9
2.5 Conventional Current And Electron Current Flow................................10
2.6 Electron Flow.........................................................................................10
2.7 Conventional Current Flow....................................................................11
2.8 Kirchhoffs First Law – The Current Law, (KCL)..................................11
2.9 Kirchhoffs Second Law – The Voltage Law, (KVL).............................12
CHAPTER 3.................................................................................................14
3.1 Electrical Power.....................................................................................14
3.2 Effects Of Electrical Power....................................................................14
3.3 Electrical Energy....................................................................................16
3.4 Effects Of Electrical Energy..................................................................16
3.5 Sources Of Electrical Energy.................................................................16
3.6 Formula works........................................................................................17
CHAPTER 4.................................................................................................18
4.1 Resistors.................................................................................................18
4.2 Types Of Resistors.................................................................................18
4.3 Resistors In Series..................................................................................18
4.4 Calculating The Total Resistance, RT....................................................18
4.5 Voltage Drop Across Resistors In Series...............................................19
4.6 Resistors Connected In Parallel..............................................................20
4.7 Calculating The Total Resistance...........................................................20
4.8 Two Resistor Connected In Parallel.......................................................21
4.9 Determining Current In Parallel Circuits...............................................22
4.10 Series - Parallel Connection Of Resistors............................................24
4.11 Voltage Drop Across Series - Parallel Resistors..................................24
4.12 Colour Coding Of Resistor...................................................................27
4.13 Application Of Resistors......................................................................29
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CHAPTER 5.................................................................................................30
5.1 Capacitors...............................................................................................30
5.2 Construction Of A Capacitor..................................................................30
5.3 How Capacitors Works..........................................................................30
5.4 How A Capacitor Is Charged.................................................................30
5.5 The Capacitance Of A Capacitor...........................................................31
5.6 Capacitance Of A Parallel Plate Capacitor............................................31
5.7 Factors Affecting The Capacitance Of A Capacitor..............................33
5.8 Working Voltage Of A Capacitor..........................................................33
5.9 Types Of Capacitors...............................................................................33
5.10 Application And Uses Of Capacitors...................................................34
5.11 Charge On A Capacitor........................................................................34
5.12 Charging & Discharging Of A Capacitor.............................................34
5.13 Charging And Discharge Curves Of A Capacitor................................36
5.14 Energy In A Capacitor..........................................................................36
5.15 Capacitors In Parallel...........................................................................37
5.16 Capacitors Connected In Series............................................................38
5.17 Series - Parallel Connection Of Capacitors..........................................40
CHAPTER 6.................................................................................................43
6.1 Inductor..................................................................................................43
6.2 Function of inductors in a circuit...........................................................43
6.3. Inductance.............................................................................................43
6.4 Unit Of Inductance.................................................................................43
6.5 Application And Uses Of Inductors.......................................................43
6.6 Magnetic Field Around A Conductor.....................................................44
6.7 Magnetic Fields Around Parallel Conductor..........................................45
6.8 Magnetic Fields Around Coils...............................................................45
6.9 Solenoid..................................................................................................46
6.10 Terminologies In Magnetism...............................................................46
6.11 Electromagnetic Induction...................................................................47
6.12 Self Induction.......................................................................................50
6.13 Mutual Induction..................................................................................51
6.14 Application Of Self Inductance............................................................52
6.15 Application Of Mutual Inductance.......................................................52
6.16 Force On A Conductor Carrying Current In A Magnetic Field...........52
6.17 Application Of Force On A Current Carrying Conductor In A Magnetic Field 54
6.18 Energy Stored In An Inductor..............................................................54
CHAPTER 7.................................................................................................56
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7.0 MAGNETISM........................................................................................56
7.1 Concept Of Magnetism..........................................................................56
7.2 Magnetic Pole.........................................................................................56
7.3 Magnetic Materials.................................................................................56
7.4 Properties of Magnets.............................................................................57
7.5 Types of Magnets...................................................................................57
7.6 Applications of Permanent Magnet........................................................58
7.7 Differences between Permanent Magnets and Temporary Magnets......58
7.8 Magnetic Field........................................................................................58
7.9 Laws Of Attraction And Repulsion........................................................59
7.10 Magnetic Flux And Flux Density.........................................................60
7.11 Magneto-motive Force And Magnetic Field Strength.........................61
7.12 MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY..........................................................62
7.13 Work Examples And Class Exercises..................................................63
7.14 MAGNETIZATION OR B-H CURVE................................................64
CHAPTER 8.................................................................................................67
8.1 Alternating Current Theory....................................................................67
8.2 Advantages Of Ac As Compared To Dc................................................67
8.3 Generation Of Alternating Voltages And Currents................................67
8.4 Definition Of Important Terminologies In Ac Theory...........................68
8.5 The Sinusoidal Wave Of Alternating Current Or Voltage.....................71
CHAPTER 9.................................................................................................73
9.0 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUIT...............................................73
9.1 Purely Resistive A.C Circuit..................................................................73
9.2 Purely Inductive A.C Circuit..................................................................73
9.3 Variation Of Inductive Reactance With Frequency...............................74
9.4 Purely Capacitive Circuit.......................................................................75
9.5 Variation Of Capacitive Reactance With Frequency.............................75
CHAPTER 10...............................................................................................77
10.1 Understanding atomic structure...........................................................77
10.2 Valence Or Valency.............................................................................78
10.3 Important Terms...................................................................................81
10.4 Effects Of Electric Current...................................................................82
CHAPTER 11...............................................................................................83
11.1 SOURCES OF ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE.....................................83
11.2 Primary And Secondary Cells..............................................................83
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11.3 Application And Uses Of Cells............................................................83

11.4 Construction And Principles Of Operation Of A Simple Cell.............83
11.5 Polarization And Local Action.............................................................84
11.6 Primary Cells........................................................................................85
11.7 Application Of Primary Cell................................................................87
11.8 Internal resistance of a cell...................................................................87
11.9 Cell connected in series and parallel....................................................88
11.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of cells connected in series:.............89
11.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Cells Connected in Parallel:........91
11.12 Secondary Cells..................................................................................91
11.13 Basic Battery Charging Methods.......................................................94
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Basic Electrical Symbols
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1.2 Electrical Quantities, Symbols And Units
S/N ELECTRICAL SYMBOL UNITS UNIT SYMBOLS

QUANTITIES
1. Resistance R Ohms Ω
2. Current I Ampere A
3. Voltage V Volts v
4. Power P watts w
5. energy W Watt-second, Ws,J/s
joules/second
6. Impedance Z Ohms Ω
7. Magnetic flux ɸ weber wb
8. Magnetic flux B Tesla T
density
9. Area A Meter square m2
10. Quantity of Q Coulomb C
electricity
11. Magnetomotive F ampere A
force
12. Magnetic field H Ampere per A/m
strength meter
13. Reluctance S - -
14. Permeability μ Henry per meter H/m
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15. Self inductance L henry H Tera T X 1012 = x 1000 000 000 000
16. Mutual inductance M henry H Giga G X 109 = x 1000 000 000
17. Capacitance C Farad F Mega M X 106 = x 1000 000
Kilo K X 103 = x 1000
Hecto H X 102 = x 100
Centi c 1
1.3 Prefixes For S.I. Units 100 = 0.01
X 10 -2 = X
milli m
1
¿
PREFIX SYMBOL MEANING X 10-3 = 1000 = 0.001
micro μ
10
−6
1
¿ =1000000 =0 .000001
nano n
10
−9
1
pico p ¿ =1000000000 =0 .000000001
10
−12
1
¿ =¿ =¿ 0. 000000000001
1000000000000
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Data
Kilo = 103 = 1000
Solution
50kV = 50 X 1000 = 50,000Volts
3. Determine the value of mega-ohms in 450,000Ω
Data
Mega = 106 = 1000000
1MΩ = 1000000 Ω
Solution
1.4 Conversions 450000 Ω
×1 M Ω
1000000Ω = 0.45 MΩ
1. Convert 200μC to coulomb.
Data
1
¿ =0. 000001
Micro, μ = 10-6 = 1000000
Solution
1
¿
200μC = 200 1000000 = 0.0002 Coulombs
2. Change 50kV to volts
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1.5 Class Work 1

1. Convert 2.768 kW to watts
2. How many ohms are there in 0.45 MΩ.
3. Express a current of 0.037 A in milliamperes.
4. Convert 3.3 kV to volts.
5. Change 0.000596 MΩ to ohms.
1.6 Class Work 2

1. Convert the following resistance values to ohms:
a) 3.6μΩ
b) 0.0016 MΩ
c) 0.085 MΩ
d) 20.6 μΩ
e) 0.68 μΩ
1.7 Home Work

1. Convert 1850μW to watts
2. Change 0.00000625 C to micro-coulombs.
3. Express 4350 pF to μF.
4. Determine the ampere in 6.4 μA.
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QUANTITY SYMBOL UNIT SYMBOL

CHAPTER 2 Resistance R Ohm Ω
Current I Ampere A
2.1 Ohms Law Voltage v Volts V
The coulomb is a measurement for a quantity of voltage

electrons, and the practical unit for an electric charge . Re sis tan ce= R=
V
( Ω)
current I
Ohms Law: This states that the p.d. developed
between the two ends of a resistor is directly voltage V
Current= I= ( A )
proportional to the value of current flowing through it, Re sis tan ce R
and inversely proportional to the resistance provided
that all other factors (e.g. temperature) remain Voltage=Current ×Re sis tan ce V =I×R ( V )
constant.
Resistance, R is the ability of a resistor to oppose the

flow of current in a circuit. It is measured in ohms, Ω.
Current, I is the progressive movement of electron in

a closed path. The unit of current is the ampere, A.
Voltage, V is the pressure that causes the motion of

electrons in a closed circuit. It is measured in volts, V.
Potential Difference, P.D. is the accumulation of

different charge carriers at two different points. The
unit of potential difference is the volt, V.
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The voltage applied to a circuit is 100 V and the

Example 1. current flowing is 15 A. Calculate the resistance.
A current of 5.5 mA flows through a 33 kΩ resistor.
Calculate the p.d. across the resistor.
Data
Data Voltage, V = 100 V, Current, I = 15 A, and
Current, I = 5.5 mA = 5.5x10-3 Resistance, R = Unknown?
Resistance, R = 33 kΩ = 33x103
Potential Difference, P.d. or Voltage, V = Unknown Solution
V 100
Resistance, R = I = 15 = 6.667Ω Ans.
Solution
V = I x R = 5.5 x 10-3 x 33 x 103 = 181.5V
Exercise
Example 2. 1. Calculate the p.d. developed across a 750Ω resistor
If a p.d. of 24 V exists across a 15Ω resistor then what when the current flowing through it is (a) 3 A, (b) 25
must be the current flowing through it? mA.
2. Determine the value of current through the resistor
Data of 200Ω, when a voltage of 600V is connected across
V or P.d = 24 V it.
R = 15 Ω 3. A voltage of 1 kV is connected across a resistor. If
I = Unknown the current is 50 Amperes, calculate the value of the
resistor.
Solution
V 24
I= 2.2 Electric Circuit
R = 15 = 1.6 A Ans..
Example 3 An electric circuit can be defined as a complete path

for the free flow of electrons.
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A circuit can only work when it is totally closed. That The source is that which produces voltage or potential
means there are no breaks in the current paths. difference. Example is cell or battery, generators and
alternators.
The transmission line or wire is use to carry the
electrons from source to the load and also helps the
electrons to return to the source.
The load is that which consumes the energy. It is also
called resistance, example is light bulb, electric iron
etc.
The means of control is used to open and close the
path of current flow. It purpose is to control the flow
of electrons in the circuit. A typical example is a
switch.
2.4 Ammetter, Voltmeter And Wattmeter
Electrical Instruments are used to measure electrical

quantities. Ammeter is used to measure electric
current. It is always connected in series in a circuit.
2.3 Part of a circuit
Every circuit consist of four essential parts, namely;

1. Source
2. Transmission line
3. Load
4. Means of control Voltmeters are used to measure voltage, electromotive
force, and potential difference. They are always
connected in parallel in the circuit.
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The voltmeter is connected across the battery ( power

source ).
2.5 Conventional Current And Electron Current
Flow
In the circuit diagram above, the voltmeter is

connected across ( or in parallel ) to the resistor
( shunt ).
2.6 Electron Flow
In general, ammeters and voltmeters can be used in
one circuits as shown below. The representation of electron flowing in a circuit is
shown as the movement of negative charge carriers
from the negative part of the battery ( source ), to the
positive part of the source.
It is called the electron current flow. It is the actual
flow of electrons in a circuit.
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CLASS WORK 1
1. Describe the FOUR main parts of electric circuit

2. Draw and name the parts of an electric circuit
3. Define
I. Conventional current flow
II. Electron current flow
4. Draw to show the difference between conventional
2.7 Conventional Current Flow current and electron current flow.
5. State the uses of the following electrical instrument.
This is the representation of holes flowing in a circuit I. Ammeter
such that, positive charge carriers moves from II. Voltmeter
positive part of the source to the negative part of the 6. Draw to show how ammeter and voltmeter are
source. It is opposite to the electron flow, that is why connected in a circuit.
it is called conventional current flow.
2.8 Kirchhoffs First Law – The Current Law,

(KCL)
Kirchhoffs Current Law or KCL, states that the

“total current or charge entering a junction is exactly
equal to the total current or charge leaving the
junction“.
In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents

entering and leaving a node must be equal to zero,
I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0.
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Kirchhoffs Current Law 2.9 Kirchhoffs Second Law – The Voltage Law,
(KVL)
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any

closed loop network, the total voltage around the loop
is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the
same loop” which is also equal to zero.
In other words the algebraic sum of all voltages

Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are
within the loop must be equal to zero.
all positive in value and the two currents leaving the
node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means
we can also rewrite the equation as; Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
Alternatively, we can shift the negative currents

across the equal sign;
I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 + I5
The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers

to a connection or junction of two or more current Remember from Ohms Law, V = I x R
carrying paths or elements such as cables and
components. Also for current to flow either in or out Therefore,
of a node a closed circuit path must exist. We can use
Voltage drop across VAB = IAB x RAB
Kirchhoff’s current law when analyzing parallel
circuits. Voltage drop across VBC = IBC x RBC
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Voltage drop across VCD = ICD x RCD
Voltage drop across VDA = IDA x RDA

Exercise
1. State the Kirchhoff’s current law
2. State Kirchhoff’s voltage law
3. Mention the type of circuit where Kirchhoffs
current and voltage laws may be applied.
4. Explain with diagrams, kirchhoffs current and
voltage laws.
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CHAPTER 3 [ P = V2 ÷ R ] P (watts) = V2 (volts) ÷ R (Ω)
3.1 Electrical Power
Electrical Power may be defined as the time or rate at Also:

which electrical energy is consumed or dissipated by
[ P = I2 x R ] P (watts) = I2 (amps) x R (Ω)
an electrical device.
Electrical power, P is measured in watts, W.
METHOD 1
3.2 Effects Of Electrical Power Example 1
A source of energy such as a voltage will produce or The current in a circuit is 4.8 A, when the voltage is
deliver power while the connected load absorbs it. 240 V. Calculate the power.
Light bulbs and heaters for example, absorb electrical
power and convert it into either heat, or light, or both. Data
The higher their value or rating in watts the more Current, I = 4.8 A
electrical power they are likely to consume. Voltage, V = 240 V
Solution
Electrical Power, P = I x V
P = 4.8 x 240
P = 1152 Watts
To find the Power (P)
Example 2
[ P = V x I ] P (watts) = V (volts) x I (amps) Calculate the current flowing when a 2 kW heater is
connected to a 230 V supply.
Also:
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 16

Data Voltage, V = 100V

Power, P = 2 kW = 2 x 103 = 2000 W.
Voltage, V = 230 V Solution
Solution
P 2000 V
2 2
100 10000
P= = = =50 V ANS
Current, I = V = 230 = 8.7 A R 200 200
Example 3
The current in a certain resistor is 15 A and the power Example 2
absorbed is 200 W. Find the voltage drop across the A 100 W electric light bulb is connected to a 250 V
resistor. supply. Determine (a) the current flowing in the bulb,
and (b) the resistance of the bulb.
Data
Current, I = 15 A Data
Power, P = 200 W Power, P = 100W
Voltage, V = 240V
Solution
P 200 Solution
= =13 . 3V
Voltage, V = I 15 (a) Current, I
P 100
I= = =0.4167 Amps
METHOD 2 V 240
Example 1 (b) Resistance, R

The resistance of a kettle is 200Ω. If the kettle is V 2 2402 57600
R= = = =576 Ω
connected to a 100V supply, find the power consume P 100 100
by the kettle. METHOD 3
Calculate the power dissipated when a current of
4 mA flows through a resistance of 5 kΩ.
Data
Resistance, R = 200Ω
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 17

Data
Current, I = 4 mA = 4 x10−3
Resistance, R = 5 kΩ = 5 x 103 3.3 Electrical Energy
Solution Electrical Energy is the ability of an electrical circuit

P=I R=¿ = (4 x 10
2 2 (−3 x 2) 3
) x 5 x 10
to produce work by creating an action. Electrical
P = 16 x 10 x 5 x 10 = 16 x 5 x 10(−6 +3)
−6 3
P=80 x 10 =80 mW answer.

−3 energy is measured in joules, J. Basically, the ability
to do some work.
Exercise
1. An electric kettle has a resistance of 30Ω . What 3.4 Effects Of Electrical Energy
current will flow when it is connected to a 240 V
supply? Find also the power rating of the kettle. But for energy to do any useful work it must be
2. A current of 5 A flows in the winding of an electric converted from one form into something else. For
motor, the resistance of the winding being 100Ω . example, a motor converts electrical energy into
Determine (a) the p.d. across the winding, and (b) the mechanical or kinetic (rotational) energy, while a
power dissipated by the coil. generator converts kinetic energy back into electrical
3. The hot resistance of a 240 V filament lamp is energy to power a circuit.
960Ω . Find the current taken by the lamp and its That is electrical machines convert or change energy
power rating. from one form to another by doing work.
3.5 Sources Of Electrical Energy
This action can take many forms, such as thermal,

electromagnetic, mechanical, electrical, etc. Electrical
energy can be both created from batteries, generators,
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 18

dynamos, and photovoltaics, etc. or stored for future V 12

(a) Determine current, I = R = 40 =0.3 Amps
use using fuel cells, batteries, capacitors or magnetic
fields, etc.
(b) Determine Power,
3.6 Formula works P=I x V =0.3 x 12=3.6 Watts
Electrical energy, W = Power, P x time, T [ watt- (c) Energy, W = P x T

second ] or [ Joules ]
But Time, T = 2 minutes = 120 seconds
Now, Energy, W = 3.6 x 120 = 432 Joules

WORKED EXAMPLE
Exercise
A 12 V battery is connected across a load having a
resistance of 40 Ω. Determine the current flowing in 1. A source of e.m.f. of 15 V supplies a current of 2 A
the load, the power consumed and the energy for six minutes. How much energy is provided in this
dissipated in 2 minutes. time?
2. Electrical equipment in an office takes a current of

Data 13 A from a 240 V supply. Estimate the cost per week
of electricity if the equipment is used for 30 hours
Voltage, V = 12 V each week and 1 kWh of energy costs 7p
Resistance, R = 40 Ω 3. An electric heater consumes 3.6 MJ when

connected
Time, T = 2 minutes to a 250 V supply for 40 minutes. Find the power
rating of the heater and the current taken from the
Solution supply.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 19

4. Determine the power dissipated by the element of  Carbon film:

an electric fire of resistance 20 Ω when a current of 10  Wire wound resistor:
A flows through it. If the fire is on for 6 hours
determine the energy used and the cost if 1 unit of  Light dependent resistor / photo-resistor:
electricity costs 7p.  Thermistor:
 Varistor:
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Resistors
4.3 Resistors In Series
A resistor is a component used to limit or oppose the
flow of current in an electrical circuit.
General symbols for Resistor Resistors are said to be connected in series when they
are connected together in a single line resulting in a
4.2 Types Of Resistors common current flowing through them.
 Carbon composition:
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 20

Resistors in series have a common current flowing 4.5 Voltage Drop Across Resistors In Series
through them as the current can only take one path.
4.4 Calculating The Total Resistance, RT
When several resistors are connected in series, the

total resistance is given as;
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ------ + Rn
Where Rn = number of resistors
The voltage drop across each resistor can be

calculated by using Ohms law.
From Ohms Law, V = I x R:
Voltage drop across R1 , V1 = I x R1
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 21

EXAMPLE 1
Data
I = 1 mA = 1 x 10-3 A
R1 = 1kΩ = 1 x 103 Ω
R2 = 2kΩ = 2 x 103 Ω
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 2 + 3 + 5 = 10 Ω R3 = 6kΩ = 6 x 103 Ω
Now, let calculate for the voltage across each resistor: Solution
Resistor 1, VR1 = Current, I x Resistance, R1 = 1 x 2 = a) Total Resistance,

2 V.
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = (1x103) + (2x103) + (6x103)
Resistor 2, VR2 = I x R2 = 1 x 3 = 3 V.
RT = (1 x 1000) + (2 x 1000) + (6 x 1000)
Resistor 3, VR3 = I x R3 = 1 x 5 = 5 V
RT = 1000 + 2000 + 6000
So, the total voltage, VT = V1 + V2 + V3
RT = 9000Ω
VT = 2 + 3 + 5 = 10 V.
RT = 9x103Ω = 9kΩ
EXAMPLE 2
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b) Let calculate the voltage drop across each resistor
VR1 = I x R1 = 1 x 10-3 x 1 x 103 = 1 V
VR2 = I x R2 = 1 x 10-3 x 2 x 103 = 2 V
VR3 = I x R3 = 1 x 10-3 x 6 x 103 = 6 V
4.7 Calculating The Total Resistance

Class Work 1
1. Resistor of values 10Ω, 15Ω, 20Ω, and 30Ω are In determining the total resistance, RT of a parallel
connected in series. Find the total resistance and also circuit, the formula is given below;
the voltage across each resistor when a current of 2 1 1 1 1
Amps flows in the circuit. = + +
R T R1 R2 R 3
2. A circuit has four resistors, each of value 3Ω. If there are more than three resistors connected in
determine the total resistance and draw the circuit parallel, the total resistance is given as:
diagram.
1 1 1 1 1 −−−+1
= + + + +
4.6 Resistors Connected In Parallel R T R 1 R2 R3 R 4 Rn
For resistors connected in parallel, the resistors R1, R2 Where Rnstand for number of resistors
and R3 are connected across each other. In a parallel
circuit the voltage across each resistor is the same. 4.8 Two Resistor Connected In Parallel
The current is divided among the resistors. Each
resistor carries its own current, i.e, I1, I2 and I3. For two resistors connected in parallel, the total
resistance is given as:
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 23

1 1 1 R1 + R2 1 1 1
= +
= + =
R T R1 R2 R 1 x R 2 RT 3 6
R xR
1 2 Find the lowest common multiple, LCM for 3 and 6. (
Therefore, total resistance, RT = R + R i.e 6.. )
1 2
1 2+1
=
RT 6
WORKED EXAMPLE
1 3
=
1. Find the value of the total resistance in the circuit RT 6
below.
Cross multiply; which gives:
1 x 6=RT x 3
6=3 RT
Divide both sides by 6:
6 3 RT
DATA =
3 3
R1 = 3 Ω RT =2 Ω
R2 = 6 Ω 2. For the circuit shown below, calculate the total

resistance, RT.
SOLUTION
1 1 1
= +
R T R 1 R2
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1 4
=
RT 1
Cross multiply:
1 x 1=4 x RT
1=4 RT
Divide both sides of the equation by 4:
DATA 1 4 RT
=
4 4
Let R1 = 1Ω, R2 = 1Ω, R3 = 1Ω, and R4 = 1Ω
1
Therefore, total resistance, RT = 4 =0.25Ω
SOLUTION
For four resistors in parallel:

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + 4.9 Determining Current In Parallel Circuits.
R T R 1 R2 R 3 R 4
In parallel circuits, the current from the supply is
1 1 1 1 1 called the supply current. The current passing through
= + + +
RT 1 1 1 1
each resistor are different depending on the value of
their resistors.
The LCM is 1:
1 1+ 1+ 1+ 1
From the diagram below, the current in R1, is name as
= I1. The current in R2 is name as I2 and that of R3 is I3.
RT 1
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 25

Now, the total current ( supply current ), is the sum of

the current passing through each resistors.
That is: I = I1 + I2 + I3
DATA
R1 = 10 Ω
R2 = 20 Ω
R3 = 60 Ω
I2 = 3 A
Since the voltage is the same across each resistor, the SOLUTION
value of the current through each resistor is given as.
a) Supply Voltage, V = V1 = V2 = V3 , since in parallel
V V V
I 1 = , I 2= , I 3 = circuit voltages are the same.
R1 R2 R3
∴ V =I 2 x R 2=3 x 20=60 V .
b) Current in each resistor,

EXAMPLE
V 60
Determine the value of the supply voltage, the current I 1= = =6 A
R 1 10
through each resistor and the value of the supply
current for the circuit shown below.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 26

V 60 resistance and the current in each resistor. Draw the

I 3= = =1 A
R 3 60 circuit diagram as well.
Note that I2 is already given as 3 A. 4.10 Series - Parallel Connection Of Resistors

c) Total current, or supply current, I.
There is a possibility of have a set of series resistors
I =I 1+ I 2 + I 3 and a set of parallel resistors connected together. This
is termed as series - parallel connection of resistors.
I =6+3+ 1=10 Amps
Procedure for Calculating Series-Parallel
Connection Of Resistors
CLASS WORK
1. For the circuit shown below, calculate the total

resistance, current in each resistor, and supply current.
From the circuit diagram above, resistors R1 and R2
are connected in series.
Now, resistor R3 and R4 are connected in parallel.
For the series group: RS = R1 + R2

1 1 1
2. Resistor of values 15 and 25 are connected in For the parallel group: R = R + R
P 3 4
parallel across a voltage of 100V. Calculate the total
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 27

So the circuit now becomes as shown below: RS is in The voltage across each resistor is given by the
series with RP. following formulas;
RS
RP
Therefore, the total resistance, RT is given as:
RT = RS + RP [ Ω ] Voltage across R1, V1 = I x R1
4.11 Voltage Drop Across Series - Parallel Resistors Voltage across R2, V2 = I2 x R2
Voltage across R3, V3 = I3 x R3

The circuit below shows a series - parallel circuit.
But resistors R2 and R3 are connected in parallel, so
The current from the source passes through resistor
the voltage across them is the same.
R1, but divide into two, I2 and I3, when it reaches the
parallel group of resistors.
V2 = V3
From Kirchhoff's current law, the total or supply
Let us represent the voltages across the parallel group
current is given as,
of resistors with VP.
I = I2 + I3
Therefore, VP = V2 = V3.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 28

Now, there are two voltages in the circuit. We have V1 RT = R1 + RP = 1 + 4.105 = 5.105Ω
and VP.
STEP 3: Find the supply current. I.
The total or supply voltage V = V1 + VP
V 12
I= = =2.35 A mps
R T 5.105
WORKED EXAMPLE STEP 4: Calculate voltage across R1.
Calculate the voltage drop across each resistor in the V 1=I x R1=2.35 x 1=2.35 Volts
circuit diagram above.
STEP 5: Determine the voltage across the parallel
SOLUTION group of resistors.
STEP 1 : Find the parallel group resistances. V = V1 + VP , ………………. make VP the subject.
Total resistance for the parallel group of resistors, VP = V - V1 = 12.0 - 2.35 = 9.65 Volts
1 1 1 1 1 6+13 ANSWERS
= + = + =
R P R2 R3 6 13 6 x 13
V1 = 2.35 V
1 19
=
R P 78 V2 = 9.65 V
R P=4.105Ω V3 = 9.65 V
STEP 2 : Find the total resistance for the whole Note, VP = V2 = V3

circuit.
Since R1 is in series with RP,

CLASS WORK
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 29

1. For the circuit shown below, calculate:
a) Total resistance
b) Supply current
c) Voltage drop across 500Ω resistor.
d) Voltage drop across the parallel group of

resistors.
ASSIGNMENT
2. Find the supply current from the circuit diagram

below.
Determine the current from the source and potential

difference across each resistor.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 30

4.12 Colour Coding Of Resistor of zeros or multiplier of number of zeros. The fourth
band D also stand for TOLERANCE.
Small resistors use coloured painted bands to indicate
both their resistive value and their tolerance. If the colours on the resistors are only three and the
fourth band is represented as NONE, with tolerance of
These coloured painted bands produce a system of 20%.
identification generally known as a Resistors Colour
Code.
The resistor colour code markings are always read one

band at a time starting from the left to the right, with
the larger width tolerance band oriented to the right
side indicating its tolerance.
The first BAND A, represents the first digit or

number. The second BAND C represents the second EXAMPLE
digit or number. The third BAND C stand for number
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 31

1. Find the value of a resistor with the following 8 - first band - GREY
colours. Green, red, blue and brown
7 - second band - VIOLET
SOLUTION
0 - third band - multiplier - x 1 = BLACK
1. (a)
± 10 % - fourth band - tolerance - SILVER
From the table:
The colour of the resistor is GREY, VIOLET,
Green - first band - 5 BLACK, SILVER
Red - second band - 2
Blue - third band - multiplier = x 1000 000 CLASS WORK
Brown - fourth band - tolerance - ± 1% 1. Determine the value for the following resistors.
Therefore, the value for the resistor is 52000000 a) Brown, grey, yellow, and red
Ω ±1 % , but 1000000 = 106 = Mega, M
b) Brown, black, red, and gold
Value of resistor is 52 MΩ± 1%
c) Orange, violet, white, and green
2. Determine the colours for the following values of

2. Determine the colours for the resistor of value resistors
870 Ω ±10 % .
a) 89 kΩ ± 5%
SOLUTION
b) 300000Ω ±10%
From the table:
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 32

c) 0.5MΩ
4.13 Application Of Resistors
1. Resistors are used in high frequency instrument.

2. Resistor is used in power control circuit.
3. It is used in DC power supplies.
4. Resistors are used in filter circuit networks.
5. It is used in amplifiers, oscillators,
telecommunication and digital multimeter.
6. It is used in wave generators.
7. Resistors are used in transmitters, modulators and
demodulators.
8. It is used in medical instrument.
9. It is used in instrumentation applications.
10. Resistor is used in voltage regulators.
11. It is used in feedback amplifiers.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 33

CHAPTER 5
5.1 Capacitors 5.3 How Capacitors Works
The capacitor is a component which has the ability or Due to this insulating layer, DC current can not flow
“capacity” to store energy in the form of an electrical through the capacitor as it blocks it allowing instead a
charge producing a potential difference (Static voltage to be present across the plates in the form of
Voltage) across its plates. an electrical charge.
5.2 Construction Of A Capacitor When used in a direct current or DC circuit, a

capacitor charges up to its supply voltage but blocks
A capacitor consists of two or more parallel the flow of current through it because the dielectric of
conductive (metal) plates which are not connected or a capacitor is non-conductive and basically an
touching each other, but are electrically separated insulator.
either by air or by some form of a good insulating
material such as waxed paper, mica, ceramic, plastic However, when a capacitor is connected to an
or some form of a liquid gel as used in electrolytic alternating current or AC circuit, the flow of the
capacitors. The insulating layer between a capacitors current appears to pass straight through the capacitor
plates is commonly called the Dielectric. with little or no resistance.
5.4 How A Capacitor Is Charged
When a DC voltage is placed across a capacitor, the

positive (+ve) charge quickly accumulates on one
plate while a corresponding and opposite negative (-
ve) charge accumulates on the other plate.
Once the capacitor reaches its steady state condition

an electrical current is unable to flow through the
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 34

capacitor itself and around the circuit due to the

insulating properties of the dielectric used to separate
the plates.
The flow of electrons onto the plates is known as the

capacitors Charging Current which continues to Standard Units of Capacitance
flow until the voltage across both plates (and hence Microfarad (μF) 1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-
the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vc. At 6 F
this point the capacitor is said to be “fully charged”
with electrons. Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 =
0.000000001 = 10-9 F
5.5 The Capacitance Of A Capacitor Picofarad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 =
0.000000000001 = 10-12 F
The property of a capacitor to store charge on its
plates in the form of an electrostatic field is called 5.6 Capacitance Of A Parallel Plate Capacitor
the Capacitance of the capacitor.
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is
Not only that, but capacitance is also the property of a proportional to the area, A in metres square, m2 of the
capacitor which resists the change of voltage across it. smallest of the two plates and inversely proportional
to the distance or separation, d (i.e. the dielectric
Capacitance is the electrical property of a capacitor thickness) given in metres between these two
and is the measure of a capacitors ability to store an conductive plates.
electrical charge onto its two plates with the unit of
capacitance being the Farad (abbreviated to F). The generalised equation for the capacitance of a
parallel plate capacitor is given
Capacitance is defined as being that a capacitor has as: C = ε(A/d) where ε represents the absolute
the capacitance of One Farad when a charge of One permittivity of the dielectric material being used. The
Coulomb is stored on the plates by a voltage of One dielectric constant, εo also known as the “permittivity
volt.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 35

of free space” has the value of the constant 8.84 x 10-

12
Farads per metre.
Ɛ O Ɛ r (n−1) A
Capacitance, C=
d
Multi-plate Capacitor
Now we have five plates connected to one lead (A) Where Ɛo = 8.85 x 10 -12 F/m = permittivity of free
and four plates to the other lead (B). Then BOTH space
sides of the four plates connected to lead B are in
contact with the dielectric, whereas only one side of Ɛr = relative permittivity
each of the outer plates connected to A is in contact
with the dielectric. Then as above, the useful surface n = number of conducting plates
area of each set of plates is only eight and its
capacitance is therefore given as: A = area between plates
d = distance between plates
Worked Example
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 36

A parallel plate capacitor has nineteen interleaved 3. The type of insulating material, ( relative
plates each 75 mm by 75 mm separated by mica permittivity )
sheets 0.2 mm thick. Assuming the relative
permittivity of the mica is 5, calculate the capacitance 4. Permittivity of free space
of the capacitor.
5. Number of parallel plates
Data
Number of plates, n = 19 5.8 Working Voltage Of A Capacitor
Area of plates, A = 75 mm x 75 mm
Distance between plates, d = 0.2 mm The maximum amount of voltage that can be applied
Relative permittivity, Ɛ r = 5 to the capacitor without damage to its dielectric
Permittivity of free space, Ɛ o =8.85 x 10−12 F /m material is DC working voltage.
If the voltage applied across the capacitor becomes

Solution
too great, the dielectric will break down (known as
Ɛ O Ɛ r (n−1) A
Capacitance, C = electrical breakdown) and arcing will occur between
d
the capacitor plates resulting in a short-circuit.
−12 −3 −3
8.85 x 10 x (19−1) x 75 x 10 x 75 x 10
C= −3
The working voltage of the capacitor depends on the
0.2 x 10 type of dielectric material being used and its
thickness.
C = 0.0224μF or 22.4nF
In practice, a capacitor should be selected so that its
5.7 Factors Affecting The Capacitance Of A working voltage either DC or AC should be at least 50
Capacitor percent greater than the highest effective voltage to be
applied to it.
1. The area of the plates
Another factor which affects the operation of a
2. The distance between the plates capacitor is Dielectric Leakage. Dielectric leakage
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 37

occurs in a capacitor as the result of an unwanted  Inverters and converters

leakage current which flows through the dielectric
material. 5.11 Charge On A Capacitor
5.9 Types Of Capacitors The charge, Q of a capacitor is given as:
1. Electrolytic Capacitor Q=C x V [Coulomb], or Q=I x t [ Coulomb ]

2. Mica Capacitor
3. Paper Capacitor Units
4. Film Capacitor
5. Non-Polarized Capacitor Charge is measured in coulombs, C, capacitance is
6. Ceramic Capacitor measured in farad, F, and Voltage is measured in volt,
V.
Below is a triangle for charge, capacitance and

voltage.
5.10 Application And Uses Of Capacitors
 Tuning Transmitters,
 Receivers
 Transistor Radios.
 Power factor correction

There are three different formulas as shown below.
 Filter or smoothing circuits
 Amplifier
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 38

Definition for the unit of capacitance, FARAD

is “capacitance of a capacitor which requires a charge
of one coulomb to establish a potential difference of
one volt between its plates”
5.12 Charging & Discharging Of A Capacitor

Once the capacitor is “fully-charged” in theory it will
Consider the following circuit. Assume that the maintain its state of voltage charge even when the
capacitor is fully discharged and the switch connected supply voltage has been disconnected as they act as a
to the capacitor has just been moved to position A. sort of temporary storage device.
The voltage across the 100μf capacitor is zero at this However, while this may be true of an “ideal”
point and a charging current ( I ) begins to flow capacitor, a real capacitor will slowly discharge itself
charging up the capacitor until the voltage across the over a long period of time due to the internal leakage
plates is equal to the 12v supply voltage. currents flowing through the dielectric.
The charging current stops flowing and the capacitor This is an important point to remember as large value
is said to be “fully-charged”. Then, Vc = Vs = 12v. capacitors connected across high voltage supplies can
still maintain a significant amount of charge even
when the supply voltage is switched “OFF”.
If the switch was disconnected at this point, the

capacitor would maintain its charge indefinitely, but
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 39

due to internal leakage currents flowing across its 5.13 Charging And Discharge Curves Of A
dielectric the capacitor would very slowly begin to Capacitor
discharge itself as the electrons passed through the
dielectric.
The time taken for the capacitor to discharge down to

37% of its supply voltage is known as its Time
Constant.
If the switch is now moved from position A to

position B, the fully charged capacitor would start to
discharge through the lamp now connected across it,
illuminating the lamp until the capacitor was fully
discharged as the element of the lamp has a resistive
value.
The brightness of the lamp and the duration of

illumination would ultimately depend upon the
capacitance value of the capacitor and the resistance
of the lamp (t = R*C). The larger the value of the
capacitor the brighter and longer will be the
illumination of the lamp as it could store more charge.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 40

5.14 Energy In A Capacitor W = 2025 x 10−6 Joules
When a capacitor charges up from the power supply W = 2 . 025 x 10−3 J =2 . 025 mJ
connected to it, an electrostatic field is established
which stores energy in the capacitor. 5.15 Capacitors In Parallel
The amount of energy in Joules that is stored in this Capacitors are connected together in parallel when
electrostatic field is equal to the energy the voltage both of its terminals are connected to each terminal of
supply exerts to maintain the charge on the plates of another capacitor.
the capacitor and is given by the formula:
1 2
Energy , W = C V [Joules , J ]
2
Example
A 200μF capacitor has 450 V stored on its plates.

Determine the energy stored in the capacitor.
When capacitors are connected together in parallel the
Data total or equivalent capacitance, CT in the circuit is equal
to the sum of all the individual capacitors added
Capacitance, C = 200μF = 200 x 10−6 F together.
Voltage, V = 450 V C T =C 1 +C2 +C 3 [Farad , F ]
Solution The charge, Q on each capacitor is given as, Q = CV.

1 2 1 −6 2
Energy stored, W = 2 C V = 2 x 200 x 10 x 450 The total charge is given as QT =Q1+ Q2+Q 3
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 41

The voltage across capacitors connected in parallel is Therefore, the total capacitance between point A and
common or the same. The charges on each capacitor B is 0.6μF.
are different.
2. When a supply voltage of 12V is applied to the
circuit, as shown below. Calculate the:
WORKED EXAMPLE a) Total capacitance
1. For the circuit shown below, calculate the total b) Charge on each plate
capacitance.
c) Total charge.
Data
C1 = 0.1μF, C2 = 0.2μF and C3 = 0.3μF Data
SOLUTION C1 = 0.1μF, C2 = 0.2μF and C3 = 0.3μF and Voltage, V

= 12V
Since the capacitances are in the same units.
SOLUTION
Total capacitance, CT = C1 + C2 + C3
a) Total capacitance, CT = C1 + C2 + C3
CT = 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.3 [ μF ]
CT = 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.3 [ μF ]
CT = 0.6μF
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 42

CT = 0.6μF 5.16 Capacitors Connected In Series
b) Charge on each capacitor: Capacitors are connected together in series when they
are together in a single line.
Q1 = C1 x V = 0.1 x 10 -6 x 12 = 1.2μC
For series connected capacitors, the charging current
Q2 = C2 x V = 0.2 x 10 x 12 = 2.4μC
-6
( IC ) flowing through the capacitors is the same for all
capacitors as it only has one path to follow.
Q3 = C3 x V = 0.3 x 10 -6 x 12 = 3.6μC
Then, Capacitors in Series all have the same current
c) Total charge, QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 flowing through them as IT = I1= I2 = I3 etc. Therefore
each capacitor will store the same amount of electrical
QT = 1.2 + 2.4 + 3.6 = 7.2μC charge, Q on its plates regardless of its capacitance.
This is because the charge stored by a plate of any one
Alternatively, Total Charge, QT = CT x V capacitor must have come from the plate of its
adjacent capacitor. Therefore, capacitors connected
QT = 0.6 x 10−6 x 12=7.2 μC together in series must have the same charge.
Exercise
1. Capacitors of 2 µF and 6 µF are connected in
parallel. Determine the equivalent capacitance in each
case.
2. Capacitances of 4 µF, 8 µF and 16 µF are
connected in parallel across a 200 V supply.
Determine (a) the equivalent or total capacitance,
(b) the total charge and (c) the charge on each For capacitors connected in series, the total
capacitor. capacitance is given as:
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 43

1 1 1 1
= + +
C T C 1 C2 C 3
The charge on each capacitor is the same on all the

capacitor provided they are connected in series.
QT =Q1=Q2=Q3
But the voltages across each capacitors are different. Data

Q 1 Q T C 1=0.1 μ F, C 2=0.2 μ F, C 3=0.3 μF
Voltage across C1, V C 1= C ∨ C
1 1
Supply Voltage, V AB=12 V
Q 2 Q T
Voltage across C2, V C 2= C ∨ C Solution
2 2
Q Q 1 1 1 1
3
Voltage across C3, V C 3= C ∨ C
T
Total capacitance, C = C + C + C
3 3 T 1 2 3
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 1 1 1
= + +
CT 0.1 0.2 0.3
For the circuit shown below, calculate the total
capacitance and voltage across each capacitor.
1 6+ 3+2
=
CT 0.6
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 44

1 11
=
CT 0.6
CLASS WORK
0.6
C T= = 0.0546μF
11 Calculate the total capacitance, total charge, and
voltage across each capacitor.
Total Charge, QT =CT V =0.0546 x 10−6 x 12
Q T =0.6552 x 10 =0.6552 μ F
−6
Since in series circuit, the charge on each plates are

the same. QT =Q=Q1=Q 2=Q3
−6
Q 0.6552 x 10
V C 1= = =6.552 V
C1 0.1 x 10
−6
V C 2=
Q 0.6552 x 10
=
−6
=3.276 V
5.17 Series - Parallel Connection Of Capacitors
C2 0.2 x 10
−6
For the circuit shown below, calculate:
a) Total capacitance
−6
Q 0.6552 x 10
V C 3= = =2.184 V
C3 0.3 x 10−6 b) Total charge
c) Voltage across each capacitor
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 45

In the diagram, C 1=C P∧C 2=C 3 .Please, take note.

Data
1 1 1 1 1 3+1 4
= + = + = =
Let C 1=2 μ F, C 2=3 μ F, C 3=15 μ F and CT C P C 3 5 15 15 15
V = 240V 15
Therefore, C T = 4 =3.75 μF
Solution
b) Total charge,
a) Total capacitance, −6 −6
QT =CT x V =3.75 x 10 x 240=900 x 10 C
i) Parallel group, C P =C1 +C 2=2+¿3 [ μ F ]
QT =900 μC
C P =5 μ F
c) Voltage across each capacitor,
Now, the circuit becomes a series circuit as shown
below: Voltage across the parallel group,
QT 900 x 10−6
V P= = =180 V
CP 5 x 10−6
NOTE: The voltage across the 2μF and 3μF is 180V,

because they are connected in parallel.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 46

Voltage across the 15μF capacitor. Class Work
QT 900 x 10−6 1. Calculate the total capacitance and the total charge.
V C 3= = =60 μ F
C3 15 x 10−6
2. Find the total capacitance the circuit shown below.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 47

CHAPTER 6
6.1 Inductor
An inductor consists of a length of insulated wire

wound around a former, which can be a plastic rod or
tube. The inductor can have a core inside the tube, or
just have air as a core.
6.2 Function of inductors in a circuit
Inductors are components that are designed to:

a. oppose changes in current flow
b. store electrical energy in the form of the magnetic
field surrounding them
c. induce an electromotive force (e.m.f) or voltage
when a change of current occurs
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 48

2. chokes – ballast unit in lighting systems

3. transformer windings
4. tuned circuits - enable the selection of a desired
radio or television station
5. Filter- to smooth waveforms or to suppress
unwanted frequencies
6. Automobiles – to develop high voltages across the
spark plug gap.
7. Moving cool in permanent magnet moving coil
6.3. Inductance
instrument
An inductance is the property of an electrical inductor.
6.6 Magnetic Field Around A Conductor
Inductance is the ability of an inductor to induce
e.m.f. whenever a changing magnetic flux cuts the A conductor carrying current will produce a magnetic
coil. The symbol for inductance is “L” and it is field around the conductor. This field has a circular
measured in Henry (H). shape and exist along the whole length of the
conductor.
6.4 Unit Of Inductance
A circuit has an inductance of one Henry when a

current changing at the rate of one ampere per second,
induces an e.m.f of one volt in the circuit.
6.5 Application And Uses Of Inductors
1. relay – electromagnetic switches
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 49

How To Determine The Direction Of Magnetic magnetic field is the same as that of the rotation of
Flux Around A Conductor screw.
The direction of a magnetic field around a conductor The thread around the screw represent the magnetic
can be found using the right hand grip rule. field around the conductor.
It is known as Maxwell’s corkscrew rule or Right
Imagine grasping a conductor in the right hand as handed corkscrew rule.
shown below, the thumb indicates the direction of
conventional current flow. The fingers of the right
hand curled around the conductor indicate the
direction of flow of magnetic flux.
6.7 Magnetic Fields Around Parallel Conductor

If two parallel conductors carry the same current, the
direction of the magnetic fields around each conductor
will interlink and oppose each other between the
conductors.
Maxwell’s Screw Rule

If a right handed corkscrew is assumed to be held
along the conductor, and screw is rotated such that it
moves in the direction of the current, the direction of
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 50

Current flow in the same direction
There is no flux where the two fluxes oppose each

other between the conductors. But there is an aiding
flux which flow around both conductor
6.8 Magnetic Fields Around Coils
When a conductor is bent into a loop or coil the 6.9 Solenoid

direction of the magnetic fields inside the coil
coincide, and gathers together and leave out at one When wire coils are formed into a series of
point where they split to move around their individual continuous loops called a solenoids, the effects
conductors describe above produce a magnetic field pattern that is
similar to that around a bar magnet, when electric
current is passed through it.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 51

Reluctance is the opposition to the flow of magnetic

flux.
Electromagnet: Producing magnetic field by passing

current through a solenoid is termed electromagnet.
All inductors are somehow electromagnets.
6.11 Electromagnetic Induction
When a changing current flows through a coil, it

produces a changing magnetic field which links the
coil, and induces EMF in it. The phenomenon or
process is called electromagnetic induction. And the
coils are said to possessed inductance.
6.10 Terminologies In Magnetism
Production Of Induced E. M. F And Current
Magnetic flux is the flow of magnetism from the There are two ways by which an e. m. f can be
north to the south pole of a magnet. Magnetic Flux produced
flows along lines of magnetic force that make up a i. When the coil (conductor) is made stationary
magnetic field. and there is a relative movement by the
magnetic field to the coil. (e.g. Alternators)
Permeability is the easiness for magnetic flux to flow ii. When the magnetic field is made stationary and
through a material or medium. the coil (conductor) is in relative motion to the
field. (D.C generators)
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 52

Faraday Laws Of Electromagnetic Induction

First Law:
Whenever a changing magnetic flux links a
circuit( coil, solenoid or conductor ) , an EMF is
always induced in it. OR whenever a conductor cuts
magnetic flux, an e.m.f is induced in that conductor.
Second Law:
It states that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f is
Stationary magnetic field and rotating coil or equal to the rate of change of flux linkages.
conductor.
Formula Work
When a coil has N turns and flux through it changes
from an initial value ofΦ1 to Φ 2 Weber’s in time, t,
seconds.
Flux linkages =NΦ

Initial Flux Linkage = N Φ1
Final Flux Linkage = N Φ2
N Φ 2−N Φ1 N (Φ2 −Φ1 )

Induced EMF =
t
= t
Rotating magnetic field and stationary coils.
Since induced e.m.f opposes the supply, it is
designated with a negative sign.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 53

−N (Φ2−Φ 1) ¿ 0.08 sec

∴ induced EMF =
t Solution
N xɸ
Average induced emf = t
150 x 0.0004
WORKED EXAMPLE Average induced emf = =0.75 V
0.08
1. Determine the e.m.f. induced in a coil of 200 turns
when there is a change of flux of 25mWb linking with
Direction Of Induced E. M. F And Current
it in 50 ms.
The direction of induced current may be found by
applying either Fleming’s Right-hand Rule or Flat-
Data
hand rule or Lenz’s Law.
Number of turns, N = 200 turns
Change in Flux, ɸ = 25 mWb = 25 x 10−3=0.025 Wb
Fleming’s rule is used where induced e.m.f is due to
Time, t = 50 ms = 50 x 10−3 seconds=0.05 sec
flux-cutting coils or conductors, and Lenz’s law is
used when there is changes in flux-linkages.
Solution
ɸ 0.025
EMF induced=N x =200 x =100 Volts Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule
t 0.05
Fleming’s right-hand rule shows the direction of
2. A flux of 400 µWb passing through a 150-turn coil induced e.m.f and current in generators.
is reversed in 40 ms. Find the average e.m.f. induced. It states that, Hold out the right hand with the first
Data finger, second finger and thumb at right angle to each
Magnetic flux, ɸ = 400 μWb other.
= 400 x 10−6 Wb = 0.0004 Wb The fore finger represents the direction of the line of
force, the thumb points in the direction of motion or
applied force, then second finger points in the
Reversed time, = 2 x 40 ms = 80 x 10−3 second
direction of the induced e.m.f and current
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 54

the process is called self induction. This e.m.f is

called self-induced e.m.f. And the coil is said to
possess the property of self-inductance.
Lenz’s Law
Lenz’s law states that when an e.m.f is generated by a
change in magnetic flux, the polarity or direction of
the induced e.m.f is such, that it produces a current
that creates a magnetic field to oppose the change
which produces it.
Factors That determines Induced E.M.F

1. Flux density The Unit Of Self Inductance
2. Length of conductor The unit of self-inductance is the Henry, and may be
3. Angle of displacement between coils and field defined as:
4. The number of turns A coil has a self –inductance of one Henry if one volt
5. The magneto motive force is induced in it when current through it change at the
rate of one ampere per second.
6.12 Self Induction ΦN dI

L=
I
e = -L dt ,
When a changing current in a coil creates a changing
magnetic field to cut the coil and induces EMF in it,
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 55

dI dI
where dt = rate of current change emf = L x dt
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
1500 = L x 0.008
1. Calculate the e.m.f. induced in a coil of inductance
12 H by a current changing at the rate of 4 A/s.
1500 = L x 5000
1500
Data L= =0.3 H
5000
Inductance, L = 12 H
Current I
Rate of current change, time = t , = 4 A/s 6.13 Mutual Induction
When two coils are arranged so that the changing

Solution magnetic field produced by the first coil cuts the turns
I
Induced emf = L x t =¿12 x 4 = 56 V of the second coil and induces emf in it, the process is
called mutual induction. An e.m.f induced between
two coils is termed mutually induced e.m.f and the
2. An e.m.f. of 1.5 k V is induced in a coil when a
coils are said to possess mutual inductance.
current of 4 A collapses uniformly to zero in 8 ms.
Determine the inductance of the coil.
Data
EMF = 1.5 k V = 1.5 x 103 =1500V
Current = 4 A
Time, t = 8 ms = 8 x 10−3 sec
Solution
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 56

4. Spark plugs in automobile

Unit of mutual inductance (M) 5. Tune circuits in radio and television
The unit of mutual inductance is the Henry (H), and 6. Moving coil instruments
may be defined as:
Two coils are said to have a mutual inductance of one 6.15 Application Of Mutual Inductance
henry if current changing at the rate of 1
ampere/second in one coil induces an e.m.f of one volt 1. Transformers
in the other. 2. Motors (D.C)
3. Generator (D.C)
Factors That Determine Inductance Of Inductor 4. Alternators (A.C generators)
1. Number of turns 5. Induction motors (single phase and three phase)
2. Cross-sectional area (A) of coil
3. Length of coil Application Of Electromagnetic
4. Relative permeability of the core The applications of inductors, self –inductance and
5. Flux linkage mutual inductance are electromagnets
6. Rate of current change
6.16 Force On A Conductor Carrying Current In A

Magnetic Field
6.14 Application Of Self Inductance
Whenever a conductor carrying current is placed
Chokes
within a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical
1. Ballast unit force.
2. Auto transformer The direction of the force is determined by Fleming’s
3. Relays left hand rule.
And the magnitude of the force is given by,
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 57

Current, I = 70 A
F=B I lsin θ [ N ] Angle, θ1 = Right angle = 90 0
Flux density, B = 1.5 T
Where Length, L = 200 mm = 200 x 10−3 m
F= force acting on conductor measured in newton’s Angle, θ2 = 45 0
(N)
B = magnetic flux density (B) measured in Tesla (T) Solution
l = length of conductor measure in metres (m) Force when Angle, θ1 = Right angle = 90 0
I = current in amperes. F=BILsin θ1
θ = angle between magnetic field and conductor, −3
F=1.5 x 70 x 200 x 10 x sin 90
0
measured in degrees F = 21 Newton

Force, Angle, θ2 = 45 0
F=BILsinθ2
−3 0
F=1.5 x 70 x 200 x 10 xSin 45
F = 21 x 0.707 = 14.85 Newtons
CLASS WORK 1
WORKED EXAMPLE 1. Calculate the current required in a 240 mm length
1. A conductor carries a current of 70 A at right of conductor of a D.C. motor when the conductor is
angles to a magnetic field having a flux density of 1.5 situated at right-angles to the magnetic field of flux
T. If the length of the conductor in the field is 200 mm density 1.25 T, if a force of 1.20 N is to be exerted on
calculate the force acting on the conductor. What is the conductor. [4.0A]
the force when the conductor and field are at an angle
of 450? [21.0 N, 14.8 N] CLASS WORK 2
2. A conductor 30 cm long is situated at right angles
Data to a magnetic field. Calculate the flux density of the
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 58

magnetic field if a current of 15 A in the conductor

produces a force on it of 3.6 N. [0.80 T] Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule
Fleming’s left-hand rule is used to determine the
HOME WORK direction of a force on a conductor carrying current in
A conductor 300 mm long carries a current of 13A a magnetic field.
and is at right-angles to a magnetic field between two
circular pole faces, each of diameter 80 mm. If the It states that, by stretching three fingers of the left
total flux between the pole faces is 0.75 mWb hand in perpendicular with each other, the middle
calculate the force exerted on the conductor. [0.582N] represents the direction of current, the second finger
represents direction of magnetic field and the thumb
finger
6.17 Application Of Force On A Current Carrying

Conductor In A Magnetic Field
1. D.C motors
2. A.C motors
3. Induction motors
4. Moving coil instruments
5. Generators
6. Loud speakers
7. Microphones
8. Dynamometer instrument
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 59

6.18 Energy Stored In An Inductor 4. State what happens when a current-carrying

conductor is placed in a magnetic field between two
As current increases through the inductor, a resulting magnets.
magnetic field expands, surrounding the coil. 5. The force on a current-carrying conductor in a
When current tries to decrease, the expanded field magnetic field depends on four factors. Name them.
collapses and tries to prevent the current from 6. The direction of the force on a conductor in a
decreasing. magnetic field may be predetermined using Fleming’s
As the field expands, the inductor absorbs and stores ...... rule.
energy. When the field collapses, it effectively 7. State three applications of the force on a current-
returns that stored energy to the circuit. carrying conductor.
Energy stored in an inductor is directly proportional to
the inductance and square of the current
Energy stored in inductor, WL = ½ L I2 [Joules]
POSSIBLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. The direction of the magnetic field around a
current-carrying conductor may be remembered using
the ...... rule.
2. Sketch the magnetic field pattern associated with a
solenoid connected to a battery and wound on an iron
bar. Show the direction of the field.
3. Name three applications of electromagnetism.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 60

CHAPTER 7
7.2 Magnetic Pole
7.0 MAGNETISM
The magnetic strength of a magnet is maximum at a
7.1 Concept Of Magnetism point nearer to the ends of the magnet. These points of
a magnet are called magnetic poles. Each magnet does
Magnets are utilized for operating all kinds of
have two poles and these are the North Pole and South
electrical machines. Hence we should have a deep
Pole. If we hang a magnet freely one magnetic pole
concept of magnets and magnetism. The property of a
will face towards the north and another pole will face
magnet is called magnetism.
towards the south. The pole faces north is called the
North Pole and the pole faces south is known as the
The magnet is an element which can attract
South Pole. Generally, the North Pole and South Pole
magnetic materials.
are denoted by N and S respectively.
Normally a magnet can attract iron, cobalt, steel,

nickel. If a magnetic piece is made free to rotate, it
will always align along north and south.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 61

7.3 Magnetic Materials 4. If a magnet is heated, or hammered the magnet

can lose its magnetism.
1. Ferro Magnetic Materials: these materials are 5. If a magnet is divided into many pieces each of
strongly attracted by a magnet. The examples of the pieces behaves as a complete magnet.
Ferromagnetic materials are iron, steel, nickel,
cobalt, some metallic alloys. The relative 7.5 Types of Magnets
permeability of these materials is very high.
2. Para Magnetic Materials: these materials are Magnets are of two types – natural magnet and
attracted by a magnet but not very strongly. The artificial magnet. Magnets that are found in mining
examples of paramagnetic materials are aluminum, areas are called natural magnets.
tin, platinum, magnesium, manganese etc. The Magnet that are produced by man are termed artificial
relative permeability of these materials is slightly magnets.
more than one.
3. Dia Magnetic Materials: these materials are not Artificial magnets are of two types – permanent
at all attracted by any magnet. The relative magnet and temporary magnet.
permeability of these materials is less than one.
The examples of diamagnetic materials are zinc, A permanent magnet can be produced from alloyed
mercury, lead, sulfur, copper, silver etc. steel.
7.4 Properties of Magnets An iron piece can be made permanent magnet by

rubbing of another magnet on it.
1. Magnet always attracts magnetic materials.
2. Magnet always tries to align along north and An iron piece can also be made magnet by winding
south. conductor around the iron piece and by supplying
3. Similar magnetic poles repulse each other. current through the conductor. This type of magnets
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 62

are called electromagnets. They are also temporal 7.7 Differences between Permanent Magnets and
magnet, which loses it magnetic properties when the Temporary Magnets
supply is switched off.
1. The magnetic strength of a permanent magnet is
fixed whereas the strength of a temporary magnet or
Permanent magnets have their own magnetism, and
electromagnet can be changed as per requirements.
they are made up of ferromagnetic material like iron
2. The polarities of a permanent magnet are fixed but
or nickel or alnico alloys, while electromagnets are
the polarities of the electromagnet can be altered as
coils which produce the magnetic field when an
per requirement.
electric current passes through the coil.
3. A permanent magnet does not lose its magnetism
instantaneously but after switching off the supply the
7.6 Applications of Permanent Magnet
magnetism of the electromagnet suddenly vanishes.
 Permanent bar magnets are used in laboratories for 4. A permanent magnet is not a very strong magnet
various scientific experiments. but the strength of an electromagnet can be increased
much higher than a same sized permanent magnet by
 U shaped magnets and ring magnets are used in increasing supply current.
different instruments like electrical energy meters, 5. By heating or hammering the magnetism of a
protection relays, watches, meggers, loudspeakers permanent magnet can be destroyed. The magnetism
etc. of electromagnet can be lost by interrupting supply
current.
 Needle magnets are used to detect the polarity of
different electrical machines. 7.8 Magnetic Field
The magnetic field is a field, produced by electric

charges in motion. It is a field of force causing a force
on material like iron when placed in the vicinity of the
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 63

field. Magnetic field does not require any medium to The area around a magnet where the magnetic force
propagate; it can propagate even in a vacuum. Also, produced by the magnet can be detected is called
the energy storing capacity of the magnetic field is magnetic field.
greater than the electric field, this distinguishes
magnetic field from the electric field, and therefore it
is utilized in almost every electromechanical devices
like transformers, motors and generators. Earth also
has its natural magnetism which protects it from solar
waves from the sun. Further, it provides an operating
field for a magnetic compass to operate.
7.9 Laws Of Attraction And Repulsion
The direction of a line of flux is from the north pole to

the south pole on the outside of the magnet and is then
assumed to continue through the magnet back to the
point at which it emerged at the north pole. Thus such
lines of flux always form complete closed loops or
paths, they never intersect and always have a definite
direction.
The laws of magnetic attraction and repulsion can be
Definition Of Magnetic Field demonstrated by using two bar magnets. In Figure
below, with unlike poles adjacent, attraction takes
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 64

place. Lines of flux are imagined to contract and the 7.10 Magnetic Flux And Flux Density
magnets try to pull together.
The magnetic field is strongest in between the two Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field (or the
magnets, shown by the lines of flux being close number of lines of force) produced by a magnetic
together. In the diagram below, with similar poles source. The symbol for magnetic flux is Φ (Greek
adjacent (i.e. two north poles), repulsion occurs, i.e. letter ‘phi’). The unit of magnetic flux is the weber,
the two north poles try to push each other apart, since Wb.
magnetic flux lines running side by side in the same Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux passing
direction repel. through a defined area that is perpendicular to the
direction of the
flux:
magnetic flux , Φ
Magnetic flux density , B=
Area , A
The unit of magnetic flux density is the tesla, T.

Φ
B= [Tesla]
A
The first diagram represents like pole repelling each
other, while the second diagram at the right shows Work Example
unlike poles that attracts. 1. A magnetic pole face has a rectangular section
having dimensions 200 mm by 100 mm. If the total
flux emerging from the pole is 150 µWb, calculate the
flux density.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 65

since ‘turns’ have no dimensions, the S.I. unit of

m.m.f. is the ampere.
Area of a rectangle, A = 200 mm x 100 mm Magnetic field strength, H is the magneto-motive
Magnetic flux, Φ = 150µWb force per unit length. It unit is ampere per meter.
Magnetomot ive force , mmf
magnetic field strength , H =
length , l
SOLUTION
Magnetic flux
Magnetic flux density, B = Area
150 x 10−6
H=
MMF A
L m [ ]
B= −3 −3
EXAMPLE 2
200 x 10 x 100 x 10
150 x 10−6 A current of 5 A is passed through a 1000-turn coil
B= −6
20000 x 10 wound on a circular magnetic circuit of length 120
B = 0.0075 T answer. mm. Calculate (a) the magneto motive force, and (b)
the magnetic field strength.
7.11 Magneto-motive Force And Magnetic Field DATA

Strength Current, I = 5A
Magneto-motive force (m.m.f.) is the cause of the
Length of circular magnetic circuit, l = 120 m
existence of a magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit,
MMF , Fm=¿
where N is the number of conductors (or turns) and I SOLUTION
is the current in amperes. The unit of m.m.f is Now,
sometimes expressed as ‘ampere-turns’. However a) Magneto motive force, Fm = IN
FM = 5 x 1000 =
5000 turns
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 66

¿ For air, or any non-magnetic medium, the ratio of

b) Magnetic field strength, H= l
5 x 1000 magnetic flux density to magnetizing force is a
H= 120 constant, i.e. B/H = a constant. This constant is µ0, the
H = 41.66 A/m permeability of free space (or the magnetic space
constant) and is equal to 4 π x 10−7H/m, i.e. for air, or
EXERCISE any non-magnetic medium, the ratio:
1. State six practical applications of magnets µ0=
B
2. What is a permanent magnet? H
3. Sketch the pattern of the magnetic field associated (Although all non-magnetic materials, including air,
with a bar magnet. Mark the direction of the field. exhibit slight magnetic properties, these can
4. Define magnetic flux effectively be neglected.) For all media other than free
5. Define magnetic flux density. space,
B
µ0 µr =
H
7.12 MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY
Relative Permeability
Magnetic permeability is the ability of a material to Where, µ r, is the relative permeability, and is defined
respond to how much electromagnetic flux it can as the ratio of flux density in a material to flux density
support to pass through itself within an applied in a vacuum.
electromagnetic field.
flux density ∈a material
In other word magnet permeability is the easiness µr=
flux density ∈ vacuum
with which a magnetic material allows the free
passage of magnetic flux through it. µr varies with the type of magnetic material and, since
it is a ratio of flux densities, it has no unit. From its
Permeability Of Free Space definition, µr for a vacuum is 1. µ0 µr =µ , called the
absolute permeability
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 67

Class Work 2
Reluctance Define the following terms:
It is the opposition to the passage of magnetic flux in i. Magnets
a magnetic circuit. It is represented by S, and it unit ii. Electromagnets
is Siemens or Ampere/weber. iii. Magneto motive force
Magnetomotive force , Fm iv. Permeability of free space
Reluctance , S=
Magnetic flux ,Φ
v. Reluctance
5. LIST five magnetic materials
6. State FIVE properties of a magnet
Class Exercise 1
7. State four main difference between permanent and
1. What is the flux density in a magnetic field of cross- temporal magnets
sectional area 20 cm2 having a flux of 3mWb? 8. Draw and label a bar magnet.
[ANSWER = 1.5 T] 9. Define magnetic flux or field.
2. Determine the total flux emerging from a magnetic 10. State the laws of magnet
pole face having dimensions 5 cm by 6 cm, if the flux
density is 0.9 T [ANSWER = 2.7 mWb]
3. Find the magnetic field strength applied to a
magnetic circuit of mean length 50 cm when a coil of
400 turns is applied to it carrying a current of 1.2 A
[ ANSWER = 960 A/m]
4. A solenoid 20 cm long is wound with 500 turns of
wire. Find the current required to establish a
magnetizing force of 2500 A/m inside the solenoid.
[ANSWER = 1 A]
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 68

certain value were it cannot increase any more

becoming almost level and constant as the field
strength continues to increase.
7.14 MAGNETIZATION OR B-H CURVE
Magnetic Saturation or Saturation of the Core.
It is the state where a magnetic material is fully

magnetised. It is when any increase in the
magnetising force will not have any effect on the
magnetic flux density.
Retentivity
There is some magnetic flux that remains in the

The set of magnetization curves above represents an
magnetic material even when the current has stopped
example of the relationship between B and H for soft-
flowing in the coil.
iron, steel cores and air.
You may notice that the flux density increases in

proportion to the field strength until it reaches a
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 69

This ability for a coil to retain some of its magnetism The Magnetic Hysteresis loop above, shows the
within the core after the magnetization process has behavior of a ferromagnetic core graphically as the
stopped is called retentivity or remanence. relationship between B and H is non-linear.
The amount of flux density remaining in the core is After the magnetic material is fully magnetized and
called Residual Magnetism, BR. has reached the saturation point, the material cannot
be magnetised any more. If the supply is switched off,
Coercive Force, HC is the magnetizing force reversed the magnetic curve takes the path from a-b-c-d-e-f-a.
in order to remove the residual magnetism.
This path is called hysteresis loop
However, soft ferromagnetic materials such as iron or

silicon steel have very narrow magnetic hysteresis
loops resulting in very small amounts of residual
magnetism making them ideal for use in relays,
Magnetic Hysteresis Loop solenoids and transformers as they can be easily
magnetized and demagnetised.
Hysteresis Loss
Since a coercive force must be applied to overcome

this residual magnetism, work must be done in closing
the hysteresis loop with the energy being used being
dissipated as heat in the magnetic material. This heat
is known as hysteresis loss, the amount of loss
depends on the material’s value of coercive force.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 70

Magnetic Hysteresis results in the dissipation of

wasted energy in the form of heat with the energy
wasted being in proportion to the area of the magnetic
hysteresis loop. Hysteresis losses will always be a
problem in AC transformers where the current is
constantly changing direction and thus the magnetic
poles in the core will cause losses because they
constantly reverse direction.
Rotating coils in DC machines will also incur

hysteresis losses as they are alternately passing north EXERCISES
the south magnetic poles. As said previously, the
shape of the hysteresis loop depends upon the nature 1. What is hysteresis loss?
of the iron or steel used and in the case of iron which
is subjected to massive reversals of magnetism, for 2. Draw a typical hysteresis loop and on it identify:
example transformer cores, it is important that the B- (a) saturation flux density (b) remanence (c) coercive
H hysteresis loop is as small as possible. force
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 71

3. State the units of (a) remanence (b) coercive force 8.2 Advantages Of Ac As Compared To Dc
4. How is magnetic screening achieved? 1. It is easier and cheaper to generate alternating

current (a.c.) than direct current (D.C.).
2. AC is more conveniently distributed than d.c. since
its voltage can be altered using transformers.
3. Whenever d.c. is needed in preference to a.c.,
devices called rectifiers are used for conversion.
8.3 Generation Of Alternating Voltages And

Currents
Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a

coil in a magnetic field, as shown in Fig. 11.1(a) or by
rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil, as
shown in Fig. 11.1(b).
CHAPTER 8
8.1 Alternating Current Theory
An alternating current or voltage is one that

reverses its direction at regularly intervals.
Electricity is produced by generators at power stations
and then distributed by a vast network of transmission
lines (called the National Grid system) to industry and
for domestic use.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 72

Figure 11.1
The value of the voltage generated depends, in each

case, upon:
i. The number of turns in the coil,
ii. Strength of the field and,
iii. The speed at which the coil or magnetic
field rotates.
Alternating voltage may be generated in either of the
two ways shown above, but rotating-field method is
the one which is mostly used in practice.
8.4 Definition Of Important Terminologies In Ac
Theory
The Sinusoidal Waveform Cycle

According to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic
Induction, the e.m.f. induced in the coil is given by One complete set of positive and negative values of
the rate of change of flux-linkages of the coil. alternating quantity is known as cycle. Hence, each
It is seen that the induced e.m.f. varies as sine diagram of Fig. 11.6 represents one complete cycle.
function of the time angle, t and when e.m.f. is plotted One complete cycle is said to spread over 360º or 2π
against time, a curve is obtained, Fig. 11.3. This radians.
curve is known as sine curve and the e.m.f. which
varies in this manner is known as sinusoidal e.m.f.
Such a sine curve can be conveniently drawn, as Time Period
shown in Fig. 11.4.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 73

The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete When two alternating e.m.fs. (voltages,current etc.),
one cycle is called its time period T. For example, a reach their maximum and zero values at the same
50-Hz alternating current has a time period of 1/50 time, such alternating voltages (or currents) are said to
second. be in phase with each other.
Frequency
The number of cycles per second is called the
frequency of the alternating quantity. Its unit is hertz
(Hz).
PN
Frequency, F is given as F= 120 ; where
P = Number of poles
N = Speed in revolutions per minute.
Phase Difference
The angle between two or more alternating quantities,
It may be noted that the frequency is given by the
(voltage and current), is termed phase difference.
reciprocal of the time period of the alternating
quantity.
1
F= [ Hz]
T
Amplitude
It is the positive or negative maximum value of an
alternating quantity.
Phase
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 74

Lead – Lag Relationship In Sine Waveforms The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is of
A leading alternating quantity is one which reaches its considerable importance in practice, because the
maximum (or zero) value earlier as compared to the ammeters and voltmeters record the r.m.s. value of
other quantity. alternating current and voltage respectively.
Similarly, a lagging alternating quantity is one which In electrical engineering work, unless indicated
reaches its maximum or zero value later than the other otherwise, the values of the given current and voltage
quantity. are always the r.m.s. values.
Root-Mean-Square (R.M.S.) Value Average Value Of A Sine Wave

The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is given by It is the adding of instantaneous values of current over
that steady (d.c.) current which when flowing one half-cycle.
through a given circuit for a given time produces
the same heat as produced by the alternating Average value = 0.637 x Maximum value
current when flowing through the same circuit for Therefore, Average value of current = 0.637 x
the same time. maximum value of current.
Average value of voltage = 0.637 x maximum value
It is also known as the effective or virtual value of the of voltage.
alternating current.
Form-Factor Of A Sine Wave
Hence, we find that for a symmetrical sinusoidal It is defined as the ratio of the r.m.s value to the
current as: average value.
Rms Value
RMS Value of voltage , v rms=0.707 x maximum value of voltage
Form- factor, Kf = Average Value
RMS Value of current , I rms =0.707 x maximum value of current
The average value of a sine wave is 1.11
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 75

Crest Or Peak Or Amplitude Factor

It is the ratio of the maximum value to the r.m.s value
of a sine wave.
Maximum value
K F=
RMS Value
Peak – To – Peak Value Of A Sine Wave

It is defined as the value of the sinusoidal waveform
from positive maximum to negative maximum. It is
represented as Vpp, and it is twice the peak value, Vp.
V PP
V P= , therefore, V PP=2 V p
2
I pp
I p= , hence I pp=2 I P
2
8.5 The Sinusoidal Wave Of Alternating Current

Or Voltage
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 76

4. A supply voltage has a mean value of 150.

Determine its maximum value and its r.m.s. value.
5. Calculate the r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal curve of
maximum value 300 V.
6. Plot a sine wave of peak value 10.0 A. Show that
the average value of the waveform is 6.37 A over half
a cycle, and that the r.m.s. value is 7.07 A
EXERCISE 1
1. Define the following terms as applied to alternating
current theory.
I. Frequency
II. Period
III. Peak to peak value
IV. Amplitude
V. Maximum value
2. Determine the periodic time for the following
frequencies:
I. 100Hz
II. 200kHz
III. 50Hz
IV. 20kHz
3. Determine the peak and mean values for a 240 V
mains supply.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 77

Figure 2.1, Circuit and waveform diagram.
The current in a pure resistor is given as;

V
I= and power dissipated is represented by;
CHAPTER 9 R
2
P=I R
9.0 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUIT It is seen from the waveform diagram that, the current
and voltage attains their maximum values at the same
9.1 Purely Resistive A.C Circuit time.
In a purely resistive a.c circuit, the current IR and
applied voltage VR are in phase.
The resistance is defined as the property of a resistor
which oppose the flow of current in an alternating Figure 2.2; Phasor diagram of a purely resistive ac
current circuit. circuit.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 78

9.2 Purely Inductive A.C Circuit proportional to frequency, as shown below. It is seen
that, as the frequency increases in value the inductive
In a purely inductive a.c circuit, the current IL lags the reactance also increases proportionately.
applied voltage VL by 900 (i.e. π / 2 rads).
In a purely inductive circuit the opposition to the flow
of alternating current is called the inductive
reactance, XL. It is measured in Ohms [Ω].
V L
Inductive reactance, X L =2 π f L [Ω]. Also X L = I
L
Where f is the frequency in hertz [Hz], and L is

inductance in henry [H].
Class Exercises
1. Calculate the reactance of a coil of inductance
0.32H when it is connected to a 50HZ supply
2. A coil has an inductance of 40mH and negligible
resistance. Calculate its inductive reactance and
the resulting current if connected to:
I. a 240v, 50HZ supply
II. a 100v, 1KHZ supply
3. Calculate the reactance of a coil of inductance
9.3 Variation Of Inductive Reactance With 0.2H when it is connected to:
Frequency a. a 50HZ
b. a 600HZ
The variation of reactance with frequency is such that,
c. a 40KHZ supply
the value of inductive reactance is directly
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 79

2. A coil has a reactance of 120Ω in a circuit with a

supply frequency of 4KHZ. Calculate the
inductance of the coil
3. A supply of 240v, 50HZ is connected across a pure
inductance and the resulting current is 1.2A.
calculate the inductance of the coil
Figure 2.3 Circuit, Phasor and Waveform diagrams of

a purely capacitive ac circuit.
9.5 Variation Of Capacitive Reactance With

9.4 Purely Capacitive Circuit Frequency
In a purely capacitive a.c circuit, the current Ic leads
Capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the
the applied voltage Vc by 900 (i.e. π /2 rads).
frequency. This means that, as the value of the
In a purely capacitive circuit the opposition to the
frequency increases the inductive reactance decreases,
flow of alternating current is called the capacitive
as shown in the figure below.
reactance, Xc.
VC 1
X C= = [Ω]
VC 2 πfc
Where C is the capacitance in farad [F], f is frequency

in Hertz [Hz], Vc is the potential difference across the
capacitor, and Ic is the current through the capacitor.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 80

5. A capacitor has a reactance of 80µF when

connected to a 50 Hz supply. Calculate the value
of its capacitance.
6. Calculate the current taken by a 10µF capacitor
when connected to a 200 V, 100 Hz supply.
Class Exercises
1. Determine the capacitive reactance of a capacitor
of 10 μF when connected to a circuit of frequency
a. 50Hz b. 20KHZ
2. A capacitor has a reactance of 40Ω when operated
on a 50HZ supply. Determine the value of its
capacitance.
3. Calculate the current taken by a 23µF capacitor
when connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply.
4. Calculate the capacitive reactance of a capacitor of
20µF when connected to an a.c. circuit of
frequency (a) 20 Hz, (b) 500 Hz, (c) 4 kHz
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 81

CHAPTER 10
10.1 Understanding atomic structure
The primary particles of atoms are protons, neutrons,

and electrons. The proton (positive particles) and
neutrons (neutral particles) are located in the centre,
or nucleus of the atom.
In a normal, stable atom, the number of electrons in

the orbits must be exactly equal to the number of
protons in the nucleus. This means that the total
electrical charge of the atom is zero.
There is a definite limit to the number of electrons
that can be included in each electron orbit, or shell.
The formula use to determine the maximum number
of electrons a shell can carry is 2 n2 . n represents the
number of orbit or shell.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 82

Example:
Shell 1, n = 1, maximum number of electrons = 2 n2
= 2 x 12 = 2 x 1
=2
Shell 2, n = 2,
maximum number of electrons = 2 n2
= 2 x 22 = 2 x 4
=8 Therefore, the electronic behaviour of atom mainly
Shell 2, n = 3, depends on the number of electrons in its outermost
maximum number of electrons 2 n2 shell, or valence shell.
= 2 x 32 = 2 x 9
= 18 10.2 Valence Or Valency
Shell 4, n = 4,
maximum number of electrons = 2 n2 Valence electrons: Electrons included in the valence
= 2 x 4 2= 2 x 16 shell are called valence electrons.
= 32
The orbit or shell is labelled according to the Valence shell: it is the outer shell (Last shell) of the
following alphabets, K, L, M, N etc. atom.
Each shell represents a different energy level for the
electrons that occupy it. Valence band
The energy level increases with increasing distance
from the nucleus. The electrons move in the atoms in certain energy
Electrons located in the innermost shell possess the levels but the energy of the electrons in the innermost
least amount of energy, while those in the outermost shell is higher than the outermost shell electrons.
shell have the greatest amount of energy. The electrons that are present in the outermost shell
are called as Valance Electrons.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 83

These valance electrons, containing a series of energy The valence electrons, while going to the conduction
levels, form an energy band which is called as band, pass through this.
Valence Band. The forbidden energy gap if greater, means that the
The valence band is the band having the highest valence band electrons are tightly bound to the
occupied energy. nucleus.
Now, in order to push the electrons out of the valence
Conduction Band
band, some external energy is required, which would
The valence electrons are so loosely attached to the be equal to the forbidden energy gap.
nucleus that even at room temperature, few of the The following figure shows the valance band,
valence electrons leave the band to be free. conduction band, and the forbidden gap.
These are called as free electrons as they tend to
move towards the neighboring atoms.
These free electrons are the ones which conduct the
current in a conductor and hence called
as Conduction Electrons. The band which contains
conduction electrons is called as Conduction Band.
The conduction band is the band having the lowest
occupied energy.
Forbidden gap Depending upon the size of the forbidden gap, the
Insulators, the Semiconductors and the Conductors
The gap between valence band and conduction band are formed.
is called as forbidden energy gap. As the name
implies, this band is the forbidden one without Insulators
energy. Hence no electron stays in this band.
Insulators are such materials in which the conduction
cannot take place, due to the large forbidden gap.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 84

Examples: Wood, Rubber. The structure of energy Semiconductors are such materials in which the
bands in Insulators is as shown in the following forbidden energy gap is small and the conduction
figure. takes place if some external energy is applied.
Examples: Silicon, Germanium. The following figure

shows the structure of energy bands in
semiconductors.
Characteristics
The following are the characteristics of Insulators.

 The Forbidden energy gap is very large.
 Valance band electrons are bound tightly to Characteristics
atoms.
 The value of forbidden energy gap for an The following are the characteristics of
insulator will be of 10eV. Semiconductors.
 For some insulators, as the temperature increases,  The Forbidden energy gap is very small.
they might show some conduction.  The forbidden gap for Ge is 0.7eV whereas for Si
 The resistivity of an insulator will be in the order is 1.1eV.
of 107 ohm-meter.  A Semiconductor actually is neither an insulator,
nor a good conductor.
Semiconductors  As the temperature increases, the conductivity of
a semiconductor increases.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 85

 The conductivity of a semiconductor will be in  The free electrons available for conduction are
the order of 102 ohm-meter. plenty.
 A slight increase in voltage, increases the
conduction.
 There is no concept of hole formation, as a
Conductors continuous flow of electrons contribute the
current.
Conductors are such materials in which the forbidden
energy gap disappears as the valence band and
10.3 Important Terms
conduction band become very close that they overlap.
Examples: Copper, Aluminum. The following figure
There is a necessity to discuss a few important terms
shows the structure of energy bands in conductors.
here before we move on to subsequent chapters.
Current
It is simply the flow of electrons. A continuous flow

of electrons or charged particles, can be termed as
Current. It is indicated by I or i. It is measured
in Amperes. This can be alternating current AC or
direct current DC.
Voltage
Characteristics
It is the potential difference. When there occurs a
The following are the characteristics of Conductors. difference in potentialities, between two points, there
is said to be a voltage difference, measured between
 There exists no forbidden gap in a conductor. those two points. It is indicated by V. It is measured
 The valance band and the conduction band gets in Volts.
overlapped.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 86

Resistance The fundamental unit of charge is the coulomb (C).

There are two types of charge: positive charge
It is the property of opposing the flow of electrons. (exhibited by protons), and negative charge (exhibited
The possession of this property can be termed as by electrons).
resistivity. This will be discussed later in detail.
Molecule The Coulomb
Molecule, a group of two or more atoms that form the
Coulomb is the amount of electric charge carried by a
smallest identifiable unit into which a pure substance current flowing for a second.
can be divided and still retain the composition and
Coulomb's law describes the electric forces between
chemical properties of that substance.
charged particles; if the charges move
the electromagnetic force gets more complicated.
Electron
The movement or flow of charged particles is what
An electron is a negatively charged sub - atomic produces electricity and magnetism. In fact, a moving
particle. It can be either free (not attached to any stream of electric charge is electric current. This
atom), or bound to the nucleus of an atom. movement of charge can be induced by the relative
Electrons in atoms exist in spherical shells of various movement of a magnet and coil of wire—this is the
radii, representing energy levels. The larger the fundamental design for electric generators.
spherical shell, the higher the energy contained in the
10.4 Effects Of Electric Current
electron.
The three main effects of an electric current are:
Electric Charge
(a) magnetic effect
Electric charge, or charge for short, is a fundamental
physical property that causes objects to feel an (b) chemical effect
attractive or repulsive force toward one another. (c) heating effect
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 87

Some practical applications of the effects of an CHAPTER 11

electric current include:
11.1 SOURCES OF ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
Magnetic effect: bells, relays, motors, generators,
transformers, telephones, car-ignition and lifting Background
When an electric current flows, energy is dissipated.
magnets Since energy cannot be created, it must be provided
Chemical effect: primary and secondary cells and by the device used for circulating the current. This
electroplating device may be chemical, such as a battery;
mechanical, such as a generator; or it may have one of
Heating effect: cookers, water heaters, electric fires,
a number of other forms.
irons, furnaces, kettles and soldering irons
Therefore, electromotive force can be define as that
which causes an electric current to flow in a
circuit.
The device use to give electromotive forces are cells,
batteries, generators etc.
11.2 Primary And Secondary Cells
The common form of a dc source of supply is the cell.

A cell can be define as a single element or unit that
converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
A combination of cells connected to produce higher
voltage or current than a single cell can produce alone
is called a battery.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 88

11.3 Application And Uses Of Cells
Laptops, cameras, mobile phones, cars, watches and

clocks, security equipment, electronic meters, smoke
alarms, meters used to read gas, water and electricity
consumption at home, to power a camera for an The basic operation of a simple cell is such that, when
endoscope looking internally at the body, and for two different conducting metals are immersed in an
transponders used for toll collection on highways electrolyte, a chemical reaction takes place which
throughout the world. causes an emf to exit at the terminals. This emf is
capable of supplying current to an external load, R.
11.4 Construction And Principles Of Operation Of
A Simple Cell
Electrolyte: it is the solution used in the chemical
A simple cell comprises two dissimilar conductors process in cell and batteries. Example salt water,
(electrodes), example copper and zinc, in an copper sulphate, and sulphuric acid.
electrolyte. The electrolyte may be of a dilute
sulphuric acid. All these are engage in a glass Electrodes: They are the conductors used in cells,
container. examples are copper use as the positive terminal, and
zinc used as the negative terminal.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 89

11.5 Polarization And Local Action action is known as local action of the cell. This may
be prevented by rubbing a small amount of mercury
In a simple cell two faults exist – those due to on the zinc surface, which forms a protective layer on
polarization and local action. the surface of the electrode.
Polarization - If the simple cell is left connected to a Cells are divided into two areas:
load for some time, the current I decreases fairly i. Primary cells
rapidly. This is because of the formation of a film of ii. Secondary cells
hydrogen bubbles on the copper anode. This effect is
known as the polarization of the cell. 11.6 Primary Cells
The hydrogen prevents full contact between the
copper electrode and the electrolyte and this increases A primary cell is a type of cell that are of no use once
the internal resistance of the cell. The effect can be their chemicals are exhausted. They cannot be
overcome by using a chemical depolarizing agent or recharge after use.
depolarizer, such as potassium dichromate which
removes the hydrogen bubbles as they form. This Types Of Primary
allows the cell to deliver a steady current. There are several types of primary cells, namely
Daniel cell, Leclanchie cell, mercury cell and lithium
Local Action -When zinc is placed in dilute sulphuric cells.
acid, hydrogen gas is liberated from it and the zinc Leclanchie Cell
dissolves. The reason for this is that impurities, such There are two types of leclanchie cells;
as traces of iron, are present in the zinc which set up a) The wet type, and
small primary cells with the zinc. These small cells b) The dry type cell.
are short-circuited by the electrolyte, with the result
that localized currents flow causing corrosion. This The Wet Type Leclanchie Cell
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 90

The Constructional Features Of Wet Type The Constructional Features Of Dry Type
Leclanchie Cell Leclanchie Cell
The positive pole is a carbon plate surrounded by a The dry cell is a form of leclanchie cell in which the
depolarized mixture of powder carbon and manganese ammonium chloride solution is replaced with a jelly
dioxide in a porous pot. This pot together with an composed of starch, flour and ammonium chloride.
amalgamated zinc rod are placed inside a glass jar The positive element consist of a carbon rod surround
containing a solution of ammonium chloride (Sal by a core of a compressed mixture of manganese
ammoniac) dioxides and carbon. The whole combination is placed
inside a zinc-can and the spaced between filled with
the ammonium chloride jelly. The zinc can also act as
the negative element. The jelly is prevented from
drying up by sealing the top of the cell either with
pitch or by means of a metal disc insulated from the
can by a fiber washer.
Leclanchie wet cell
Leclanchie dry cell
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 91

Application Of Leclanchie Cell Typical practical applications include hearing aids,

The Lechlanché cell is suitable only for intermittent medical electronics, and cameras and for guided
use, applications including torches, transistor radios, missiles, alarm systems, measuring instruments,
bells, indicator circuits, gas lighters, controlling radios, calculators, and watches.
switch-gear, and so on.
The cell is the most commonly used of primary cells,
is cheap, requires little maintenance and has a shelf
life of about 2 years.
Mercury Cell
In cases where fairly high capacity cells are to be
housed in a small space use is being increasingly
made of mercury cell.
These have a current rating of four times that of a dry
leclanchie cell. The cell is available in several Advantages Of Mercury Cell
different outlines, but an important difference from 1. Can be left unattended for a very long period of
the leclanchie is that, the center electrode is negative time.
and the outer casing is positive. The emf is about 2. Does not suffer from polarization and hence can
1.35V which remains constant for a relatively long supply current for a reasonable time.
time. 3. Virtually unaffected by temperature variations
4. Can withstand momentarily overloads.
Its main advantages over the Leclanchie cell is its
smaller size and its long shelf life. Disadvantages Of Mercury Cell
1. It is expensive
2. Cannot be recharged electrically.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 92

Advantages Of Primary Cells Where, e = EMF i.e. electromotive force (Volts), I =

1. Cheap as compared to the secondary cells current (A), R = Load resistance, and r is the internal
2. Requires little maintenance resistance of cell measured in ohms.
3. Portable On rearranging the above equation we get;
Disadvantages Of Primary Cells
1. The cell cannot be used continuously due to the e = IR + Ir or, e = V + Ir
effect of polarization
In the above equation, V is the potential difference
2. Incapable of supplying heavy current.
(terminal) across the cell when the current (I) is
flowing through the circuit.
11.7 Application Of Primary Cell
Note: The emf (e) of a cell is always greater than the
1. Bells and indicator board circuit potential difference (terminal) across the cell
2. Used extensively in railway signaling and for
controlling switch gears in substations
Example: 1
11.8 Internal resistance of a cell
The potential difference across the cell when no
Internal resistance refers to the opposition to the flow current flows through the circuit is 3 V. When the
of current offered by the cells and batteries current I = 0.37 Ampere is flowing, the terminal
themselves resulting in the generation of heat. Internal potential difference falls to 2.8 Volts. Determine the
resistance is measured in Ohms. The relationship internal resistance (r) of the cell?
between internal resistance (r) and emf (e) of cell s
given by. Solution:
e = I (r + R) e = V + Ir
Or, e – V = Ir
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 93

Or, (e – V)/I = r parallel circuit. But it uses a lot of wires and hence
becomes complex.
Therefore, r = (3.0 – 2.8)/0.37 = 0.54 Ohm.
11.9 Cell connected in series and parallel

Combination of Cells in Series Connection
There are mainly two types of circuits, series and Consider two cells which is connected in series. The
parallel. Cells can be connected both in series, parallel positive terminal of one cell is connected to negative
or a combination of both. terminal of the next cell.
In series circuit electrons travel only in one path. Here one terminal of two cells are free and the other
Here the current will be the same which passes terminal of two cells are joined together, ε1 and ε2 are
through each resistor. The voltage across resistors in a the emfs of the cells and r1 and r2 are the internal
series connection will be different. Series circuits do resistance of the cells respectively.
not overheat easily. The design of series circuit is
simple compared to parallel circuits. Let I be the current flowing through the cells.
In parallel circuit electrons travel through many
branches in it. In this case, the voltage remains the
same across each resistor in the circuit. Here the
current in the circuit is divided among each branch
and finally recombines when the branches meet at a
common point.
A parallel circuit can be formed in many ways, which
means cells can be arranged in different forms.
Parallel circuits can be used as a current divider. It is Cells connected in series
easy to connect or disconnect a new cell or other Consider the points A, B and C and let V (A), V (B)
component without affecting the other elements in the and V (C) be the potentials of these points
respectively. V (A) - V (B) will be the potential
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 94

difference between the positive and negative terminals  If any one of the cell is damaged in the circuit, it
for the first cell. may affect the whole connection.
So VAB = V (A) - V (B) = ε1- Ir1.  The cells which are connected in series gets easily
exhausted and so they do not last longer. It is not
VBC = V (B) - V (C) = ε2 – Ir2. used in house wiring.
Now the potential difference between the terminals A Combination of Cells in Parallel Connection
and C is
Consider two cells which is connected in parallel.
VAC = V (A) – V(C) = [V (A) - V (B)] + V (B) - V Here the positive terminals of all cells are connected
(C)] together and negative terminals of all cells are
= ε1- Ir1 + ε2 – Ir2 connected together.
= ( ε1 + ε2) – I(r1+r2). In parallel connection, the current is divided among
the branches. Thus, the current I is split into I1 and
It is clear that the equivalent emf of n number of cells
I2. I = I1 + I2. Consider the points B1 and B2 and then
in series combination is the sum of their individual
V (B1) and V (B2) are the potentials respectively. The
emfs. The equivalent internal resistance of n cells in
potential difference across the terminals of the first
series combination is the sum of their individual
cell.
internal resistance.
11.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of cells

connected in series:
 The cells connected in series produces a greater

resultant voltage.
 The cells which are damaged can be easily
identified and hence can be replaced easily as they
break the circuit.
Cells connected in parallel
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 95

V = V (B1) - V (B2) = ε1- I1 r1. The point B1 and

B2 are connected similar to the second cell.
V = V (B1) - V (B2) = ε1 – I2 r2. By ohm’s law we
know that I = V / R. Now substitute these values in 11.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Cells
the equation Connected in Parallel:
 For the cells connected in parallel if any one of the

cell is damaged in the circuit, it will not affect the
whole connection.
 The cells which are connected in parallel do not
exhaust easily and thus they last longer.
 The voltage developed by the cells in parallel
If we replace the cells by a single cell lying between connection cannot be increased by increasing the
the point B1 and B2 with emf εeq and internal number of cells present in the circuit. It is because
resistance req, then V = εeq - Ireq. they do not have same circular path.
 In parallel connection the connection provides
power based on one cell. So the brightness of the
bulb will not be high.

It is the same as when we connect the resistors in

parallel connection.
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 96

2. The positive plate (anode) is formed by pressing

lead peroxide into the lead grid. The plates are
interleaved to increase their effective cross-
sectional area and to minimize internal resistance.
11.12 Secondary Cells 3. Separators are made of glass, celluloid or wood.
An electrolyte which is a mixture of sulphuric acid
Secondary cells can be recharged after use, that is, and distilled water.
the conversion of chemical energy to electrical energy
is reversible and the cell may be used many times.
Types Of Secondary Cells

1. Lead–acid cell, and
2. The nickel cadmium and nickel-metal cells.
Practical applications of such cells include car

batteries, telephone circuits and for traction purposes–
such as milk delivery vans and fork lift trucks.
The Lead-Acid Cell Specific Gravity

A typical lead–acid cell is constructed of: Specific gravity is the weight of a substance compared
A container made of glass, ebonite or plastic. to that of water.
The instrument used to test the specific gravity of
Lead plates electrolyte of lead-acid cell is called the hydrometer.
1. The negative plate (cathode) consists of spongy The relative density (or specific gravity) of a lead–
lead acid cell, which may be measured using a hydrometer,
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 97

varies between about 1.26 when the cell is fully charging current flows in the reverse direction to the
charged to about 1.19 when discharged. discharge current and the chemical action is reversed.
The terminal p.d. of a lead–acid cell is about 2 V.
When a cell supplies current to a load it is said to be During charging:
discharging. 1. The lead sulphate on the positive and negative
plates is converted back to lead peroxide and lead
During discharge: respectively, and
1. The lead peroxide (positive plate) and the spongy 2. The water content of the electrolyte decreases as
lead (negative plate) are converted into lead the oxygen released from the electrolyte combines
sulphate, and with the lead of the positive plate. The relative
2. The oxygen in the lead peroxide combines with density of the electrolyte thus increases.
hydrogen in the electrolyte to form water. The The colour of the positive plate when fully charged is
electrolyte is therefore weakened and the relative dark brown and when discharged is light brown. The
density falls. colour of the negative plate when fully charged is grey
and when discharged is light grey.
Nickel - Cadmium / Nickel-Metal Alkaline Cells

In both types the positive plate is made of nickel
hydroxide enclosed in fine perforated steel tubes. The
tubes are assembled into nickel–steel plates.
In the nickel–metal cell, (sometimes called the Edison
cell or knife cell), the negative plate is made of iron
oxide, the whole being enclosed in perforated steel
A cell is charged by connecting a D.C. supply to its
tubes and assembled in steel plates. In the nickel-
terminals, the positive terminal of the cell being
cadmium cell the negative plate is made of cadmium.
connected to the positive terminal of the supply. The
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 98

The electrolyte in each type of cell is a solution of iv) For a given capacity is lighter in weight
potassium hydroxide which does not undergo any v) Can be left indefinitely in any state of
chemical change and thus the quantity can be reduced charge or discharge without damage
to a minimum. vi) Is not self-discharging
The plates are separated by insulating rods and
assembled in steel containers which are then enclosed Disadvantages of a nickel cadmium and nickel-metal
in a non-metallic crate to insulate the cells from one cells over a lead–acid cell include:
another. The average discharge p.d. of an alkaline cell i) Is relatively more expensive
is about 1.2 V. ii) Requires more cells for a given e.m.f.
iii) Has a higher internal resistance
iv) Must be kept sealed
i) Has a lower efficiency
Practical applications:
Practical examples include traction and marine work,
lighting in railway carriages, military portable radios
and for starting diesel and petrol engines.
Advantages of a nickel cadmium cell or a nickel–

11.13 Basic Battery Charging Methods
metal cell over a lead–acid cell include:
i) More robust construction Constant Voltage
ii) Capable of withstanding heavy charging
and discharging currents without damage A constant voltage charger is basically a DC power
iii) Has a longer life supply which in its simplest form may consist of a
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 99

step down transformer from the mains with a some applications the charger is designed to switch
rectifier to provide the DC voltage to charge the to trickle charging when the battery is fully charged.
battery.
Float Charge
Such simple designs are often found in cheap car
The battery and the load are permanently connected
battery chargers. The lead-acid cells used for cars
in parallel across the DC charging source and held at
and backup power systems typically use constant
a constant voltage below the battery's upper voltage
voltage chargers. In addition, lithium-ion cells often
limit. Used for emergency power back up systems.
use constant voltage systems, although these usually
Mainly used with lead acid batteries.
are more complex with added circuitry to protect
both the batteries and the user safety.
Constant Current Exercises
1. Define a battery
Constant current chargers vary the voltage they 2. State five practical applications of batteries
apply to the battery to maintain a constant current 3. What is an electrolyte?
flow, switching off when the voltage reaches the 4. A positive-connected electrode is called the ......
level of a full charge. This design is usually used for
nickel-cadmium and nickel-metal hydroxide cells or and the negative-connected electrode the...…
batteries. 5. The purpose of an electric cell is to convert ......
to…..
Trickle Charge
6. Make a labelled sketch of a simple cell
Trickle charging is designed to compensate for the 7. With reference to a simple cell, explain briefly
self discharge of the battery. Continuous charge. what is meant by (a) polarization (b) local action
Long term constant current charging for standby 8. Define internal resistance
use. The charge rate varies according to the 9. Name the two main types of cells
frequency of discharge. Not suitable for some 10. Explain briefly the difference between primary
battery chemistry, e.g. NiMH and Lithium, which
and secondary cells
are susceptible to damage from overcharging. In
ENGR PAUL TETTEH 100

11. Name two types of primary cells

12. Name two types of secondary cells
13. State three typical applications of primary cells DO YOUR VERY BEST TO ANSWER ALL
QUESTION. IT IS A KEY TO BE SUCCESSFUL
14. State three typical applications of secondary
IN EXAMINATIONS
cells
15. Name any six types of battery and state three
common applications for each
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The force that cause the free flow of electrons
in a closed circuit is:
a) Current
b) E.M.F.
c) Resistance
d) P.d.
2. The rate at which electrical energy is used is:
a) Energy
b) Power
c) Watts
d) Joules
3. A 100W electric bulb is connected to a 250V
supply. The current flowing in the bulb is :
a) 0.5A
b) 0.4A
c) 2.5A
d) 25KV
4. The difference between two points having
12 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. different charge levels is:

a) E.M.F. c) Copper
b) Potential difference d) Zinc ammonia
c) Power 10.The conductors used in cells are termed:
d) Energy a) Electrodes
5. A battery consist of: b) Electrolyte
a) One cell c) Zinc
b) Two cells d) Copper
c) Multiple number of cells 11.The formation of films of hydrogen bubbles on
d) Circuits the copper anode is :
6. The following are applications of batteries a) Local action
EXCEPT: b) Polarization
a) Laptops c) Amalgamation
b) Cameras d) Depolarization
c) Mobile phones 12.Local action in cells can be prevented by ONE
d) Televisions sets of the following method:
7. Two dissimilar conductors immerse in and a) Amalgamation
electrolyte is: b) Depolarization
a) A battery c) Coating mercury on the surface of zinc
b) A cell d) Use of potassium dichromate around the
c) Electrode copper
d) Accumulators 13.A cell that cannot be recharge after use is:
8. The electrolyte is made of : a) Primary cell
a) Dilute sulphuric acid b) Secondary cell
b) Rain water c) Lead acid cell
c) Pure water and salt d) Nickel cadmium cell
d) Acid and water. 14.Identify the cell in the figure 1 below:
9. The solution used in cells is:
a) Electrode
b) Electrolyte

a) Torches
b) Transistor radios
c) Gas lighter
d) Amplifiers
19.Which of the following is NOT true about
mercury cell.
Figure 1. a) Small in size and occupy small space.
a) Leclanchie dry cell b) High Current rating than leclanchie cells
b) Leclanchie wet cell c) Centre electrode is negative and outer
c) Mercury cell electrode is positive
d) Lithium cell d) Heavy in weight and volume
15.The positive pole of a leclanchie cell is : 20.The instrument used to test the specific gravity
a) Carbon rod of electrolyte of lead acid cell is called:
b) Copper rod a) Ammeter
c) Zinc rod b) Voltmeter
d) Aluminum rod c) Hydrometer
16.The depolarizer used in leclanchie wet cell is: d) Speedometer
a) Powder carbon 21.The type of cell that reverses it chemical energy
b) Mixture of powdered carbon and manganese to electrical energy is :
dioxide a) Primary cell
c) Ammonium chloride b) Secondary cell
d) Sal ammoniac c) Leclanchie cell
17.The solution used in leclanchie dry cell is: d) Daniel cell
a) Ammonium chloride jelly 22.A fully charged secondary cell has a specific
b) Ammonium chloride gravity of:
c) Electrolyte a) 1.19
d) Distilled water b) 1.10
18.Which of the following is NOT an application c) 1.26
of a LECLANCHIE CELL: d) 1.11

23.The relative density of a fully discharged cell is 28.The energy of a secondary cell is usually
: renewed:
a) 1260 (a) By passing a current through it
b) 1100 (b) It cannot be renewed at all
c) 1190 (c) By renewing its chemicals
d) 1110 (d) By heating it
24.The colour of the positive plate of a lead acid 29.Electricity is produced by ;
cell when fully charged is: a) Motors
a) Dark brown b) Generators
b) Red brown c) Transformers
c) Yellow d) Amplifiers
d) Chocolate brown 30.Electricity is produced at:
25.The colour of the positive plate of a lead acid a) Power stations
cell when discharging is: b) Volta stations
a) Light brown c) Akosombo dam
b) Dark brown d) Distribution stations
c) Brown 31.Generating alternating voltage, two conditions
d) Grey must be satisfied:
26.The greater the internal resistance of a cell: a) Coil and magnetic field
(a) The greater the terminal p.d. b) Conductor and magnet
(b) The less the e.m.f. c) Solenoid and flux lines
(c) The greater the e.m.f. d) Electromagnet and coil
(d) The less the terminal p.d. 32.The quantity that reverses its direction at
27.The negative pole of a dry cell is made of: regular intervals is:
(a) Carbon a) Period
(b) Copper b) Amplitude
(c) Zinc c) Alternating current
(d) Mercury d) Peak to peak

33.One complete set of positive and negative d) Out-phase

values of alternating quantity is: 38.The value 0.707 located on a sine wave
a) Period represent:
b) Cycle a) Average value
c) Frequency b) R.M.S. value
d) Phase c) Maximum value
π d) Peak value
34.The value 2 rad represent:
39.Average value of a sine wave is given as:
a) 900 a) 0.707 x maximum value
b) 1800 b) 0.637 x maximum value
c) 600 c) 0.707 x amplitude peak value
d) 300 d) 0.637 x peak to peak value
35.A quantity that reaches its maximum value 40.The ratio of RMS value divided by average
earlier as compared to the other quantity is: value is:
a) Lagging a) Crest factor
b) Leading b) Form factor
c) In-phase c) Average value
d) Out-phase d) Amplitude factor
36.The quantity that reaches its maximum value 41.Twice the value of peak value is:
later than the other quantity. a) Peak to peak
a) Lagging b) Amplitude
b) Leading c) Peak
c) In-phase d) Average
d) Out-phase 42.RMS value is also called:
37.When two quantities attain their maximum a) Effective or virtual
values at the same time is: b) Peak to peak
a) Lagging c) Amplitude
b) Leading d) Form factor
c) In-phase

43.In a purely resistive AC circuit the current and d) None

voltage are: 48.The NORTH and SOUTH labelling of a magnet
a) Leading represent :
b) Lagging a) Flux
c) In-phase b) Cobalt
d) Out of phase c) Pole
44.In a pure inductive AC circuit, the current d) Alnico
……………. Voltage by ………. 49.Magnetic materials which are strongly attracted
a) Leading, 900 by magnets are termed:
b) Lagging, 900 a) Para-magnetic
c) In-phase. 900 b) Ferro-magnetic
d) Lagging, 1800 c) Dia-magnetic
45.In a pure capacitive AC circuit, the d) Permanent
current………..voltage by …………. 50.Which of the following is NOT TRUE about
a) Leading, 900 properties of a magnet:
b) Lagging, 900 a) Magnet always attracts magnetic materials.
c) In-phase. 900 b) Magnet always tries to align along north and
d) Lagging, 1800 south.
46.Which of the following materials can be c) Similar magnetic poles repulse each other.
attracted by a magnet. d) Magnets are always created by electric
a) Cobalt current.
b) Conductor 51.Matter consist of :
c) Insulator a) Electrons and nucleus
d) Magnesium b) Electrons and protons
47.The points where the strength of a magnet are c) Neutrons and protons
strong are called: 52.The neutrons and protons forms:
a) Flux a) Atom
b) Poles b) Nucleus
c) Field c) Compound

53.Electrons possess: b) Negative to positive

a) Positive charge c) Negative to negative
b) Negative charge 60.An electric circuit consist of:
c) Neutral charge a) Load, wire and source
54.An atom requires …….. numbers of electrons b) Resistance, cable and wire
to attain stability. c) Wire, television and battery.
a) Four 61.The conventional flow of electrons is:
b) Eight a) Positive to negative
c) Two b) Negative to positive
55.The number of proton is same to number of: c) Negative to negative
a) Neutrons 62.Ammeter is used to measure:
b) Atoms a) Resistance
c) Electrons b) Current
56. Electrons that moves around the last shell of an c) Voltage
atom are called: 63.Voltmeter is used to measure:
a) Valence shells a) Resistance
b) Valence electrons b) Current
c) Valence elements c) Voltage
57.The movement of electrons constitute: 64.Ammeter are always connected in series with a
a) Current circuit:
b) Resistance a) TRUE
c) Load b) FALSE
58. The opposition to the movement of electrons c) NONE
is: 65.Voltmeters are always connect in:
a) Capacitance a) Series
b) Resistance b) Parallel
c) Reluctance c) Longitudinal
59.The actual flow of electrons is: 66.The unit of current is;
a) Positive to negative a) Volts

b) Ampere 73.A 4Ω and 6Ω resistors are connected in series,

c) Ohms the total resistance in ohms is:
67.Watts represents which electrical quantity: 2
a) 3
a) Energy
b) Potential difference b) 10
3
c) Power c) 2
68.Which of the following is TRUE about series
74.Three resistors, each having a value of 3Ω are
circuit:
connected in parallel, the total resistance is:
a) Carries same current
a) 1Ω
b) Carries similar voltage
b) 9Ω
c) Shares current
c) 3Ω
69.ONE feature of a parallel circuit is:
75.A capacitor of value 2F is connected to a 200V
a) Currents are shared
source. Calculate the charge:
b) Has different voltages
a) 400C
c) Consumes no power
b) 100C
70.In colour coding of resistors, the fourth band
c) 0.5C
represents:
76. Which of the following is NOT true about
a) Tolerance
ohms law:
b) Number of zeros R
c) First digit a. I= V
71.Capacitor store energy in the form of: b. V =RI
a) Current V
b) Charges c. R= I
c) Power 77. A circuit is connected to 230V and a current of
72.The unit of capacitance is 8A flows. The resistance is:
a) Coulomb a. 1840Ω
b) Farad b. 28.75Ω
c) Watts c. 0.035Ω

78.Resistors of value 4Ω, 6Ω, and 14Ω are

connected in series. The total resistance is: 80. A resistor has colours of orange, brown, yellow
a. 0.488Ω and red. Find the value of the resistor.
b. 2.048Ω a. 314Ω+/- 2%
c. 24Ω b. 310kΩ +/- 2%
79.Determine the value of the supply voltage in the c. 310000Ω
circuit below:
a. 30V
b. 20V
c. 50V
SECTION B: ESSAY TYPE QUESTION
QUESTION ONE
a) Define the following Laws;
i. Ohms law
ii. Kirchhoff’s current law
b) For the circuit in figure 1, calculate: Figure 1.
i. Total resistance
ii. Supply Current c) Use the circuit in Figure 2 to find the potential
iii. Power in the 2.5Ω resistor. difference across each resistor.

Fig. 2
Figure 3.
d) Determine the letter and digit code for a resistor
having a value of 68 kΩ ± 10%. d) Determine the value and tolerance of a resistor
having a colour coding of: blue-grey-orange-red
QUESTION TWO
a) Define QUESTIONS THREE
i. Capacitance a) Define the following terms:
ii. Kirchhoff’s voltage law i. Polarization
b) A 2kW electric kettle connected to a 200V source ii. Local action
was used for 2hours. Calculate the energy used in: iii. Inductive reactance
i. KWH iv. Capacitive reactance
ii. MJ or MWsec b) State the relationship between reactances and
iii. Find also the current and the resistance of frequency for the following circuit:
the kettle. i. A purely inductive a.c. circuit
c) The circuit diagram in figure 3, shows two ii. A purely capacitive a.c. circuit
capacitors connected in series. Determine the: c) State the relationship between the current and
i. Total capacitance voltage in the following a.c circuit:
ii. Voltage across each capacitor i. A purely resistive
iii. Charge on each capacitor ii. A purely inductive
iii. Purely capacitive
d) Differentiate between magnetic flux density and
magneto motive force, and also:

i. Determine the periodic time for the frequency iii) Electrical power
100Hz. iv) Electrical energy
ii. Calculate the R.M.S. value of a sinusoidal b) Draw and label a curve for variation of reactance
curve of maximum value 300 V. with frequency
i. Inductive reactance
QUESTION FOUR ii. Capacitive reactance, and also;
a) Define the following terms as applied to alternating iii. Determine the capacitive reactance of a capacitor
current theory. of 10 μF when connected to a circuit of frequency
I. Frequency 50Hz.
II. Period c) Draw the phasor diagram for the following A.C.
III. Peak to peak value circuits
IV. Amplitude i. Purely resistive
ii. Purely inductive
b) Explain briefly the difference between primary and iii. Purely capacitive
secondary cells. d) Draw a typical hysteresis loop and on it identify: (a)
I. Name two types of primary cells. saturation flux density (b) remanence (c) coercive
II. Name two types of secondary cells force and also;
e) State three typical applications of primary cells
c) A coil has an inductance of 40mH and negligible f) State three typical applications of secondary cell
resistance. Calculate its inductive reactance and the
resulting current if connected to a 240v, 50HZ supply.
d) Sketch the pattern of the magnetic field associated

with a bar magnet. Mark the direction of the field.
QUESTION FIVE
a) Define the following:
i) Ohm law
ii) Kirchhoff current law


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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES POWER SERIES II

ENGR PAUL TETTEH 1

ENGR PAUL TETTEH 2

ENGR PAUL TETTEH 3

11.3 Application And Uses Of Cells............................................................83

1.1 Basic Electrical Symbols

ENGR PAUL TETTEH 4

1.2 Electrical Quantities, Symbols And Units

S/N ELECTRICAL SYMBOL UNITS UNIT SYMBOLS

ENGR PAUL TETTEH 5

ENGR PAUL TETTEH 6

3. Determine the value of mega-ohms in 450,000Ω

2. Change 50kV to volts

ENGR PAUL TETTEH 7

1.5 Class Work 1

1.6 Class Work 2

1.7 Home Work

ENGR PAUL TETTEH 8

QUANTITY SYMBOL UNIT SYMBOL

The coulomb is a measurement for a quantity of voltage

Resistance, R is the ability of a resistor to oppose the

Current, I is the progressive movement of electron in

Voltage, V is the pressure that causes the motion of

Potential Difference, P.D. is the accumulation of

ENGR PAUL TETTEH 9

The voltage applied to a circuit is 100 V and the

Example 3 An electric circuit can be defined as a complete path

ENGR PAUL TETTEH 10

2.4 Ammetter, Voltmeter And Wattmeter

Electrical Instruments are used to measure electrical

Every circuit consist of four essential parts, namely;

ENGR PAUL TETTEH 11

The voltmeter is connected across the battery ( power

In the circuit diagram above, the voltmeter is

ENGR PAUL TETTEH 12

1. Describe the FOUR main parts of electric circuit

2.8 Kirchhoffs First Law – The Current Law,

Kirchhoffs Current Law or KCL, states that the

In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents

ENGR PAUL TETTEH 13

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any

In other words the algebraic sum of all voltages

Alternatively, we can shift the negative currents

The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers

ENGR PAUL TETTEH 14

Voltage drop across VCD = ICD x RCD

Voltage drop across VDA = IDA x RDA

ENGR PAUL TETTEH 15

CHAPTER 3 [ P = V2 ÷ R ] P (watts) = V2 (volts) ÷ R (Ω)

3.1 Electrical Power

Electrical Power may be defined as the time or rate at Also:

3.2 Effects Of Electrical Power Example 1

ENGR PAUL TETTEH 16

Data Voltage, V = 100V

Example 1 (b) Resistance, R

ENGR PAUL TETTEH 17

Solution Electrical Energy is the ability of an electrical circuit