Unit One

Introduction to Scientific Statements

In scientific writing the main verbs of sentences are usually in the present simple
tense.

1.1 Be and have in scientific statements

• As the present tense is so common, it is important to make sure that the subjects
and verbs agree.

Exercise 1:
Underline the subjects of these sentences and cross out the verbs
which do not agree. (Underline all parts of parts of the subject, not just the nouns.)
For example:
The gas has/have a greater density than air.
The gas has/have a greater density than air.

1. Action and reaction is/are opposite and equal.

2. The results of the experiment proves /prove the law.
3. The liquid in those bottles is/are dangerous.
4. Most kinds of wood floats/float on water.
5. The apparent loss of weight of a substance which is immersed in a liquid
equals /equal the weight of the displaced liquid.

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Note:
The last one sentence (5) is example of an important fact about scientific
writing: the main verb is often simple but the rest of the sentence complicated.

• In fact, about a third of all scientific statements have is or are as the main verb.
The verb be in the present tense is as follows: is used with singular subject and
are with the plural subject.

The other common verb in scientific statements is the main verb have. The
verb have has two conjugations in the present simple when used as the main
verb in a sentence:

The subject* Singular Plural

3rd person he, she, it has they have

* Normally when the subject is the third person singular, it would take the
conjugation has.

Exercise 2:
Rewrite the following sentences putting in the main verb is, are, has,
or have.
1. A triangle a figure which has three straight sides.
2. Modern bridges often several kilometers long.
3. There several types of pumps.
4. A modern bridge sometimes a length of several kilometers.
5. Isosceles triangles two equal angles.

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1.2 Statements requiring the present simple
• The present simple is used to make statements about the present time. It is used
in the following ways.
a. The present simple is used for regular actions and regular processes:

He studies physics six hours a week.

The crude oil then passes down the pipe-line.

b. It is used for general statements:

Area equals length times height.

c. It is used for factual statements and observations:

This type of vinegar contains about 3 percent acid.

The liquid in the test-tube weighs 55 grams.

d. It can be used in descriptions of experiments:

The filter paper then collects the impurities.

The temperature rises until it reaches 100˚ but after that it remains
constant.

• Form of the present simple:

it they
he produce +s we produce
she you
I

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 The letter s has been used for two reasons:

First: It is reminder, so that you remember to add it on after a subject in the third
person singular.

Second: It is used because it is not always a simple matter of adding an s to the

base form of the verb. Sometimes spelling changes are necessary:

i.Verb ending in ss, sh, ch, x and o, add es to the base form:

they pass he passes

they push he pushes
they watch he watches
they mix he mixes
they go he goes

ii. Verbs ending in y after a consonant, change y to i and add es:

they magnify it magnifies

iii. Verbs ending in y after a vowel follow the main rule (add s):

they obey it obeys

Exercise 3:

Rewrite the following statements putting the verbs in brackets into the
correct form:

1. He (study) biology.
2. This ring (weigh) 125 grams.
3. Rain (wash) salts from the soil.
4. This factory (employ) thirty people.
5. Glue fix two surfaces together.

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 Unit Two

Dimensions and Properties

2.1 Dimensions

The dimensions of an object are its length, height, volume etc.

There are two ways to describe the dimensions:

(1) Structure 1
The simplest way and the most common way outside the field of science. This
way uses be as the main verb. For example:

be adjective
The well is 45 meters deep.

The pipes are 4.5 centimeters thick.

The adjectives wide and broad are usually mean the same thing and can be
used one instead of the other. This can be seen in the following two statements
about the river.

The river is 50 meters wide.

The river is 50 meters broad.

Tall and high also means the same thing, but they cannot usually be used one
instead of the other. Tall is used of physical objects which are much longer in
height than in width. Therefore we say a tall tower but a high dam.
In addition, high can be used only when describing things which are not
physical objects: a high speed, high pressure etc.

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(2) Structure 2
The other main way of giving dimensions uses the verb have. This type of
structure used in the field of science. For example:

have noun
The well has a depth of 45 meters.

The pipes have a thickness of 4.5 centimeters.

Notes:

1. The indefinite article is used with the noun of dimension.

2. The noun from tall (tallness) is never used in this structure. Therefore, the
two correct sentences are:

This building is 12 meters tall.

This building has a height of 12 meters.

3. With structure 2 it is possible to make statements about how heavy

something is, for example:

This stone has a weight of 85 grams.

Exercise 1:

Complete these sentences by using structure 2. Here is an example:

This pen ………… 11 centimeters.

This pen has a length of 11 centimeters.

1. The road outside ………… 6 meters.

2. The tallest building in the site ………… 12 meters.
3. The contents of the test-tube ………… 250 grams.
4. The top-soil in this area ………… 15 centimeters.
5. The sample ………… 5 kilos.

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• Abbreviations (short forms):

fig. = figure
approx. = approximately

Force unit Time units

kN = kilo Newton hr = hour(s)
Mass unit min. = minute(s)
sec. = second(s)
kg = kilogram(s)
Length units
m = meter(s)
cm = centimeter(s)
mm = millimeter(s)

Notes:
The same abbreviation is used for singular and plural. But the plural form
as 3 cm must be pronounced as 3 centimeters.

• Finally, there are another nouns of dimensions. The most common ones are:

radius, diameter, area, volume, circumference

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2.2 Properties

• Have is also commonly used in referring to many properties, for example:

Sand has a specific gravity of 2.65.

The storage tank has a capacity of 5000 liters.

These have sentences have one thing in common; they all describe the
properties.

• Now consider this pair of sentences:

Water boils at 100˚ C.

Water has a boiling point of 100˚ C.

The first sentence states that some action (boiling) takes place at a certain
temperature. However, for more scientific, the water actually does not do
something (in this case, boiling), but of having certain properties such that a
certain thing occur at a certain temperature. Therefore, the second sentence may
be preferred.

Exercise 2:
Describe the dimensions of the concrete pipe. Write a short passage
included a statement about the amount of concrete used in the pipe, if the density
of concrete is 23 kN/m3.

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2.3 Negative form of the simple present statement

• In the negative statements of the simple present use the following form:
Affirmative Negative
subject + verb + object subject + do/does + not + simple form of the
verb + object

• There are several ways of putting structure 2 statements in the negative.

(1) Common in spoken British English
Pure water hasn’t got a smell.

(2) Common in spoken American English

Pure water doesn’t have a smell.

(3) Common in written scientific English

Pure water has no smell

2.4 ‘Fronted’ statements (structure 3)

• In structure 3 more information is put into the subject. This way of building up
the subject is common in scientific and technical writing. It can be could
‘fronting’ because more words are put in front of the main verb. For example:

The coefficient of expansion of brass is 0.000026 per C˚.

• Notice that the difference between structure 2 and 3 (the subjects have been
underlined)

structure 2: The well has a depth of 45 meters.

structure 3: The depth of the well is 45 meters.

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 Unit Three

Comparatives Data

3.1 Simple statements of comparison

The comparative form of the adjective is shown in this chapter. The

comparative degree is used to compare the qualities of two things.

a. If the adjective is of one syllable: add -er or -r to the adjective. The conjunction
to be used is than.

• A meter is longer than a yard.

• Soft woods are cheaper than hard woods.
b. If the adjective is of more than one syllable: more is placed before the
adjective.
• A diesel engine is more efficient than a steam engine.

Note:
The main verb have is also used in making statements of comparison, as in the
following examples (These are frequently in the form of structure 2):

• A hexagon has a greater number of sides than a quadrilateral.

• Figure (a) has a smaller area than Fig. (b).

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3.2 The superlative degree
The superlative degree denotes the existence of the highest degree of the
quality. It is used when more than two things are compared.

a. If the adjective is of one syllable: add -est or -st to the adjective. “The” is used
before the superlative.

• This is the largest building in the site.

b. If the adjective is of more than one syllable: “the most” is placed before the
adjective.

• It is the most wonderful building in the project.

Note:

Notice that with the verb be there are two possibilities:

The kilometer is the longest metric unit of measurement.

The longest metric unit of measurement is the kilometer.

In scientific writing may prefer the second sentence because it shows fronting,
and this kind of sentence can be called ‘noun-fronted’.

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• Notice the spelling changes:
1. Adjectives ending in consonant+y take –ier and –iest in the comparative
and superlative:

heavy heavier heaviest

2. Adjectives ending single vowel letter + single consonant letter, then the last
consonant letter is doubled in the comparative and superlative:

hot hotter hottest

but: weak weaker weakest

Note:

Note the following exceptions:

good better best

bad worse worst
much more most
little less least

Exercise 1:
Choose the correct word from the brackets:

1. This is the (good, better, best) procedure that you can adopt.
2. A village is (quiet, quieter, quietest) than a town.
3. This house is (much, more, most) expensive than that one.
4. Iron has a (great, greater, greatest) specific gravity than aluminum.
5. Water has a (high, higher, highest) boiling point than alcohol.

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 Exercise 2:

Study the graph and then write a passage comparing the climates of cities A and
B.

City A City B
Average Monthly Temperature (˚C)

Month

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 Unit Four

Impersonal Scientific Statements-The Passive

4.1 Use of the passive

It is probable that in any engineering text - book at least one - third of all the
finite verbs will be in the passive. Most of these passive verbs will be either in
the present simple or be used with modals like (will, can, may, or should).

4.2 Form of the passive

• To change the sentence from active to passive:

(1) Make the active object into the passive subject.

(2) Write down the verb to be in the same tense of the active verb followed by
the past participle of the active verb.

(3) If the active verb is in the present is or are is used followed by the past
participle of the active verb.

• The form of the passive are:

The finite passive is formed by some part of the verb (be) plus the past
participle.

1. Present passive: {is, are} + past participle

The bridge is made of concrete.

2. The modal passive: {will, can, may, should, etc.} + be + past participle

The survey will be completed next year.

The survey may be completed next year.
Heat can be generated in several ways.

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 Acids should be handled with great care.

Note:

1. The passive modals are particularly common in written instructions,

warnings and notices.

For example: All library books should be returned to the library by the
end of June.

2. The modal passive {must be + (verb + ed)} and {should be + (verb + ed)}
are commonly used to describe things which should or should not be done.

4.3 Spelling rules

a- The past participle of regular verbs is formed by adding (-ed) to the base
form.
heat heated

b- By adding (-d) to the base form if the verb ends in (e).

close closed

c- Verbs ending in consonant + y change to i

apply applied

d- Verbs end in vowel + y follow the normal rule.

delay delayed

e- Verbs ending in single vowel + single consonant follow a rather

complicated rule:

i- Verbs of three or more syllables are regular.

develop developed

ii- Verbs of only one syllable double the final consonant.

plot plotted

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Exercise 1:

Change the following sentences from active to passive

1. He places the filter paper in the liquid.

2. The experimenter heats the gas carefully.

3. Scientists will analyze the results.

4. I show this in Fig. 3.

5. Scientists make filaments of tungsten wire.

6. People use a barometer for measuring atmospheric pressure.

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4.4 Suffixes

A suffix is a letter or a group of letters which you add at the end of a word.
Suffixes change the part of speech and the meaning of the word.

Common endings include:

Nouns: -tion, -ance, -ness, -ment

Adjectives: -ant, -ive, -able, -ic, -al, -ent

Adverbs: -ly, -ily

For example:

Verb Noun Adjective Adverb

analyze analysis analytical analytically

Exercise 1:

Complete the sentences with the correct form of the word in brackets.

1. The soil sample was sent to the laboratory for …………. (analyze)

2. The ………… (decide) was taken early this morning.

3. The discussions were very (produce).

4. Costs have risen ………... (signify)

5. Experiments will be carried out to test the ………... (theorize)

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 Chapter Five

Experimental Descriptions

• This chapter will concentrates on how the language used to describe

experiments can be organized.

• Study this passage:

Turn a gas-jar upside down and turn a wooden splint under it for about a quarter
of a minute. Close the jar with a cover and then we put it the right way up on the
bench. Next remove the cover and quickly added 2 cm of lime-water. Replace the
cover and shake the jar.

This is part of a description of an experiment to show that CO 2 is formed when

wood burns. Before beginning a description we must decide which subject-form
are going to use. The possibilities are:

(a) Imperative Turn a gas-jar upside down.

(b) Passive A gas-jar is turned upside down.

Exercise 1:

Rewrite the passage using subject-form (b).

• Now notice that in ordinary spoken English we usually find:

First the water level goes down.

But in technical written English:

The water level is first depressed.

The difference between technical and non-technical waiting is that when

people write technically they tend to use verbs Latin origin rather than phrasal
verbs (that is verbs + particles like push down).

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Here are a few of many examples of saying (approximately) the same thing:

Technical ‘Latin’ verbs Less technical phrasal verbs

insert push in

depress push down

equalize make up

occupy fill up

add put in

remove take off/away

invert turn upside down

place put

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 Chapter Six

Describe Charts and Graphs

Charts and graphs occur frequently in many kinds of scientific and technical
writing because they display information in a clear and concise.

6.1 The criteria of the academic writing

1. The description must be flows quite smoothly and the points are linked up
well.
2. The grammatical accuracy must be quite good and the language used to
describe the trends is well handled.
3. The appropriate choice of words and a good structural control.
4. The variation in the sentences are not limited.

6.2 Describing Figures (Bar Charts)

The chart below shows the percentage of projects accomplishment in different

specialties.

Series 1 = Structure works Series 2 = Pavement works Series 3 = Sewerage works

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 To describe the chart:

1. Summarize the information by selecting the main features.

2. Make comparisons where relevant.

The chart shows the percentage of projects accomplishment in different

specialties. Overall, the pavement works are the largest part of their
accomplishment which vary from 35 to 40 percent. In contrast, the group which
has the least percentage of the project accomplishment is the sewerage works
except for project 3 where this group has the most of the accomplishment.
Regarding the project, in project 1 it can be seen that the percentage of
accomplishment decreases with the different specialties, whereas in project 3 this
trend is reversed. For the projects 2 and 4 the distribution of the accomplishment
percentage across the groups is proportionally similar.

• As clauses: Linking as-clauses which do not contain modals can be reduced.

The formula is:

As + be + verb-ed as + verb-ed
As is shown in Fig. 1 As shown in Fig. 1

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6.3 Describing the graphs
To describe the graph, a long series of items should be divided into a small
number of different groups.
Study the graph and sentences which follow:

There is a rise of ….. between.....

There is a fall of ….. between …..

The ….. shock occurred at …..

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A steady increase …..

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