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Question 1 (Long FRQ, 25 minutes): 

 
Analyze representations of physical situations 
- Know directly and inversely proportional situations and make sure to identify them 
Determine scientific questions and methods 
- You should know how to put multiple equations together and expect there to be 
situations where infinite correct solutions exist. 
Analyze quantitative data represented in graphs 
- Whenever you see a linear graph, you will use the slope (and potentially the area if it is 
easy to calculate) in some way   
Develop an explanation or a scientific argument 
- Make sure to identify relevant relationships that lead you to your conclusion 
- You will likely ask what happens to one variable when an input to that is changed. If so 
remember to mention proportional relations AS WELL AS functional relations (whether 
the changed variable is in the numerator/denominator). 
 

   
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Question 2 (Lab Question, 15 minutes): 

Common Steps in a Lab Design Model

Working Backwards is not a Bad Idea!

You want to start off with that middle step.
Pre-Question (90 seconds)
Step 1
1. Imagine your final scatter plot with axis labels
2. Ask yourself, “What equations do I need to calculate for horizontal and vertical
coordinates of my ​linearized​ scatter plot.
Step 2
1. Picture the equations in your answer from step 1.
2. Ask yourself, “What raw data do I need to measure before I can ​calculate​ the horizontal
and vertical coordinates ​using equations​?”
Step 3
1. Consider the raw data in your answer from Step 2.
2. Ask yourself, “What ​set-up​ & ​equipment​ do I need so I can ​measure​ the raw data?”
After this, you should be able to answer the question
Answering the question
1. Briefly describe the set up being used.
2. Describe raw data measurements using the form - Measure (​state variable and symbol)
using (​piece of equipment).
3. Describe calculations including the equation to manipulate raw data.
4. Describe the potential graph with which axis labels and units goes on horizontal axis and
on vertical axis
General Tips:
K.I.S.S. - Keep it Simple Stupid: Don’t overcomplicate answers
Beginning your Procedure
- Procedure is more like ​directions on the back of a box of a new Product
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- We already know the goal of your procedure is to collect data. There is no point of
writing a thesis
Reduction of Error Statement:
- Don’t write: “​Repeat the above procedure with multiple trials to reduce error” (Too
Ambiguous)
- Instead write: “​Repeat the above procedure at different settings. Use multiple trials at
each setting to reduce error.”
Specific Scenarios and Tips
Remember dimensions!! 
If you see a linear graph you WILL use the slope in some way 
y − y
- Slope = Δy/Δx = x 2 − x 1  
2 1

When dealing with trigonometric functions such as cos, sin,.. etc. , we usually use radians. 
However, in every other case such as throwing a ball off a cliff, we use degrees. 
Lab Equipment: 
- Force Probes (example: spring scale): Measure how much force is exerted 
- F vs t gives you impulse through the accumulated area 
- Photogate: Measure the speed of an object at a certain time 
- Spring: Usually used in order to find the speed of an object. 
- Let’s say we have an object travelling at an unknown speed v. We know the mass 
m, the distance traveled x, and the spring constant k (used to represent its 
“springiness”). Using the conservation of mechanical energy we could get 

and measure the speed using the known 

- Meter Stick, Stopwatch, Protractor: Distance, Time, Angle 
Determining Lab Quantities with Slope: 

- Ex. Let’s say we know the distance and we need to find the acceleration given 
the distance x and the time t. We would then plot an x vs. graph which would give us 

and . We could generalize this to various different equations. 

Common Experimental Errors: 
- Friction (most often) 
- Air resistance 
- If you already accounted for air resistance, you can directly decrease the effect of 
air resistance with: 
- Doing the experiment in a vacuum 
- Using a more aerodynamic shape for the object in question 
- Using a shorter version of the object in question 
- Use a more massive (or denser) version of the object in question 
-  
Percent error: 
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-  

   
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Unit 1: Kinematics 

Vector Addition 

 
(For subtracting, reverse vector that is being subtracted) 
 
Analytically: 
1. Break forces into x and y components through cos and sin. 
2. Sum up forces in each axis. And add them together 
3. Then use Pythagoras theorem to get the resultant vector.

Scalars and Vectors 

Scalar (​ only has magnitude - no direction) Vector ​(mag and direction)

Distance: The length of the path traveled  Displacement: ​The change in position of an 
object in motion  

Speed: ​Distance over a period of time  Velocity:​ The rate at which displacement 
changes over a period of time

Acceleration: ​The rate at which velocity changes 

(change in velocity over time). 

 
➔ Unit basis vector = just direction, represented by a hat (ex. ​û, ​r̂)  
◆ Magnitude = 1 
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➔ Displacement = ∆x = x​f​ - x​i​ =  

➔ Distance = d = total distance traveled = arc length 
➔ Average velocity = ∆x/∆t where ∆x is the distance traveled.  
➔ Average speed = ∆d/∆t where d is the distance traveled. 
➔ Average acceleration = ā = ∆v/∆t 
➔ Instantaneous acceleration = a = lim​∆t->0​ ∆v/∆t = dv/dt 
 
Example (going from v to a): 

 
 
UAM Equations 
There are 5 equations that each contain 4 of the quantities. To apply kinematic equations, you 
need ​3​ known quantities to find the other 2 quantities: 
○ No acceleration:  
○ No displacement:  

○ No time:  

○ No final velocity:  

○ No initial velocity:  
 
Vector Quantities Described 
Vector Quantity  Negative  Zero  Positive 

Displacement  You are now south,  You are back at your  You are now north, 
west, left, or in the –x  starting position.  east, right, or in the 
or –y direction of  +x or +y direction of 
your starting  your starting 
position.  position. 

Velocity  You are traveling  You are at rest.  You are traveling 
south, west, left, or in  north, east, right, or 
the –x or  in the +x or +y 
–y-direction.  direction. 

Acceleration  If velocity > 0:  You are at rest OR  If velocity > 0: Your 
your speed is decr. in  you are moving with  speed is increasing in 
a positive direction.  a constant velocity.  a positive direction.  
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If velocity < 0: your  If velocity < 0: your 

speed is increasing in  speed is decreasing 
a negative direction.  in a negative 
direction.  
 
Kinematic Graphs
Position vs. Time Velocity vs. Time Acceleration vs. Time

Area Under Curve N/A  Change in Position  Change in Velocity 

Slope Velocity  Acceleration  Jerk (not in AP curricula) 

Magnitude of Distance from  Speed of object  Acceleration  

y-value detector/starting   
position 
 
Projectile Motion

For projectile motion problems: 

- A projectile’s x and y directional motion are independent and are related through time.  
- Separate the projectile’s motion into horizontal and vertical components using trig.  
- Then use UAM equations to solve for wanted variables. 
- v​y​ is zero at the top of a projectile’s parabolic path  
- Pay attention to initial velocities, positions in x and y-direction. 
 
X Direction Y Direction

​ v​o​cos(θ)
v​ox​ = v​oy​ ​= v​o​sin(θ)

∆x = v​x​t ∆y​ ​= v​oy​t - ½gt² 

∆y​ ​= ½ (v​y​ ​+ v​oy​)t

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v​x​=v​o x ​ (Velocity is always constant)  v​y =

​ v​oy​sin(θ) - gt

​ 0, g = 9.81 m/s² 
a​x​ = v​y​2 ​= v​o y​2​ - 2g∆y
 
 
 
Projectile Motion Derived Equations 
 
Projectile Max Height (Max height): 

v​y top​ = 0 
 
Then use Δy = ​½​at² + v​0​t to get Δy​max​: 

 
 
Projectile Range and Time:  

 
If projectile vertically passes its starting position, ∆y = 0 

 
 
Let R be the horizontal range of the projectile (R = ​Δ​x):  

 
 
Falling mass time:  

where is the height at which the mass falls (Assumes that starting vertical 
velocity = 0) 

   
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Unit 2: Newton’s Laws of motion 

Newton’s Laws of Motion - First and Second Laws 

➔ Newton’s first law of motion- a body at rest will remain at rest unless an outside force 
acts on it, and a body in motion at a constant velocity will remain in motion in a straight 
line unless acted upon by a net external force. 
◆ Constant velocity means both magnitude and direction.  
◆ If a body experiences an acceleration (or deceleration) or a change in direction 
of motion, it must have an outside force acting on it. Outside forces are 
sometimes called net forces or unbalanced forces. 
◆ The property that a body has that resists motion if at rest, or resists speeding or 
slowing up if in motion, is called inertia. Inertia is proportional to a body's mass, 
or the amount of matter that a body has. The more mass a body has, the more 
inertia it has. 
➔ Newton’s second law of motion- if an unbalanced force acts on a body, that body will 
experience acceleration ( or deceleration), that is, a change of speed. 
◆ One can say that a body at rest is considered to have zero speed, (a constant 
speed). So any force that causes a body to move is an unbalanced force. Also, 
any force, such as friction, or gravity, that causes a body to slow down or speed 
up, is an unbalanced force. 
◆ Forces have direction, and therefore add like vectors.  
● You need to split F into x and y-components 
● You should have a ∑F​x​ statement and a ∑F​y​ statement 
◆ ∑F = ma 
● F is the net force 
● m is the mass of the object 
● a is the acceleration that the force causes 
◆ If the units of force are in newtons(N), the units of mass are kilograms(kg) and 
the units of acceleration are m/s​2​.  
➔ Newton’s third law of motion: for every action (force) in nature there is an equal and 
opposite reaction. 
◆ If object A exerts a force on object B, then object B also exerts a force that is 
both equal in magnitude and exactly opposite in direction on object A 
◆ Law can also be referred to as action-reaction, where the force exerted is the 
action and the force experienced is the consequence of the action(reaction).  
◆   
➔ These laws only apply in an Inertial Reference Frame 
◆ Laws must have a frame of reference in which the observer is not accelerating. 
➔ The motion of an object that is NOT accelerating can be found with the equation d=vt 
◆ Adapted from the kinematic equation: ∆x=v​o​t + ½at² 
◆ d is the distance traveled 
◆ v is the velocity of the object 
◆ t is the time 
➔ Friction: 
◆  
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◆  
◆  
◆ Note: Friction coefficient actually could bigger than 1 

Circular Motion 
Definitions: 
➔ Centripetal Force (F​c​): any constant force that causes an object to rotate in a circle. It 
also causes centripetal acceleration, represented as a​c​. 
Useful equations: 
➔ Centripetal (radial) 

◆  

◆  
➔ Tangential 

◆  
➔ Combined 

◆  
➔ Vertical Loop- centripetal acceleration is caused by the normal force and gravity 
◆ Top: 
● ∑F = ma  
● N + mg = mv​2​/r  
● N = mv​2​/ r − mg 
◆ Bottom 
● ∑F = ma 
● N − mg = mv​2​/r  
● N = mv​2​/r + mg 

   
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Unit 3: Work, Energy, and Power

 
Work 
Definitions- 
➔ Energy- the ability to do work 
➔ Work- one way of transferring energy from one system to another 
Basic Information- 
➔ Because of the Law of the Conversation of Energy (First Law of Thermodynamics) the 
total energy will stay constant in a CLOSED system. (aka, energy will be conserved) 
◆ Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be transferred (from one 
form to another) or transformed (from one form to another) 
➔ Work and Energy are scalar quantities 
➔ Since integral is the area under a curve, if a graph of force as a function of position or 

displacement is given, the work is the area under the curve.  

➔ For a constant Force: 
◆ If the angle between F and d is less than 90, then the work is positive. If the 
angle is greater than 90, then the work is negative.  
◆ No Work is done by a force acting perpendicularly to displacement 
➔ Work energy theorem:  

◆ If U​g​ is constant:  
Equations- 

➔  
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➔ Kinetic Energy = K = KE = ½mv²  

➔ r = vector along the path 
➔ ∆KE = -∆U 
Potential Energy: the energy as a function of the object’s position. Is independent of motion. 
➔ Gravitational Potential Energy = mgh 
➔ Spring Potential Energy Derivation: 
◆ By Hooke’s Law F​spring​ = -k∆x , since F=-dU/dx 
◆ ∫Fdx=-∫dU 
◆ -∆U=∫-kxdx 
◆ ∆U=½kx² 
Power 
- The change in work over time: 
- Instantaneous Power: time derivative of work. 
- Power = F · v (only applies if force constant with respect to position) 
● This is because Energy is F · x and for a constant force, so if the Force is 
constant, then the time-derivative would be F · v 
Rotational Energy 
➔ E=½Iω²  
When to use Work/Energy  
● No info on time 
● No info on direction of velocities 
● Need info on forces in direction of motion of all objects.  
 
 

   
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Unit 4: Systems of Particles and Linear Momentum 

➔ Momentum and impulse basics 
◆ Momentum and impulse are vectors 
● Break into x and y-components when dealing with momentum 
◆ Unit = kg·m/s = N·s 

◆  

● J = Δp = area under F​net​ vs. time graph as  

➔ The momentum of a system upon which no net external force acts is always conserved 
◆ In other words, if F​net​ = 0 
➔ Impulse-momentum theorem 
◆  
➔ Types of collisions 

◆  
◆ Elastic (“bouncy”) 
● Bodies separate after collision 
● Both momentum and total kinetic energy are conserved 
●  
Partially inelastic 
● Bodies separate after collision 
● Momentum is conserved but KE​i​ > KE​f 
●  
◆ Completely (or perfectly) inelastic (“sticky”) 
● Bodies stick together after collision 
● Momentum is conserved but KE​i​ > KE​f 
●  
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➔ Collisions in 2 dimensions 
◆ Divide into x and y components 

◆  
➔ Ballistic pendulum questions 

◆  
➔ “Explosion” problems 
◆ Use conservation of momentum 
 
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◆  
 

➔ Mass Densities
◆ You will often use the following mass density definitions with COM: 
● The following are ALWAYS true: 

○ ; ;  
● If of uniform mass-density: 

○ ; ;  
◆ Formula 

● If discrete:  

● If continuous:  
◆ Velocity 

●  
● If a system experiences no external force, the center of mass of the 
system will remain at rest or move at a constant velocity if it is already 
moving. 
➔ Center of mass
◆ The center of mass motion can only change if there is an unbalanced external
force on one or more objects of the system.

   
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Unit 5: Rotation 
Basic information- 
➔ The right hand rule- use the fingers of your right hand to follow the direction of rotation, 
your thumb will point to the axis. 

 
Definitions 
➔ Angular Position (θ) - angle between a reference line on the object and another 
reference line that is fixed in space; rotational analog of position 
◆ Angular Displacement (Δθ) - change in angular position; rotational analog of 
displacement 
➔ Angular Velocity (ω) - The rate at which an object’s angular displacement changes; 
rotational analog of velocity 
➔ Angular Acceleration (α)- The rate at which an object’s angular velocity is changing; the 
angular equivalent of acceleration 
➔ Moment of Inertia (I)- A measurement of an object's stationary inertia with respect to 
rotational motion; the angular equivalent of mass. Si Unit: Kg・㎡ 
➔ Torque (τ)- A measurement of the ability for a force to rotate the object that it is acting 
on. Similar to how forces cause an acceleration, torques cause an angular acceleration. 
SI Unit: N・m 
◆ Can be helpful to think of the radius in τ = r x F as the “moment-arm,” the 
perpendicular distance between pivot point and point of application of the force 
➔ Angular Momentum (L)- Just like linear momentum, angular momentum is conserved if 
there is no net torque. SI Unit: Kg・㎡・rad/s 

➔  
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Equations 
➔ Torque 
◆ τ = rFsinθ = Iα = r F = -F r = dL/dt 
◆ Direction can be determined by vector product or right-hand rule 
➔ Bridge Equations 
◆ s = rθ 
◆ v = rω 
◆ a ​tangential​ = rα 
◆ a ​centripetal​ = rω​2 
➔ Rotational Kinetic Energy 
◆ K​rot​ ​= ½ Iω​2 
➔ Moment of Inertia 
◆ I=MR​²  for a point particle, ring, or hoop 
◆ I=½MR​² for a disk (solid cylinder) or hoop about diameter 
◆ I=⅖MR​² for a sphere 
◆ I=⅔MR​²  for a hollow sphere 
◆ I=1/12 ML​²  for a rod about its middle 
◆ I=⅓MR​² for a rod about its end 

◆
◆ I = ∫r​2​ dm  ALWAYS true for a continuous body (e.g. a sphere or a disk) 
● dm = λ dL from linear mass density 
➔ Angular momentum 
◆ L = Iω = r x p 
◆ Torque = τ = ∆L/∆t  
◆ ∑τ = lim​∆t->0​ ∆L/∆t = dL/dt = I dω/dt = Iα 
◆ With no external torque, L is constant 
● Can be applied to collisions of rotating objects or particles colliding with 
rods or physical pendulums
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➔ Static equilibrium 
◆ An object that is in static equilibrium has no acceleration and no angular 
acceleration 
◆ Conditions for static equilibrium 
● F​net​ = 0 and ∑τ = 0 
◆ Steps for equilibrium problems 
● Draw a free body diagram with each force at its place of contact 
● Choose an axis 
● Apply equations Σ F​x​ = 0, Σ F​y​ = 0, and Σ τ = 0 
 
➔ Parallel axis theorem 
◆ For when you know the moment of inertia along the centroid/center of mass, 
you can find it at any axis that’s parallel through the center of mass at a distance 
d away 

◆  
➔ Rotational dynamics 
◆ τ​net​ = Iα 
◆ Object moving downhill 
● No friction = no torque = no rotational movement 
◆ Newton’s law and rotational law are independent 
● Both can be applied to dynamic system 
➔ All forces acting on rigid body can be represented in rigid body diagram 
◆ Basically a free body diagram but nothing is moving and you specify where the 
forces are acting 
◆ Can help apply Newton’s second law to rotating body 
➔ Rolling without slipping: 
◆ You can use bridge equations (∆x=r∆θ;v=rω;a=rα) to relate rotational motion 
and translational motion 
➔ Rolling with slipping: 
◆ Has rotational motion and other translational motion independent of rotation 
◆ Therefore, v ≠ rω and bridge equations don’t apply 
◆ Due to static friction, static friction makes something roll 
● If no friction then it slips
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Examples:

Center of mass with coordinate points:

 
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Moment of inertia derivation w/ calculus: 

 
 
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Common Moment of inertia Formulas: