Integral Calculus

Contents
2020 Second Semester General Information iv

I.1 Lectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
I.1.1 Course co-ordinators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
I.1.2 Second Semester Course Lecturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
I.2 Tutorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
I.3 Calculus Textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
I.4 Tests and Examinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
I.4.1 Test times and venues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
I.4.2 Calculator Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
I.4.3 Past Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
I.4.4 Absence from Tests and Exams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
I.4.5 Final Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
I.4.6 Online assignments and tutorial tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
I.5 Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
I.6 Mathematics Academic Centre (the MAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
I.7 School of Mathematics Administration Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
I.8 MyMathLab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
I.8.1 Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
I.9 Using MyMathLab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
I.9.1 Online Tutorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
I.10 Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
I.10.1 Pop-up Blockers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
I.10.2 Personal Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
I.11 Calculus Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
7 Hyperbolic Functions 1
8 Integration Theory and Applications 3

8.1 Riemann Sums and Area Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
8.2 Area with the Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8.2.1 The Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8.2.2 Interpreting the Definite Integral as a Known Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
8.2.3 Area between two Curves: x-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
8.2.4 Area between two Curves: y-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
8.2.5 Area with Crossing over Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
8.3 Solids of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
8.3.1 The Disk Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
8.3.2 The Washer Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
i
ii 2nd Semester Calculus Study Guide 2020 MATH1036
8.4 Volumes by Slicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

8.5 The Definite Integral as a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
9 Advanced Integration Techniques 39

9.1 Inverse Trigonometric, Exponential and Logarithmic Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
9.1.1 Completing the Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
9.1.2 Exponential and Logarithmic Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
9.2 Integration by Parts Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.3 Trigonometric Substitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.4 Trigonometric Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
9.4.1 Integrals Involving sin kx and cos kx with k , 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
9.4.2 Powers of sin x and Powers of cos x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
9.4.3 Products of Powers of sin x and Powers of cos x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
9.4.4 Products of sin and cos with Different Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
9.4.5 Powers of tan x and cot x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
9.5 Partial Fraction Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
10 Improper Integrals 54
10.1 Type I: Infinite Interval of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
10.2 Type II: Infinite Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
11 Infinite Sequences and Series 62

11.1 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
11.2 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
11.3 Convergence Tests for Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
11.3.1 The Integral Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
11.3.2 The Comparison Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
11.3.3 Alternating Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
11.3.4 Absolute Convergence and the Ratio and Root Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
11.3.5 Strategy for Testing Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
11.4 Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
11.5 Representations of Functions as Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
11.6 Taylor and Maclaurin Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
11.7 Binomial Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
12 Differential Equations 88
12.1 Separable Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
12.2 Homogeneous Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
12.3 Linear Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
12.4 Exact Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
13 Appendix: Tutorial Answers 94

MATH1036 2nd Semester Calculus Study Guide 2020 iii
Acknowledgements
This study guide has been developed by many lecturers from the calculus teams over many years. Par-
ticular thanks goes to Prof. Inderasan Naidoo who typeset this guidebook for the first time.
2020 Second Semester General
Information
Welcome to the School of Mathematics, in particular to the second semester calculus module MATH1036.
In this section you will find all relevant information regarding the calculus administration.
Anything that is not available here will be given to you via Sakai. Also, any amendments to this infor-
mation will be available on Sakai.
Please check the Sakai site and your Wits email regularly.
Before we start, remember that university is different from school and you now need to
take responsibility for your own learning.
Also, remember that
in order to learn you need to make mistakes,
so don’t be afraid to get something wrong at first (or second or third...). Most important is how you
approach any problem and what you learn from it.
I.1 Lectures
There are four parallel classes for this semester.
Class D1: Lectures on Diagonal D, students with an odd student number.

Class D2: Lectures on Diagonal D, students with an even student number.
Class E1: Lectures on Diagonal E, students with an odd student number.
Class E2: Lectures on Diagonal E, students with an even student number.
Please consult the SAKAI website to see the venues for these lectures. MATH1036 consists of 3 lecture
periods per week in the second semester of the year.
iv
MATH1036 2nd Semester Calculus Study Guide 2020 v
I.1.1 Course co-ordinators

The course co-ordinator is the person responsible for the administration and all related queries with
regards to your registered course.
The course co-ordinator will be announced on Sakai.
All general administrative queries or problems must be addressed to the relevant course co-ordinator by
email with MATH1036 in the subject line.
I.1.2 Second Semester Course Lecturers

In the second semester the calculus lecturer team will be announced on Sakai.
I.2 Tutorials
For any questions about the administration of tutorials please contact Mr Shashilan Singh:
Email: Shashilan.Singh@wits.ac.za
Phone: (011) 717 6221
Office: MSB335
Apart from the three MATH1036 lectures per week, every student will be assigned to one tutorial per
week. This tutorial time is a time during which you can consult with your mathematics tutor or lecturer
about any mathematical problems you may be having. In particular you can ask your lecturer or tutor to
assist you in solving the Algebra and Calculus tutorial problems that form part of the course work. In
addition, your tutor will also work through common or important problems on the board with you.
Please attempt tutorial problems in your own time BEFORE coming to the tutorial. In this way you
can use the tutorial time to your best advantage: checking your solutions and/or seeking assistance for
those problems you were unable to do.
Students must keep up to date with the tutorial work, which means doing the relevant tutorial questions
as listed in this Study Guide immediately after each lecture. Tutorial tests may be written every few
weeks during the tutorial periods. The marks from these will contribute to the final mark. If you do
not attend at least 75% of the tutorials, your Due Performance Certificate (D.P.) may be refused. This
precludes you from writing your final exam unless you can present to the Dean of your faculty good
reasons for your conduct.
To be marked present, you must arrive within the first 5 minutes of the start of your tutorial, actively
participate in the tutorial and only work on Calculus or Algebra problems. No student will be
exempted from tutorials. Tutorials start in the First week of Semester 2. No student may change a
tutorial group without first consulting the course co-ordinator.
I.3 Calculus Textbooks

The contents of the Calculus component of MATH1036 is supported by your recommended Calculus
textbooks detailed below.
vi 2nd Semester Calculus Study Guide 2020 MATH1036
Title: Thomas’ Calculus, Early Transcendentals in SI Units, 11th, 12th, 13th or 14th Edition
Pearson International Edition
Authors: George B. Thomas, Maurice D. Weir and Joel Hass
Publisher: Pearson, Addison Wesley
and
Title: Calculus, Any Edition

Authors: James Stewart
Publisher: Thomson Brooks/ Cole (Cengage Learning)
I.4 Tests and Examinations

There will be four class tests during the course of the year and one examination.
I.4.1 Test times and venues

Test times and venues were unconfirmed at the time of printing and will be given to you at the begin-
ning of the year. You will write four tests through the year - in approximately March, April, June and
September (each for an hour). In November you will write a three hour exam.
The Algebra and Calculus tests and examinations are written concurrently, and the durations given above
are the total times for both Algebra and Calculus. The time allocated for tests and examinations, in
minutes, equals the maximum mark for that test or examination. Therefore, if you are only registered
for one of Algebra or Calculus, then you can see the allocated time in the table in Subsection I.4.5.
Consult the MATH1034/6 Sakai notices for possible changes in dates, times, and venues.
The EXAMINATIONS OFFICE will specify the dates, times and venues for the June test and November
examination and it will be your responsibility to obtain this information from the examinations notice-
board.
I.4.2 Calculator Policy

No calculators are allowed in tests and examinations.
I.4.3 Past Papers

A Past Papers Booklet will be available and distributed to you. This booklet includes the tests and
examinations from previous years with selected solutions.
I.4.4 Absence from Tests and Exams

In keeping with university rules, if you do not present yourself for a test, you will obtain zero for that test,
and/or have your due performance certificate refused. If however, you produce a valid medical certificate
or acceptable documented evidence (including exact dates of absence) to the School of Mathematics,
Mathematical Sciences Building MSB319, within 3 (three) days on your return to explain your
absence, you will get an exemption from that test. Please ensure that your name, student number
and course code is on the medical certificate/documentary evidence.
In the case of exams, if you do not present yourself for the examination, you have to apply to your
Faculty for a deferred examination within three working days from the examination date.
MATH1036 2nd Semester Calculus Study Guide 2020 vii
A student who becomes ill during a test is advised to inform the invigilators immediately; in this case the
student will be sent to Campus Health so that the doctor there can certify that the student is medically
unfit to continue with the test. Note that claims of having been ill during a test will not be entertained
after the test is written.
I.4.5 Final Marks

The marks that each test, examination and assignments/tutorials contributes to the final mark for the
module course MATH1036 is calculated as follows:
March test April test June test September test Tut tests & Final exam
Assignments
40 40 40 30 30 90
Your October Class Record (your continuous assessment) is the cumulative mark of all tests/assignment
written before the final exam. The Final Year Mark is calculated in two different ways and the maximum
of those two marks is your final mark. The two different way to calculated your mark are as follows:
Class Record + Final Exam Mark Class Record Final Exam Mark
!
Final Year Mark = max , + × 100.
270 360 180
To pass MATH1036 with the code PASS your Final Year Mark must be at least 50%. If your Final Year
Mark is between 40% and 49% in MATH1036 and your combined weighted mark of five twelfth of the
Final year mark in MATH1034 plus seven twelfth of the Final year mark in MATH1036 is at least 50%,
then you will pass MATH1036 with the code PMIN.
I.4.6 Online assignments and tutorial tests

Your online assignment homework consists of compulsory MyMathLab online homework. Tut tests will
be written during tutorial periods.
Together these will count towards the 30 marks for the Tut Tests and Assignments mark. If due to
unforeseen circumstances this split for the homework marks has to be modified, you will be notified in
due time.
I.5 Library
It is often very useful to consult alternative mathematics textbooks. A large number of these, many of
which you may take out on loan, may be found in the GEO-MATHS Library. This library is housed in
Senate House, Basement 1.
I.6 Mathematics Academic Centre (the MAC)

Aside from your tutorials, you can also seek assistance with your mathematics work at the MAC. This
centre is located at MSB327 and is staffed by postgraduate students and tutors from the School of
Mathematics. In addition, the MAC has several mathematics textbooks, which you may find useful.
The MAC is open Mondays to Fridays from 10h15 to 16h00 to all undergraduate mathematics students
the timetable is available on Sakai, at the MAC, or on the Facebook page.
We urge you to follow the MAC Facebook page to receive all the information, timetables and updates
regarding the extra tutorials offered at the MAC. You may also use this page to provide feedback or ask
viii 2nd Semester Calculus Study Guide 2020 MATH1036
any questions you may have about the MAC.
Contact details:
Follow the MAC page by searching ’@the.mac.wits’ or ’The Mathematics Academic Centre’ on Face-
book.
Webpage: https://www.wits.ac.za/maths/the-mac/
For further queries, please contact:
Email: Shashilan.Singh@wits.ac.za
Phone: (011) 717 6221
Office: MSB335
Email: tutorhelp.maths@wits.ac.za
Contact Details: Heads of the MAC (Office MSB306)
Nolwazi Dube: nolwazi.dube@wits.ac.za

Artur Correia: artur.correia@wits.ac.za
I.7 School of Mathematics Administration Staff

Certain administrative enquiries (e. g. progress reports for bursary students, deregistering from a course)
must be made with one of the secretaries of the School of Mathematics. Their offices are located in
MSB319 and MSB323.
Should you have any other queries, please do not hesitate to ask your course co-ordinator.
I.8 MyMathLab
I.8.1 Getting Started
All students will be registered for MyMathLab when they register for Mathematics I Major. To access
MyMathLab you will need a computer with internet access. At Wits you can use the Mathematical Sci-
ences Labs (MS Labs). Each lab has its own timetable and this timetable should be used to plan your
computing time outside of booked tutorial times. Note that the ‘i-Lab’ in the MS Labs is a 24/7 lab.
It is important that you know how to log in to these labs. This procedure changes occasionally, so it is
left up to you to find out how to log in. There are ‘hotseaters’ in the labs whose purpose is to help you
with such problems. Often, a notice is posted on the boards in the labs informing you of how to log in.
MATH1036 2nd Semester Calculus Study Guide 2020 ix
Internet access from a Wits computer

In order to access MyMathLab you will need to have access to the internet. All Wits computers have
internet access.
1. To access the internet you will need to log on through a proxy server.
2. Having clicked on the internet icon on your desktop, a window will pop up asking you to enter
your username and password.
3. Username: students\YourStudentNumber.
4. Password: Your ID (South African residents or citizens) or passport number or any other password
you may have chosen for your Wits (e-mail) account.
5. For example, if John Smith with student number 330587 and ID number 9004020114084 wanted
to log onto the proxy server his username would be ‘students\330587’ and his password
‘9004020114084’.
Note that this proxy server username and password are distinct from those for MyMathLab. At each step
of the login process you should be aware of what is required from you.
Accessing MyMathLab
In order to use MyMathLab you need to have an account. All students will be registered for MyMathLab
once they have registered for MATH1036. An email will be sent to your WITS email address from the
Pearson team detailing your account details (i. e. username and password) and the courses you have been
registered for. Your Wits email address is usually of the form ‘yourstudentnumber@students.wits.ac.za’
and can be accessed from https://studentmail.wits.ac.za.
To access MyMathLab you need to do the following:

1. Access the internet.
2. Go to www.wits.mylabsplus.com.
3. Click ‘LOG IN’.
4. Enter your unique username and password
5. Click ‘LOG IN ’.
Note: If you are using a personal computer, you may need to download packages. Please see Chapter
I.10 for help.
I.9 Using MyMathLab

I.9.1 Online Tutorials
MyMathLab is very sensitive to syntax and format. Often students get the answer correct but input the
answer incorrectly. MyMathLab considers this as an incorrect answer. If you are convinced your answer
is correct but the system says it is incorrect, check that the answer you give is not a different form of the
answer given by MyMathLab. To avoid this problem, make sure you read the instructions given in the
question as to how to input the answers. Below is a list of common instructions and what they mean.
x 2nd Semester Calculus Study Guide 2020 MATH1036
√
1 3
• Simplest form: All denominators must be rationalised. So √ should be written as . Frac-
3 3
13 1
tions must be simplified. should be . Unless otherwise specified, mixed fractions should be
26 2
2 7
written as improper fractions. That is 1 is written as . With regards to expressions, the simplest
5 5
form is the factorised form. For example, the simplest form of x2 + 2x + 4 is (x + 2)2 .
• Interval notation: To type round brackets, use the round brackets on the keyboard (Shift+9 = (;
Shift+0 = ) ). Square brackets([]) are found above the Enter key. To separate the values in the
interval use , (comma). You can also use the toolbox on the right side of the window. Click ‘More’
to see a full list of available items.
• To type fractions, ∞ (infinity) etc. use the toolbox on the right of the window.
You do not have to do the questions in the order they are in. By clicking on the question numbers on the
top of the page you can move between questions.
Note: Pop-up blockers must be disabled. If you are unsure of how to do this, please see I.10.
I.10 Troubleshooting
As with anything dependent on computers, things can go wrong. Hopefully, you will be able to solve
most of your problems by referring to this section, but this is by no means a complete list! If you still
experience problems after reading this, please see your MyMathLab tutor or contact the Pearson team
on their Pearson 24/7 website.
Please contact Pearson 24/7 if you experience any problems such as
• Forgotten username
• forgotten password
• Technical assistance
www.247pearsoned.com
Remember to register on Pearson 24/7 by clicking sign up.
It is important to sign up, as your queries are then logged against your account which speeds up the
query process. By using Pearson 24/7, you have the option to:
• Find answers
• Send an email
• Chat
MATH1036 2nd Semester Calculus Study Guide 2020 xi
Keep in mind that MyMathLab runs best on either Firefox or Internet Explorer. It is recommended that
you avoid using Safari as your browser when using MyMathLab.
The procedures outlined in the following sections were correct at the time of writing. However, things
change quickly so you may have to use these as a guide to figure out how to proceed. These are by no
means the only way to perform the tasks but are, arguably, the simplest.
I.10.1 Pop-up Blockers

The following details a procedure for turning off pop-up blockers on either Firefox or Internet Explorer.
Firefox
1. If pop-up blockers are not disabled, a message will appear above the page informing you that
pop-ups are blocked.
2. Click ‘Preferences’ in the message bar above the page.
3. Click ‘Always Allow Pop-ups’.
4. Click ‘Yes’.
5. Click ‘Continue’.
Internet Explorer
1. To turn off pop-up blockers click ‘Tools’ in the toolbar at the top of the page.
2. Click ‘Pop-up Blocker’.
3. Click ‘Always Allow Pop-ups from this Site’.
4. In the window that opened click ‘Continue’.
I.10.2 Personal Computers

Should you wish to use your PC or laptop to access MyMathLab you may need to do one or all of the
following.
Enabling JavaScript and cookies

JavaScript and cookies need to be enabled for MyMathLab to run.
Firefox
1. Select ‘Tools > Options’.
2. Click ‘Privacy’.
3. Select ‘Allow sites to set cookies’.
4. Click ‘Content’.
5. Select ‘Enable JavaScript’.
6. Click ‘OK’.
xii 2nd Semester Calculus Study Guide 2020 MATH1036
Internet Explorer
1. Select ‘Tools > Internet Options’.
2. On the ‘Security ’ tab, click ‘Custom Level’. Click ‘Enable’ under ‘Run ActiveX controls and
plug-ins’.
3. On the ‘Advanced’ tab, click ‘Enable third-party browser extensions’ under ‘Browsing’.
4. On the ‘Privacy tab’, move the slider to ‘Low’ or ‘Accept All Cookies’.
5. Note: If you do not see a slider on the ‘Privacy’ tab:
a. Click ‘Advanced’.
b. Select ‘Override automatic cookie handling’.
c. Select ‘Accept’ under ‘First party cookies’ and ‘Third-party cookies’.
d. Select ‘Always allow session cookies’.
e. Click ‘OK’.
I.11 Calculus Curriculum

Topics in Calculus include: Limits and continuity. Differentiation. L’Hôpital’s rule. Applications of
differentiation (curve sketching, maxima & minima and rates of change). Antiderivatives, definite and
indefinite integrals. Riemann sums. Applications of integration to areas and volumes. The natural
logarithmic and exponential functions (transcendental functions). Further techniques of integration and
Improper integrals. Sequences and series. Taylor and Maclaurin series. Partial differentiation. Ordinary
first order differential equations. The following are the prescribed Outcomes for Calculus MATH1036:
MATH1036 2nd Semester Calculus Study Guide 2020 xiii
Outcome: Assessment Criteria:

At the end of the course you should be The outcome will be measured through your ability
able to to
determine the limit of a function at a point solve limits of functions numerically, graphically and al-
gebraically
use appropriate limit laws use appropriate limit laws to determine whether a limit
exists and to find it
establish whether a given function is con- test whether a function is continuous from the left and
tinuous on its domain from the right and to identify any discontinuities
find the derivative of a function find derivatives of functions using the definition (by first
principles) and by differentiation rules and formulae
apply L’Hopitals rule use L’Hopitals rule to find certain limits of indeterminate
form
apply the concepts of limits, continuity sketch curves by using the information about the inter-
and differentiation to sketch graphs of val(s) on which the function is increasing/decreasing,
functions concave up/down together with the asymptotes of the
function
solve optimization problems solve maxima/minima problems
write down the antiderivatives of a func- find a function if the derivative of the function is given
tion
evaluate integrals using integration tech- use the Substitution Rule to evaluate indefinite integrals
niques
determine the area under a curve using calculate the area of a region that lies under the graph of
Riemann Sums a continuous function using the areas of approximating
rectangles
determine the area of a region using the evaluate definite integrals using the properties of the def-
definite integral inite integral and the Fundamental Theorem of Integral
Calculus
compute areas of regions between curves apply the definite integral to calculate volumes of solids
and volumes of solids with known cross-sections and solids of revolutions
(disk and washer methods)
recognize the inverse properties of the use the properties of the natural exponential function and
natural logarithmic and exponential func- its inverse (the natural logarithmic function) to sketch
tions and other transcendental functions their graphs and compute their derivatives and integrals
evaluate integrals of more complicated use techniques of Integration by Parts, Trigonometric
trigonometric and rational functions Subsitution and Partial Fractions to evaluate more com-
plicated integrals
identify improper integrals test the convergence or divergence of an improper inte-
gral
investigate the convergence or divergence apply appropriate tests for convergence or divergence to
of infinite sequences and series infinite sequences and series
represent certain functions as power se- use the power series, Taylor and Maclaurin series and
ries the binomial series to represent certain functions
find partial derivatives find partial derivatives of functions in more than one
variable
solve ordinary first-order differential recognize and solve separable, linear, homogeneous and
equations exact differential equations
xiv 2nd Semester Calculus Study Guide 2020 MATH1036
YOU ARE EXPECTED TO BE ATTENTIVE AND ARE ENCOURAGED TO PARTICIPATE CON-

STRUCTIVELY IN CLASS DISCUSSIONS.
ALWAYS BE DISCIPLINED IN YOUR BEHAVIOUR IN LECTURES AND SHOW CONSID-

ERATION TO YOUR FELLOW COLLEAGUES.
YOU MUST TAKE DOWN THE EXAMINABLE LECTURE NOTES. ALSO REMEMBER TO NOTE
THE SUBTLE SPOKEN HINTS AND THOSE HIGHLIGHTED ON THE CHALKBOARD OR OVER-
HEAD PROJECTOR!
Below is a block-by-block Calculus syllabus. Note that the first semester reference is to the textbook by
Thomas whereas the second semester reference is to the textbook by Stewart.
Semester 1 Syllabus – Block 1:

Topic Sections Textbook Reference
Functions and Limits Limit of a function §§2.1 & 2.2
One-sided limits, infinite limits & asymptotes §§2.2 & 2.6
Limit laws & trigonometric limits §§2.2 & 3.5
Continuity Continuous functions & discontinuities §2.5
Derivatives Limit definition §§3.1 & 3.2
Differentiability §3.2
Differentiation formulae §3.3
Differentiation rules (product, quotient & chain) §§3.3 & 3.6
Derivative of trigonometric functions §3.5
Implicit differentiation §3.7
Differentiation of a x , loga x, e x and ln x §3.3 & 3.8
Linear approximation & differentials §3.11
Introductory Integration Antidifferentiation §4.8
The indefinite & definite integral, FTC in brief §54
Table of known integrals (trigonometric functions,
e x and ln x)
Substitution rule §5.6
Integration by parts §8.1
Number of lectures 28
FTC: Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
0 2nd Semester Calculus Study Guide 2020 MATH1036

Differentiation techniques Higher order derivatives §3.2
Logarithmic differentiation §3.8
Inverse trig derivatives & integrals §§3.9 & 8.3
Applications of derivatives Indeterminate forms & L’Hopital’s rule §4.5
Related rates §3.10
Extrema §4.1
Rolle’s Theorem & Mean Value Theorem §4.2
Curve sketching §§4.3–4.5
Optimisation §4.6
Hyperbolic functions Hyperbolic curves & indentities §7.3 Self-study
Hyperbolic derivatives and integrals Self-study
Inverse Hyperbolic functions & integrals Self-study
(Assignment 2)

Integration Theory Riemann sums §§5.1 & 5.2
FTC revisited §5.3
Advanced Integration techniques Exponential & Log integrals
Integration by parts revisited §8.1
Trigonometric integrals §8.2
Trig substitution §8.3
Partial fractions §8.4
Applications of integration Area §5.6
Volumes by slicing, disks & washers §§6.1 & 6.2
Average value §5.3

Improper integrals Convergence & divergence Ch 8.7
Sequences & series Sequences §10.1
Series §10.2
Convergence tests for series §§10.3-10.6
Power series §10.7
Taylor and Maclaurin series §10.8
Binomial series §10.10
Differential equations Separable §7.2
Linear §9.2
Homogeneous
Exact
Chapter 7
Hyperbolic Functions
This chapter is a self-study. You will not be given any formal lectures on this examinable chapter. To
find out more about hyperbolic functions, look it up in one of the following textbooks (available in the
library or in the MAC):
Title: Thomas’ Calculus, Early Transcendentals in SI Units

Pearson International Edition
Authors: George B. Thomas, Maurice D. Weir and Joel Hass
Publisher: Pearson, Addison Wesley
or
Title: Calculus, International Metric Version

Author: James Stewart
Publisher: Cengage Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
On completion of this section you should be able to (tick the checkbox when you have mastered the
skill)
1. know the definitions of the six hyperbolic functions: sinh x, cosh x, tanh x, sech x, coth x and
cosech x and know the sketches of the graphs of sinh x, cosh x and tanh x,
2. know the hyperbolic identities and their derivations,
3. know the derivatives (and the proofs) of the hyperbolic functions,
4. know the Inverse Hyperbolic functions sinh x, cosh x and tanh x and their sketches given
−1 −1 −1
on pages 438 and 439 of Thomas,

5. know how to express the inverse hyperbolic√ functions in terms of natural
√ logarithms, i. e., know
! and use sinh x = ln(x + x + 1), cosh x = ln(x + x2 − 1) and tanh−1 x =
−1 2 −1
how to prove
1 1+x
ln as given on page 442 of Thomas,
2 1−x
6. know the derivatives (and the proofs) of the inverse hyperbolic functions given on page 490 of
Stewart and know how to use the inverse hyperbolic functions in integration techniques as given
by Example 6 on page 442 of Thomas.
7. know how to solve the examinable worked out problems in this section.
1
Tutorial 7.1
1. Thomas Exercises:
11th ed. 7.4, pp. 530–532 or 12th ed. 7.3, pp. 441–442 or 13th ed. 7.3, pp. 459–460 or 14th ed. 7.3,
pp. 466–467: 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9–12, 14, 15, 17, 21, 23, 25, 27, 31, 37, 40, 41, 45, 55, 61, 62, 67, 69, 71.
2. Using the definitions of sinh x and cosh x in terms of exponentials, determine the following in terms
of exponentials:
(a) tanh x =
(b) cosech x =
(c) sech x =
(d) coth x =
3. (a) dxd
sinh x =
(b) dx cosh 3x =
d
d
(c) If aR is a constant, dx coth ax =
R sinh x dx =
4. (a)
(b) R cosh x dx =
(c) sech2 7x dx = R
(d) If b is a constant, tanh bx dx =
5. (a) Sketch the graph of sinh x
(b) use part (a) to sketch the graph of cosech x
(c) use part (a) to sketch the graph of arcsinh x, the inverse function of sinh x.
6. Prove the following formulae:
√
(a) For x ∈ R, sinh−1 x = ln(x + x2 + 1),
√
(b) For x ≥ 1, cosh−1 x = ln(x + x2 − 1),
1+x
!
1
(c) For |x| < 1, tanh x = ln
−1
.
2 1−x
THIS SECTION IS EXAMINABLE!

Chapter 8
Integration Theory and Applications
8.1 Riemann Sums and Area Approximation
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
skill)
1. understand the concept of Riemann Sums and its application to areas,

2. use P-notation and summation formulæ to calculate the area under a curve using Riemann
Sums,
3. know the definition of the definite integral and find the definite integral of a function using
Riemann Sums,
4. know how to solve the examinable worked out problems from this section.
We recall Sigma Notation from Algebra.
The sum of n terms a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an is written as

n
X
ai = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an
i=1
where i is the index of summation, ai is the ith term of the sum, the
upper bound of summation is n and the lower bound of summa-
tion is 1
and the following formula (proved by Mathematical Induction)
3
n n
X X n(n + 1)
c = nc i=
i=1 i=1
2
n n #2
n(n + 1)(2n + 1) n(n + 1)
X X "
i =
2
i =
3
i=1
6 i=1
2
Consider a plane region bounded above by the graph of a nonnegative, continuous function y = f (x).
The region is bounded below by the x-axis, and the left and right boundaries are the vertical lines x = a
and x = b.
f
y
x
a b
Definition of a Riemann Sum

A Riemann Sum of f over the interval [a, b] is any sum of the form
n
X
f (xi∗ )∆xi = f (x1∗ )∆x1 + f (x2∗ )∆x2 + f (x3∗ )∆x3 + · · · + f (xn∗ )∆xn
i=1
where the points x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . , xn with a = x0 ≤ x1 ≤ x2 ≤ · · · ≤ xn = b divide the

interval [a, b] into n subintervals
[x0 , x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], . . . , [xn−1 , xn ],
the length of each subinterval [x j−1 , x j ] is
b−a
∆x j = x j − x j−1 = ,
n
and x∗j is any sample point in the interval [x j−1 , x j ].
MATH1036 2nd Semester Calculus Study Guide 2020 5
We will mostly divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length. The common length of each
subinterval [x j−1 , x j ] is then
b−a
∆x =
n
and the points of the subdivision are given by
!
b−a
x j = a + j∆x = a + j .
n
The endpoints of the subintervals are thus
a=x x1 x2 x =b
z }| 0{ z }| { z }| { z n}| {
a + 0∆x < a + 1∆x < a + 2∆x < · · · < a + n∆x
We thus divide the region into subregions bounded by the vertical lines x = x j , j = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n.
f
y
x
x0 x1 x2 x3 xn
∆x
=
=
a b
We can now approximate the area of the region using Riemann Sums. Since f is continuous, the Extreme
Value Theorem guarantees the existence of a maximum value at, say, x = M j and a minimum value at,
say, x = m j of f (x) in each subinterval [x j−1 , x j ]. Let
f (m j ) be the minimum value of f (x) in [x j−1 , x j ],

f (M j ) be the maximum value of f (x) in [x j−1 , x j ],
Then we define two particular Riemann Sums as follows:
1. Lower Sums
f
y
x
x0 x1 x2 x3 xn
∆x
=
=
a b
Define an inscribed rectangle lying inside the region above the jth subinterval whose height is f (m j ).
The area of the jth inscribed rectangle is
R j = f (m j )∆x.
Then the sum of the areas of all inscribed rectangles is called the Lower Sum and is given by
n
X n
X
L(n) = Rj = f (m j )∆x.
j=1 j=1
2. Upper Sums
f
y
x
x0 x1 x2 x3 xn
∆x
=
=
a b
Define a circumscribed rectangle lying above the jth subinterval whose height is f (M j ). The area of
the jth circumscribed rectangle is
R j = f (M j )∆x.
Then the sum of the areas of all circumscribed rectangles is called the Upper Sum and is given by
n
X n
X
U(n) = Rj = f (M j )∆x.
j=1 j=1
The Lower and Upper Riemann Sums approximate the area under f
L(n) ≤ Area under f ≤ U(n)
Worked Example 8.1.1. Approximate the area bounded by f (x) = x2 and the x-axis between x = 0 and
x = 2 using Riemann Sums with n = 4.
Theorem 8.1. If f is a continuous function on the interval [a, b] , then lim L(n) and lim U(n) both
n→∞ n→∞
exist and
Xn Xn
lim L(n) = lim f (mi )∆x = lim f (Mi )∆x = lim U(n),
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
i=1 i=1
b−a
where ∆x = and f (mi ) is the minimum value of f on the ith subinterval and f (Mi ) is the maximum
n
value of f on the ith subinterval, for each i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
The area of a region in the plane may now be defined in terms of Riemann Sums.
Let f be a continuous, nonnegative function on the interval [a, b]. The area of the
region bounded by the graph of f , the x-axis and the vertical lines x = a and x = b
is
X n
Area = lim f (xi∗ )∆x, xi−1 ≤ xi∗ ≤ xi ,
n→∞
i=1
b−a
where ∆x = .
n
Worked Example 8.1.2. Find the area of the region under the graph of the given function in the given
interval using Riemann Sums.
1. f (x) = 16 − x2 in [0, 3].
2. g(x) = 1 + 2x3 in [0, 5].
Tutorial 8.1
1. Find the approximate area under the curve f (x) = sin(x) on [0, π] by:
(a) Finding the Lower Riemann Sum when n = 3.

(b) Finding the Upper Riemann Sum when n = 6.
(c) Finding the Left Riemann Sum when n = 4. The Left Riemann Sum means that you take the
height of each rectangle (the ‘sample point’) at its left-most point.
2. Now calculate the exact area under the curve f (x) = sin(x) on [0, π] using integration. Were your
answers above over-estimates or under-estimates?
3. Consider the Right Riemann Sum of g(t) = t4 where t0 = 0, t1 = 12 , t2 = 1, t3 = 3

2 and t4 = 2.
(a) Would you expect to get an over-estimate or an under-estimate for the area under the curve?
(b) Calculate the Right Riemann Sum and the integral giving the exact answer and see if your
answer in (a) was correct.
(c) Calculate the Right Riemann Sum again but this time use 6 rectangles of equal width instead
of 4. Which estimate is more accurate?
4. Complete the table by filling in ‘over-estimate’ or ‘under-estimate’:
Graph is increasing Graph is decreasing

Left Riemann Sum
Right Riemann Sum
5. (a) Find the equation of the hyperbola of the form xy = k which goes through the point (−1, 1).
(b) Using a Riemann Sum where the height is given by the value of the function at the midpoint
of the base of the rectangle, approximate the area under the hyperbola given in (a) between
x = −5 and x = −1, divided into 4 rectangles of equal width.
8.2 Area with the Definite Integral
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
skill)
1. understand and know the proofs of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus2 (FTC2) and the
Mean Vaue Theorem for integrals,
2. know the properties of the definite integral,
3. know how to evaluate the integrals of symmetric functions,
4. know how to compute the average value of a function,
5. compute the area of a region between two curves using integration,
6. find the area of a region between intersecting curves using integration,
7. interpret a definite integral as the area of a known geometric region,
8.2.1 The Definite Integral
Extending the formula for the area from the previous section to functions which are not necessarily
positive we obtain the following definition:
Definition 8.1 (Definite Integral). Let f be a continuous function defined on the interval [a, b] and
b−a
divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x = . We let
n
a = x0 < x1 < x2 < x3 < · · · < xn = b
be the endpoints of these subintervals and let x1∗ , x2∗ , . . . , xn∗ be any sample points in these subintervals
so that xi∗ lies in the ith subinterval [xi−1 , xi ]. Then the definite integral of f from a to b is
Zb n
X
f (x) dx = lim f (xi∗ )∆x.
n→∞
a i=1
It is clear then from Riemann Sums and the area under a curve that if f is continuous and non-negative
on [a, b] (i.e., f (x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b]), then the area bounded by the graph of f , the x-axis and the
lines x = a and x = b is
Zb
Area = f (x) dx.
a
In Chapter 5 of the first semester study guide we used the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 2 (FTC2)
in conjunction with some integration techniques to evaluate a definite integral. We now may interpret
the definite integral as the area under the curve of a non-negative continuous function. The following is
a formal proof of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
Theorem 8.2 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 2, FTC2). If f is continuous on the closed interval
[a, b] and F is an antiderivative of f on the interval [a, b], then
Zb
f (x) dx = F(b) − F(a).
a
Proof. Partition the interval [a, b] into n equal subintervals with endpoints
a = x0 < x1 < x2 < · · · < xn−1 < xn = b
of length ∆x = xi − xi−1 = b−a

n .
By pairwise subtraction and addition of like terms, we can write as a telescoping series
F(b) − F(a) = F(xn ) − F(xn−1 ) + F(xn−1 ) − · · · − F(x1 ) + F(x1 ) − F(x0 )

Xn
= [F(xi ) − F(xi−1 )].
i=1
Since F is an antiderivative, F is continuous on [xi−1 , xi ] and differentiable on (xi−1 , xi ) for each i. By the
Mean Value Theorem, applied to F on these subintervals, for each i = 1, . . . , n there exist ci ∈ (xi−1 , xi )
such that
F(xi ) − F(xi−1 )
F 0 (ci ) =
xi − xi−1
F(xi ) − F(xi−1 )
=
∆x
F(xi ) − F(xi−1 )
⇒ f (ci ) = ∵ F is an antiderivative of f, F 0 (ci ) = f (ci )
∆x
⇒ f (ci ) ∆x = F(xi ) − F(xi−1 )
n
X Xn
⇒ f (ci ) ∆x = (F(xi ) − F(xi−1 )) = F(b) − F(a)
i=1 i=1
n
X
⇒ lim f (ci ) ∆x = F(b) − F(a)
n→∞
i=1
Zb
⇒ f (x) dx = F(b) − F(a).
a
P
The properties of and that of the limit enable us to realise the following properties of the definite
integral. The first property is a definition and is stated separately. The remaining properties require
proof and are stated in Theorem 8.3 below.
Definition 8.2. If a < b and f is continuous on [a, b] then we define
Za Zb
1. f (x) dx = − f (x) dx.
b a
Theorem 8.3 (Further Properties of the Definite Integral). We assume that a ≤ b and that f and g
are continuous functions on [a, b].
Zc
2. For c ∈ [a, b], f (x) dx = 0
c
Proof. Note that ∆x = 0. So the result follows.
Zb Zb
3. c f (x) dx = c f (x) dx for any c ∈ R
a a
Proof.
Zb n
X
 n
X
  n
X
 Zb
c f (x) dx = lim c f (xi∗ ) ∆x = lim c f (xi∗ ) ∆x = c  lim f (xi∗ ) ∆x = c

 
 
 

f (x) dx.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
a i=1 i=1 i=1 a
Zb Zb Zb
4. [ f (x) + g(x)] dx = f (x) dx + g(x) dx
a a a
Proof.
Zb n
X
[ f (x) + g(x)] dx = lim [ f (xi∗ ) + g(xi∗ )] ∆x
n→∞
a i=1
 n n 
X X
= lim  f (xi ) ∆x + g(xi ) ∆x
∗ ∗

n→∞
i=1 i=1
n
X n
X
= lim f (xi∗ ) ∆x + lim g(xi∗ ) ∆x
n→∞ n→∞
i=1 i=1
Zb Zb
= f (x) dx + g(x) dx.
a a
Zb Zb Zb
5. [ f (x) − g(x)] dx = f (x) dx − g(x) dx
a a a
Proof.
Zb Zb Zb Zb Zb
[ f (x) − g(x)] dx = f (x) dx + [−g(x)] dx = f (x) dx − g(x) dx.
a a a a a
Zb Zc Zb
6. f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx if f is continuous on an interval containing a, b and c
a a c
Proof. We assume that a < c < b and choose a partition of [a, b] that includes c as a point of subdivision,
say c = xm . Then
Zb n
X
f (x) dx = lim f (xi∗ ) ∆xi
n→∞
a i=1
m n 
X X
= lim  f (xi ) ∆xi + f (xi ) ∆xi 
∗ ∗


n→∞
i=1 i=m+1
m
X n
X
= lim f (xi∗ ) ∆xi + lim f (xi∗ ) ∆xi
n→∞ n→∞
i=1 i=m+1
Zc Zb
= f (x) dx + f (x) dx.
a c
Note that because of xm = c for some m, in general, the subintervals cannot be chosen to be of equal
length.
Zb
7. If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for all a ≤ x ≤ b, then m(b − a) ≤ f (x) dx ≤ M(b − a)
a
Proof. Since f (xi∗ ) ≤ M for each choice of xi∗ and ∆x ≥ 0, we have
f (xi∗ ) ∆x ≤ M∆x
n n n " !#
X X X b−a b−a
⇒ f (xi∗ ) ∆x ≤ M ∆x = M =M n
i=1 i=1 i=1
n n
n
X
⇒ f (xi∗ ) ∆x ≤ M(b − a)
i=1
n
X
⇒ lim f (xi∗ ) ∆x ≤ M(b − a)
n→∞
i=1
Zb
⇒ f (x) dx ≤ M(b − a).
a
Zb
Similary, using the fact that m ≤ f (xi∗ ) for each choice of xi∗ we get m(b − a) ≤ f (x) dx and the result
a
then follows.
Zb
8. If f (x) ≥ 0 for all a ≤ x ≤ b, then f (x) dx ≥ 0
a
Proof. Put m = 0 in Property 7.
Zb Zb
9. If f (x) ≥ g(x) for all a ≤ x ≤ b, then f (x) dx ≥ g(x) dx
a a
Proof. Since f (x) ≥ g(x) for each a ≤ x ≤ b, f (x) − g(x) ≥ 0 in [a, b]. Thus, by Property 8,
Zb Zb Zb
[ f (x) − g(x)] dx ≥ 0 ⇒ f (x) dx − g(x) dx ≥ 0
a a a
Zb Zb
⇒ f (x) dx ≥ g(x) dx.
a a

Zb Zb
10. f (x) dx ≤ | f (x)| dx

a a
Proof. Since f (x) ≤ | f (x)| and − f (x) ≤ | f (x)| for each a ≤ x ≤ b,
Zb Zb Zb Zb
f (x) dx ≤ | f (x)| dx and − f (x) dx ≤ | f (x)| dx
a a a a

Z b Z b
⇒ f (x) dx ≤

| f (x)| dx.

a a
We will now use the FTC2 and the techniques of Chapter 5 (Integral Table, Substitution Rule and
Integration by Parts) in the 1st Semester Calculus Guidebook to evaluate definite integrals. For the next
theorem we recall even and odd functions from Algebra 1st semester.
f (x) is an EVEN function ⇔ f (−x) = f (x) for all x ∈ Dom ( f )
f (x) is an ODD function ⇔ f (−x) = − f (x) for all x ∈ Dom ( f )
Theorem 8.4 (Integration of Even and Odd funtions). Suppose that f is continous on [−a, a].
1. If f is an even function, then
Za Za
f (x) dx = 2 f (x) dx.
−a 0
2. If f is an odd function, then

Za
f (x) dx = 0.
−a
Proof. Using the properties of the definite integral we have
Za Z0 Za
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
−a −a 0
Z−a Za
=− f (x) dx + f (x) dx.
0 0
We apply the Definite Integral Substitution Rule. Put u = −x. Then du = −dx. The limits of the first
integral change as follows: when x = −a, u = a and when x = 0, u = 0. Thus
Za Za Za Za Za
f (x) dx = − f (−u)(−du) + f (x) dx = f (−x) dx + f (x) dx.
−a 0 0 0 0
1. Suppose that f is an even function. Then

Za Za Za Za Za Za
f (x) dx = f (−x) dx + f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx = 2 f (x) dx.
−a 0 0 0 0 0
2. If f is an odd function, then

Za Za Za Za Za
f (x) dx = f (−x) dx + f (x) dx = − f (x) dx + f (x) dx = 0.
−a 0 0 0 0
Worked Example 8.2.1. Evaluate the following definite integrals.

1.
Zπ
(sin x − x cos x)3 dx
−π
2.
Z2
x2 cosh x dx
−2
We know that the area of the region under a curve is greater or equal than the area of the inscribed
rectangles (lower sums) and less or equal than the area of the circumscribed rectangles (upper sums). We
now have the Mean Value Theorem for integral calculus which loosely states that somewhere between
the inscribed and circumscribed rectangles for n = 1, there is a rectangle whose area is precisely equal
to the region under the curve.
Theorem 8.5 (Mean Value Theorem for Integrals). If f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b],
then there exists a number c in the closed interval [a, b] such that
Zb
f (x) dx = f (c)(b − a).
a
Proof. By the Extreme Value Theorem, Theorem 6.2, f attains its minimum and maximum on [a, b].
Hence there are y, z ∈ [a, b] such that
f (y) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (z) for all x ∈ [a, b].
Since f is continuous, also the function g given by
g(x) = f (x)(b − a)
is continuous on [a, b].

In view of Theorem 8.3, (7),
Zb
g(y) = f (y)(b − a) ≤ f (x) dx ≤ f (z)(b − a).
a
Zb
With k = f (x) dx, it follows from the Intermediate Value Theorem, Theorem 2.4, that there is c
a
between y and z such that g(c) = k. In particular, c ∈ [a, b]. Hence
Zb
f (x) dx = k = g(c) = f (c)(b − a).
a
The value of f (c) given by the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals is called the average value of f on
[a, b] denoted by fave and given by
Zb
1
fave = f (x) dx.
b−a
a
Worked Example 8.2.2. Find the average value of f (x) = 3x2 − 2x on [1, 4].
Solution.
Z4
1 1h 3 i4 1
fave = (3x2 − 2x) dx = x − x2 = [64 − 16 − (1 − 1)] = 16.
4−1 3 1 3
1
Tutorial 8.2.1//
Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 5.3 pp. 379–381: 1, 3, 5, 10–14, 63 or 12th ed. 5.3 pp. 321–323 or 13th ed.
5.3 pp. 338–340 or 14th ed. 5.3 pp. 342–343: 1, 3, 5, 10–14, 64, 68, 69, 71.
and
Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 5.4 p. 392: 5, 14, 21, 34 or 12th ed. 5.4 p. 333: 3, 15, 16, 38 or 13th ed. 5.4
p. 350 or 14th ed. 5.4 p. 355: 1, 15, 16, 38.
8.2.2 Interpreting the Definite Integral as a Known Area

Zb
The definite integral f (x) dx for f (x) ≥ 0 in [a, b] gives the area under f . If the region has a known
a
geometry, then the definite integral is easily calculated using the known geometric area formula.
Worked Example 8.2.3. Evaluate the following definite integrals by interpreting them in terms of areas.
Z2 p
1. 4 − x2 dx.
−2
Z2
2. |2x − 1| dx.
0
Tutorial 8.2.2//
Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 5.3 p. 380: 15, 18, 19, 20, 22 or 12th ed. 5.3 p. 323 or 13th ed. 5.3 p. 339
or 14th ed. 5.3 p. 343: 15, 18, 19, 20, 22.
8.2.3 Area between two Curves: x-axis

We consider the region between the continuous curves f (x) and g(x) and the vertical lines x = a and
x = b with f (x) ≥ g(x) for each x ∈ [a, b].
x
a
xi∗ b
∆x
Using Riemann Sums, we partition [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x. Then for the ith subin-
terval [xi−1 , xi ], the ith vertical rectangular strip has area
Ri = [ f (xi∗ ) − g(xi∗ )]∆x
with xi∗ any sample point in [xi−1 , xi ]. Hence the area between the two curves is the limit as n → ∞ of
the sum of all these rectangular strips (Riemann Sum) so that
n
X
Area = lim Ri
n→∞
i=1
Xn
= lim [ f (xi∗ ) − g(xi∗ )]∆x
n→∞
i=1
Zb
= [ f (x) − g(x)] dx.
a
It is easy to remember that if f is the curve on the TOP and g is the BOTTOM curve then the area
between f and g is
Zb
Area = [TOP − BOTTOM] dx.
a
π
Worked Example 8.2.4. Find the area of the region bounded by y = sec2 x, y = sin x, x = 0 and x = .
4
If the lines x = a and y = b are not given but the curves f and g intersect in at least two points, i.e., there
are a < b such that f (a) = g(a) and f (b) = g(b), then we first have to find these points a and b in order
to find the area bounded by the two curves.
Worked Example 8.2.5. 1. Find the area of the region bounded by y = x2 + 2x + 1 and y = 2x + 5.
2. Find the area of the region bounded by y = 5 ln x and y = x ln x.
3. (Bounded region with changing formula) Find the area of the region in the first quadrant bounded
√
above by y = x and below by the x-axis and the line y = x − 2.
Tutorial 8.2.3
Thomas Exercises 5.6 11th ed. pp. 411–413 or 12th ed. pp. 351–352 or 13th ed. pp. 368–369: 48, 49,
53, 54, 63, 67, 70, 81, 89, 103, 105 or 14th ed. pp. 372–374: 50, 51, 55, 56, 65, 69, 72, 83, 91, 105,
107.
8.2.4 Area between two Curves: y-axis

We consider the region between the continuous curves x = f (y) and x = g(y) and the horizontal lines
y = a and y = b with f (y) further to the right than g(y) for each y ∈ [a, b].
y
g f
∆y
y∗i
a
x
Using Riemann Sums, we partition [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆y. Then for the ith subin-
terval [yi−1 , yi ] the ith horizontal rectangular strip has area
Ri = [ f (y∗i ) − g(y∗i )]∆y
with y∗i any sample point in [yi−1 , yi ]. Hence the area between the two curves is the limit as n → ∞ of
the sum of all these rectangular strips (Riemann Sum) so that
n
X
Area = lim Ri
n→∞
i=1
Xn
= lim [ f (y∗i ) − g(y∗i )]∆y
n→∞
i=1
Zb
= [ f (y) − g(y)] dy.
a
It is easy to remember that if f is the curve on the RIGHT and g is the LEFT curve then the area
between f and g is
Zb
Area = [RIGHT − LEFT] dy.
a
Worked Example 8.2.6. 1. Find the area of the region bounded by x = 3 − y2 and x = y + 1.
2. Set up the integral with respect to y for the area of the region bounded by x = 2y, y + 6 = 2x and the
x-axis. Then set up the integral, for the same region, but with respect to x. Do not evaluate the area.
Tutorial 8.2.4
73, 79, 83 or 14th ed. pp. 372–374: 57, 59, 75, 81, 85.
8.2.5 Area with Crossing over Functions

In order to find the area bounded by curves y = f (x) and y = g(x) which intersect at finitely many
points in an interval [a, b] we have to distinguish the regions in [a, b] where f (x) ≥ g(x) and g(x) ≥
f (x). Thus we first find the points of intersection of f and g (equate f (x) = g(x) and solve for
x ∈ [a, b]) which will produce finitely many points x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , say, generating the subintervals
[a, x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], [x2 , x3 ], . . . , [xn , b]. We then have regions corresponding to these subintervals with area
Ai in which we can identify the TOP and BOTTOM graphs. Then the area of the required region is
A = A1 + A2 + · · · + An .
Since 
 f (x) − g(x) if f (x) ≥ g(x)


| f (x) − g(x)| = 

g(x) − f (x)

 if g(x) ≥ f (x)
the area between f and g in [a, b] is
Zb
A= | f (x) − g(x)| dx.
a
We do not explicitly use the above formula, but rather split the region [a, b] into subintervals where we
can identify which graph is on TOP and which is on the BOTTOM.
Worked Example 8.2.7.
1. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs y = x2 and y = 2 − x2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2.
2. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs y = sin x and y = cos x in [0, 2π].
Tutorial 8.2.5
60, 61, 62 or 14th ed. pp. 372–374: 52, 61, 62, 63, 64.
and
Thomas Chapter 5 Practice 11th ed. pp. 416–418 or 12th ed. pp. 355–357 or 13th ed. pp. 372–374: 18,
113, 114, 119, 120 or 14th ed. pp. 377–379: 18, 117, 118, 123, 124.
Tutorial 8.2
1. (a)
Z5
rer dr =
−2
(b)
Z−1
rer dr =
−2
(c)
Z5
rer dr =
−1
(d) Is it true that answer (a) = answer (b) + answer (c)? Is this an alternative proof of Property
6 given in Theorem 8.3?
2. Given that a ≤ b and g(w) is an even function, use the properties of Definite Integrals in Section 8.2
to show that
Zb Z−a Za
− g(w) dw ≥ |g(w)| dw + 2 |g(w)| dw.

a b 0
3.
Z3π
sin θ dθ =
−3π
4.
Z3π
cos θ dθ =
−3π
5. Find the value of c which makes the following two expressions equal for f (x) = −x + 4. This
verifies the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals in this special case.
R1
(a) −3
f (x) dx
(b) 4 f (c)
6. Find the average value of y = sinh x between the x values −1 and e.
7. Find the area under the curve y = log3 x in the interval [ 13 , 3].
8. Evaluate the area given in the diagram by integrating with respect to x. Check your answer using
geometric formulae from school.
1
0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
-2
√
9. Find the area of the region bounded by the curves f (x) = x and g(x) = sin x between x = 0 and
x = 4. HINT: The following diagram shows these two graphs.
10. Find the area of the region bounded by the curves x = y3 − 6y and x = y2 :
(a) between y = −1 and y = 0

(b) between y = 0 and y = 1
11. Find the area of the region bounded by the curves y = 0, x = y − 3, y = −4x + 10 in three different
ways:
(a) by integrating with respect to x

(b) by integrating with respect to y
(c) check your answer using the formula for the area of a triangle.
R1 √
12. (a) −1 (x 1 − x2 ) dx =
R 1 √
(b) x 1 − x2 dx =
−1
√
(c) Sum the area of the two regions bounded by the curves y = x 1 − x2 and y = 0.
13. Find the area of the region bounded by the curves
(a) φ(x) = 8x3 and ψ(x) = 2x

(b) y = x3 , y = 3x2 − 2x, x = −1 and x = 4
HINT: Where do the curves intersect?
14. Which of the following has the largest value? Try to work out the answer without integrating.
R5
(a) √
5
(x3 − 5x) dx
R √5
(b) √ (x3 − 5x) dx
− 5
R − √5
(c) −5
(x3 − 5x) dx
R √5
(d) 5
(x3 − 5x) dx.
8.3 Solids of Revolution
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
skill)
1. understand and be able to use the Disk Method in computing the volume of a solid of revolution
about the coordinate axes and about lines of rotation.
2. understand and be able to use the Washer Method in computing the volume of a solid of revo-
lution about the coordinate axes and about lines of rotation.
If a region in the plane is revolved about a line, the resulting solid is called a solid of revolution, and
the line is called the axis of revolution. The boundaries of the region in the plane “cut out” the solid of
revolution. The volume of the object which is “cut out” of 3-dimensional space by revolving the region
about a line is the volume of the solid of revolution.
8.3.1 The Disk Method

Rotation about the x-axis
Consider the solid of revolution formed by revolving the plane region below about the x-axis.
y f (x) y f (x)
x x
a x b a x b
To find the volume of this solid of revolution with the Disk Method we approximate the region bounded
by the curve y = f (x), the x axis and the lines x = a and x = b by rectangles. We consider a representative
rectangle in the plane region. Spinning this rectangle once around the x-axis produces a representative
disc depicted below.
∆x
disc
f (xi∗ )
x x
xi∗
rotate
Rotating the line with length f (xi∗ ) about the x-axis results in a circle with radius f (xi∗ ). The area of this
circle is A(xi∗ ) = π[ f (xi∗ )]2 . Therefore, the volume of the representative disc is
Vi = A(xi∗ )∆x = π[ f (xi∗ )]2 ∆x.
We may then approximate the volume V of the solid by n such discs of equal width ∆x and radius f (xi∗ )
so that
Xn Xn
V≈ Vi = π[ f (xi∗ )]2 ∆x.
i=1 i=1
By letting n → ∞ we then have the volume of the solid of revolution (by the disk method) as
n
X n
X Zb
V = lim π[ f (xi∗ )]2 ∆x = π lim [ f (xi∗ )]2 ∆x =π [ f (x)]2 dx.
n→∞ n→∞
i=1 i=1 a
Hence
Zb
V=π [ f (x)]2 dx.
a
We may replace f (x) by R(x) where (for convenience) R(x) is the radius of the disk. Thus
Zb
V=π [R(x)]2 dx.
a
The circle generated by rotating the line with length f (x) about the x-axis is also obtained by taking
the cross-section of the solid with the plane x = constant, which we call the cross-section of the solid
at x. Since the area of this cross-section is π[ f (x)]2 , the above formula for the volume V of the solid of
revolution can informally be written as
Zb
V= [area of the cross-section of the solid at x] dx.
a

rx
1. (Volume of a cone) The region bounded by the graph of f (x) = , 0 ≤ x ≤ h is revolved about the
h
x-axis. Find the volume of the resulting solid.
The following sketch is for illustration only; it is not needed to do the calculations.
y y
rx
f (x) =
h
x x
h h
√
2. (Volume of a sphere) The region bounded by the graph of f (x) = r2 − x2 , −r ≤ x ≤ r, is revolved
about the x-axis. Find the volume of the resulting solid.
y y
r r
x x
−r r −r r
−r
3. A vuvuzela is constructed by revolving the region bounded by the curve y = e−x between x = 0 and
x = 1 about the x-axis. Find the volume of the vuvuzela.
y
y
y = e−x
x x
1
4. (Rotation about a line parallel to the x-axis) Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the
√
region bounded by y = x, x = 1 and x = 4 about the line y = 1.
y y
√
y= x
1 1
x x
1 4 1 4
Rotation about the y-axis

To find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between the y-axis and a curve
x = f (y), a ≤ y ≤ b, about the y-axis we use
Zb
V=π [ f (y)]2 dy
a
or taking R(y) as the radius of the disk at y we may write
Zb
V=π [R(y)]2 dy.
a
Again, we may memorize this as
Zb
V= [area of the cross-section of the solid at y] dy.
a
Worked Example 8.3.2. 1. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by
x = 6y − y2 and the y-axis about the y-axis.
2. Find the volume of a sphere with radius r by rotating a region about the y-axis. (See previous section).
8.3.2 The Washer Method
Rotation about the x-axis
Consider a region bounded by the graphs of x = a, x = b and two continuous functions f and g with
f (x) ≥ g(x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b].
y f (x)
g(x)
x
a b
Revolving this region about the x-axis produces a solid of revolution with a hole through the solid.
x
a b
The volume V of this solid may be obtained by subtracting the volume of the solid generated by the
smaller region from the volume of the solid generated by the larger region (subtraction of two disks) to
give
Zb Zb Zb n o
V = π [ f (x)] dx − π [g(x)] dx = π
2 2
[ f (x)]2 − [g(x)]2 dx.
a a a
Note that the cross-section at x is a washer with inner radius g(x) and outer radius f (x). Denoting the
inner radius by r(x) and the outer radius by R(x), we may also write
Zb n o
V=π [R(x)]2 − [r(x)]2 dx.
a
Noting that the area of the cross-section washer at x is π[ f (x)]2 − π[g(x)]2 , we may again write
Zb
a
Worked Example 8.3.3. 1. The region bounded by the curve y = x2 + 1 and the line y = −x + 3 is
revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
x2 + 1
−x + 3
x
−2 1
2. (Rotation about a line parallel to the x-axis) The region bounded by the graphs y = x2 +2, 2y−x−2 = 0,
x = 0 and x = 1 is revolved about the line y = 3. Find the volume of the solid generated.
y
y = x2 + 2
y=3
2y − x − 2 = 0
x
1
Rotation about the y-axis

By interchanging the roles of x and y we can apply the above techniques to solids generated by revolving
regions about the y-axis using the washer method. Therefore the volume of the solid is
Zb n o
V=π [R(y)]2 − [r(y)]2 dy.
a
We may again memorize this as

Zb
V= [area of the cross-section of the solid at y] dy.
a
x3
Worked Example 8.3.4. 1. The region in the first quadrant bounded by y = and y = 2x is revolved
8
about the y-axis. Find the volume of the resulting solid.
2. (Rotation about a line parallel to the y-axis) The region bounded by the parabola y = x2 and the line
y = 2x in the first quadrant is revolved about the line x = 2. Find the volume of the solid generated.
Tutorial 8.3
1. Thomas Exercises:
11th ed. 6.1 p. 436–437 or 12th ed. p. 372–373 or 13th ed. p. 388-389: 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 29,
37, 38, 42, 48, 49, 51 or 14th ed. 6.1 p. 393–394: 17, 19, 21, 24, 26, 31, 39, 40, 44, 50, 51, 53.
2. Find the volume of the solid generated by rotating Region 1 about
(a) the x-axis
(b) the y-axis.
Which one is larger and why?
1
0
-2 -1 0 1 2
-1
Region 1
(a) the line y = 1,
(b) the line x = 1.
1
0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
Region 2
(a) the x-axis,

(b) the y-axis.
5. The region bounded by the graphs of y = x3 , x = 8 and the x-axis is rotated about the line x = 8.
Find the volume of the resulting solid.
6. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the regions bounded by the given curves about
the y-axis using the disk method.
(a) x2 + 4y2 = 4 (in the first quadrant).

√
(b) y = 2 x, x = 0 and y = 2.
7. A manufacturer drills a hole through the center of a metal sphere of radius 15 cm. The hole has a
radius of 9 cm. What is the volume of the resulting metal ring?
8. (Hard) Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving the region bounded by the graphs of
y = x2 + 1, y = 0, x = 0 and x = 1 about the y-axis.
9. (Hard) Find the volume of the solid generated by rotating the region in Region 2 above about the
line parallel to the y-axis that goes through the point (5, 2).
10. (Very hard) A region is enclosed by y = sin x, y = cos x, x = −π and x = π. Find the volume of
the solid formed if it is rotated about the line y = −2.
8.4 Volumes by Slicing
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
skill)
1. understand and be able to use the Method of Slicing in computing the volume of a given solid
with known cross-section.
If a plane intersects a solid, then the region common to the plane and the solid is called a cross-section
of the solid. With the disk method, we found the volume of a solid having a circular cross-section.
This method can be generalised to solids of any shape with known cross-sectional area. Common cross-
sections are squares, triangles, semicircles and trapezoids.
Therefore consider solids with the property that for each x in a closed interval [a, b] on the x-axis, the
plane perpendicular to the x-axis at the point with coordinate x intersects the solid in a cross-section,
called cross-section at x, whose area is given by A(x).
x
∆x
Like before, to find the volume of the solid we partition [a, b] into n subintervals with partition points
a = x0 < x1 < x2 < · · · < xn = b of equal length ∆x = xi − xi−1 generating slices. The volume of each
ith slice is
Vi ≈ A(xi∗ )∆x, xi−1 ≤ xi∗ ≤ xi .
Consequently the volume of the solid is approximated by the Riemann sum
n
X
V≈ A(xi∗ )∆x.
i=1
Hence as n → ∞ we get the precise volume of the solid by slicing
n
X Zb
V = lim A(xi∗ )∆x = A(x) dx.
n→∞
i=1 a
We may again memorize this as
Zb
a
Worked Example 8.4.1. 1. Find the volume of a pyramid that has altitude h and square base of side b.
y y
h−y
h
1 0
2b
y
x x
b 1
2b
2. A solid has, as its base, the region bounded by the ellipse
x2
+ y2 = 1.
4
Find the volume of the solid given that cross-sections perpendicular to the x-axis are equilateral triangles.
−2
y
1
y
2y
y
2
x
3. A curved wedge is cut from a right circular cylinder of radius r by two planes. One plane is perpen-
dicular to the axis of the cylinder. The second plane makes an acute angle θ with the first and intersects
it at the centre of the cylinder. The line of intersection is the y-axis. The line perpendicular to this line
and the axis of the cylinder is the x-axis. Find the volume of the wedge where
(a) cross-sections are perpendicular to the y-axis
−r
θ
x
r
y
(b) cross-sections are perpendicular to the x-axis.
x
−r
r
y
Tutorial 8.4
1. Thomas Exercises 6.1 11th ed. p. 435: 4, 5, 10, 13, 14 or 12th ed. pp. 371–372 or 13th ed. pp.
387–388: 2, 3, 7, 10, 11, 14, or 14th ed. pp. 391–392: 2, 3, 7, 10, 11, 14.
2. The base of a solid is the region between the parabolas x = y2 and x = 3 − 2y2 . Find the volume
of the solid given that cross-sections perpendicular to the x-axis are squares. HINT: your integral
should be in terms of x.
3. The base of a solid is the disc centred at (1, 0) with radius 2 and the cross-sections (parallel to the
x-axis) are equilateral triangles, where the length of each side is the same as the distance from one
end of the circle to the other at each fixed x value.
(a) Can you find two different ways to calculate this volume?
(b) Do both of these methods give you the same answer?
4. Explain why a stack of coins has the same total volume whether or not the coins are stacked
directly on top of one another.
8.5 The Definite Integral as a Function

The definite integral of any continuous function f from t = a to t = x defines a number
Zx
g(x) = f (t) dt
a
that we can treat as a function of x. The next theorem brings out the remarkable fact that the func-
tion g defined above is an antiderivative of f which provides the link between the definite integral and
antiderivatives.
Theorem 8.6 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 1, FTC1). If f is continuous on [a, b], then the function
defined by
Zx
g(x) = f (t) dt, a < x < b
a
is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) and g0 (x) = f (x), i.e.
Zx
d
f (t) dt = f (x).
dx
a
Proof. By the definition of the derivative

g(x + h) − g(x)
g0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
R x+h Rx
f (t) dt − f (t) dt
= lim a a
h→0 h
 x
Zx+h Zx

Z
1 
 
= lim  f (t) dt + f (t) dt − f (t) dt

h→0 h  
a x a
Zx+h
1
= lim f (t) dt.
h→0 h
x
R x+h
Now apply the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals (Theorem 8.5) to the integral x f (t) dt. Assuming
R x+h
that h > 0 there exists c ∈ [x, x + h] such that x f (t) dt = f (c)h. Moreover, since x ≤ c ≤ x + h, as
h → 0, c → x. Thus
Zx+h
1 1
g0+ (x) = lim+ f (t) dt = lim+ ( f (c)h) = lim+ f (c) = f (x)
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
x
where the last identity follows from the continuity of f .

A similar argument can be made for h < 0.
Worked Example 8.5.1. Complete the following first derivatives

1.
Zx
d
sin t dt
dx
π
2.
Zx
d
sin t2 dt
dx
π
Worked Example 8.5.2. Let f be continuous on [a, b] and assume that u, v : [c, d] → [a, b] are differ-
entiable. Show that
Zv(x)
d
f (t) dt = f (v(x))v0 (x) − f (u(x))u0 (x).
dx
u(x)
Worked Example 8.5.3. Evaluate the following derivatives.

1.
Zx3
d dt
.
dx 1+t
0
2.
Z2x
d dt
.
dx 1 + t2
x
Tutorial 8.5
1. Thomas Exercises 5.4 11th ed. pp. 392–393: 35, 38, 48, 61–64 or 12th ed. p. 334 or 13th ed. p.
351: 39, 42, 48, 49, 65–68 or 14th ed. p. 355-356: 39, 42, 48, 49, 65–68.
2. Find the derivatives of the following functions, given that a is a constant:

sec x
Z
(a) p(x) = (t2 − 1 )dt,
a
x
Z3
(b) q(x) = s3 ds at x = 2,
1
3
sec x
Z
1
(c) f (x) = dt,
1 + t2
tan x
Zx3
(d) g(x) = sin t4 dt,
x2
Zx
x 1
(e) h(x) = arcsin − √ dt, a > 0.
a a2 − t 2
a
Z−t
2
(f) m(t) = x5 − 4 · 3 x dx.
t
3. If you are given that

Zx2
√
f (x) = t dt + x − 5,
0
then what is
(a) f 0 (p),
(b) f 0 (2),
(c) f 0 (−2)?
4. (a)
Zx
(ln t)2 + 1
4
dt =
√
t
x
(b) What is the derivative of Part (a) with respect to x?

(c) Verify your answer using the formula from Worked Example 8.5.2.
Integration Review
Z
e x dx = e x + C
ax
Z
a x dx = +C
ln a
Z
ln x dx = x ln x − x + C
Z
sin x dx = − cos x + C
Z
cos x dx = sin x + C
Z
tan x dx = ln | sec x| + C
Z
cosec x dx = ln | cosec x − cot x| + C
Z
sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C
Z
cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C
Z
sec2 x dx = tan x + C
Z
sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
Z
cosec2 x dx = − cot x + C
Chapter 9
Advanced Integration Techniques
9.1 Inverse Trigonometric, Exponential and Logarithmic Integrals
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
skill)
1. identify an integral as that of an inverse trigonometric type,
2. use the Method of Completing the Square in reducing a quadratic in the integrand and solve
such integrals,
3. identify that an integrand is of the logarithmic type where the numerator is the derivative of the
denominator and solve such integrals,
This section is a follow up to the derivatives and antiderivatives of inverse trigonometric functions. We
recall Z Z
1 x 1 1 x
√ dx = arcsin + C and dx = arctan + C.
a2 − x2 a a2 + x 2 a a
Worked Example 9.1.1. 1. Evaluate Z

1
√ dx
3 − x2
2. Evaluate
Z1
x+3
√ dx.
4 − x2
0
9.1.1 Completing the Square

Given an integrand with a polynomial in the numerator and an irreducible quadratic or the square root
of a reducible quadratic with a negative quadratic term in the denominator, we complete the square of
the quadratic. The outcome of the integral is an inverse trigonometric function.
Worked Example 9.1.2. Evaluate the following by completing the square in the denominator.
1. Z
dx
.
2x − 8x + 10
2
39
2.
9
Z4
dx
√ .
3
3x − x2
2
9.1.2 Exponential and Logarithmic Integrals

Z
d 1 1
Recall that in the first semester we proved that ln |x| = and consequently, dx = ln |x| + C (see
dx x x
First Semester Calculus Guidebook Theorem 4.20 page 45 and Theorem 5.2 page 50). We also recall
Z 0
f (x)
dx = ln | f (x)| + C.
f (x)
Worked Example 9.1.3. Evaluate the following integrals.

1. (a) Z
tan x dx.
1. (b) Z !
x x
+ dx.
x2 − 1 (x2 − 1)2
2. (a) Z
sec x dx.
(b)
π
Z4 p
1 + tan2 x dx.
0
3. Z
cot x dx.
4. Z
cosec x dx.
We will also encounter substitutions (and integrals) involving ln x as the following examples illustrate.

1.
Ze
(1 + ln x)2
dx.
x
1
2. Z
2x
dx.
(x + 1)2
3. Z
2x − 1
dx.
x2 − 6x + 13
d x
Recall that a = a x ln a. Then the integrals of the exponential functions are
dx
ax
Z
a x dx = +C
ln a
and in particular
Z
e x dx = e x + C

1. Z
2
5x2−x dx.
√
2. Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving the region bounded by y = e x and y = x on
[0, 1] about the x-axis.
Tutorial 9.1
1. Thomas Exercises 7.1 11th ed. pp. 506–507: 7, 8, 15, 25, 28, 34, 42 or 12th ed. p. 426 or 13th
ed. p. 442 or 14th ed. p. 449: 7, 8, 12, 15, 18, 25, 28, 34, 42.
2. Evaluate the following integrals.
(a)
Z2
dx
x2 − 2x + 2
0
(b)
x+3
Z
dx
x2 + 6x + 13
(c) Z
2x
dx
x2 + 6x + 13
(d)
x+2
Z
√ dx
−x2 − 4x
(e)
Z3
2x − 3
√ dx
4x − x2
2
(f) Z !
2 2 1 3
x cosh x dx
3
(g)
Z2
ln x(1 − ln x)
dx
x3
1
HINT: let u = ln x
x .
9.2 Integration by Parts Revisited
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
skill)
1. use the technique of Integration by Parts in solving integrals involving hyperbolic functions,
2. prove the various reduction formulae using IBP and use them in evaluating a given integral,
We revisit IBP but focus on some additional problems on integration by parts. In particular, we consider
the proofs of various reduction formulae that are useful in simplifying certain integrals with integrand
having just powers of known functions. We recall the IBP formula
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du
and
Zb #b Zb
u dv = uv − v du.
a
a a
Worked Example 9.2.1. Use IBP to evaluate the following integrals.

1.
Z1
x sinh x dx.
0
2. Z
I= (ln x)2 dx.
3. Use the reduction formula

Z Z
(ln x) dx = x(ln x) − n
n n
(ln x)n−1 dx
R
to evaluate (ln x)3 dx together with the solution of example 2 above.
Solution.
Z Z
(ln x) dx = x(ln x) − 3
3 3
(ln x)2 dx
= x(ln x)3 − 3(x(ln x)2 − 2x ln x + 2x) + C

= x(ln x)3 − 3x(ln x)2 + 6x ln x − 6x + C.
4. Prove the reduction formula

Z Z
1 n−2
secn x dx = secn−2 x tan x + secn−2 x dx
n−1 n−1
R
and then use this formula to evaluate sec3 x dx.
All the proofs of the reduction formulae are examinable! You must not learn the proof by rote but rather
know the technique in proving the reduction formula as this is easier. You do not need to remember
these formulae.
Tutorial 9.2
1. Thomas Exercises 7.4 11th ed. p. 531 or 7.3 12th ed. p. 442 or 7.3 13th ed. p. 460 or 7.3 14th
ed. p. 467: 53, 54.
and
Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 8.2 p. 553 or 12th ed. 8.1 pp. 459–460 or 13th ed. 8.2 p. 481 or 14th
ed. 8.2 p. 488: 25–27.
2. Use integration by parts to prove the following reduction formulae
(a)
cosn−1 x sin x n − 1
Z Z
cosn x dx = + cosn−2 x dx
n n
R
and then evaluate cos4 x dx.
(b)
eax
Z
eax cos bx dx = (b sin bx + a cos bx) + C
a2 + b2
and then evaluate I =
R
e x cos x dx.
(c)
eax
Z
eax sin bx dx = (a sin bx − b cos bx) + C
a2 + b2
and then evaluate I =
R
sin(ln x) dx.
(d) Z Z
(ln x) dx = x(ln x) − n
n n
(ln x)n−1 dx
3. What is the average value of f (x) = cos5 x between x = −π and x = 0?
9.3 Trigonometric Substitutions
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
skill)
1. identify that a trigonometric substitution is applicable in reducing the integrand,
2. use the appropriate trigonometric substitution in reducing a definite or indefinite integral,
3. evaluate a trigonometric integral,

4. use a sketch of a representative right angle triangle with angle θ to transform from functions of
θ back to functions of x in resolving the integral,
5. incorporate other integration techniques, in particular completing the square of an irreducible
quadratic in the integrand and then applying a trigonometric substitution to resolve a given
integral,
√ √ √
If the integrand contains one of the expressions a2 − x2 , a2 + x2 , x2 − a2 , a2 − x2 , a2 + x2 or x2 − a2
with a > 0, we can eliminate the expression by using the appropriate trigonometric substitution listed in
the following table.
Expression Trigonometric substitution

√ π π
a2 − x2 or a2 − x 2 , |x| < a Let x = a sin θ, − <θ<
2 2
√ π π
a2 + x2 or a2 + x2 Let x = a tan θ, − < θ <
2 2
√ π 3π
x2 − a2 or x2 − a2 , |x| > a Let x = a sec θ, 0 ≤ θ < or π ≤ θ <
2 2

1. Z
dx
√ .
x2 9 − x2
2. Z p
x2 − 2x dx.
Tutorial 9.3
1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 8.5 p.575: 2, 4, 6, 11 12, 13, 15, 16, 24, 27, 29, 32 or 12th ed. 8.3 pp.
470–471 or 13th ed. 8.4 pp. 493–494: 2, 4, 6, 11, 12, 13, 17, 18, 28, 33, 35, 38, 46, 57 or 14th
ed. 8.4 pp. 500–501: 2, 4, 6, 11, 12, 13, 17, 18, 28, 33, 35, 38, 46, 61.
2. Find the area of the disc (a circle and everything inside it) centred at the origin with radius 4 in
three different ways:
(a) by integrating with respect to x

(b) by integrating with respect to y
(c) by using the formula you learnt at school.
3. Evaluate
Z5
2x − 3
√ dx.
x2 − 4
3
9.4 Trigonometric Integrals
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
skill)
1. identify the type of trigonometric integral that is given and use the appropriate technique to
solve the given trigonometric integral,
2. combine previous techniques, in particular the Substitution Rule and IBP, together with the
reduction formulae to solve the given trigonometric integral,
9.4.1 Integrals Involving sin kx and cos kx with k , 0

The solution follows by direct substitution. It may be easier to remember the following formulae.
Z
1
sin kx dx = − cos kx + C
k
and Z
1
cos kx dx = sin kx + C.
k
1. Z
sin 4x dx.
2. Z
cos 7x dx.
9.4.2 Powers of sin x and Powers of cos x

You must revise all the trigonometric identities, in particular
1 − cos 2x 1 + cos 2x
sin2 x = and cos2 x = .
2 2
Let n be any positive
R integer.
1. To evaluate cosn x dx we proceed as follows
1 + cos 2x
(a) n is even: Use the identity cos2 x = .
2
Repeat this procedure until you have odd powers.
(b) n is odd: We write Z Z
cosn x dx = cosn−1 x cos x dx
and, since n−1 is even, we proceed with using the identity cos2 x = 1−sin2 x followed by the substitution
u = sin x. R
2. To evaluate sinn x dx we proceed as follows
1 − cos 2x
(a) n is even: Use the identity sin2 x = , which reduces the integral to the case 1 or to direct
2
integration.
R
Worked Example
R 9.4.2. 1. Evaluate sin2 x dx.
4
2. Evaluate sin x dx.
(b) n is odd: We write Z Z

sin x dx =
n
sinn−1 x sin x dx.
Then n − 1 is even and we proceed with using the identity sin2 x = 1 − cos2 x. Then make the substitution
u = cos x.
Z
Worked Example 9.4.3. Evaluate sin5 x dx.
9.4.3 Products of Powers of sin x and Powers of cos x

There are two specific cases.
R
1. sinm x cosn x dx for m odd or n odd
Here at least one of the two powers is odd. Suppose that n is odd. If n = 1 then we have easily the
solution by direct substitution u = sin x:
Z
1
sinm x cos x dx = sinm+1 x + C. (*)
m+1
If n > 1 then we write cosn x = cosn−1 x cos x. Since n − 1 is even we may resort to subsection 9.4.2(1b).
The integral then takes the form
Z
(sum of powers of sin x) cos x dx
which is then broken up into integrals of the form (*).

If m is odd, then resort to subsection 9.4.2(2b) which realises integrals of the form
Z
(sum of powers of cos x) sin x dx
which can be broken up into integrals of the type

Z
1
sin x cosm x dx = − cosm+1 x + C
m+1
Worked Example 9.4.4. 1. Identify the odd power and proceed as described above to evaluate the
following.
Z
(a) sin2 x cos5 x dx.
sin3 x
Z
(b) √ dx.
cos x
R
2. sinm x cosn x dx for m and n both even
We use the identities
1 1 − cos 2x 1 + cos 2x
sin x cos x = sin 2x or sin2 x = or cos2 x = .
2 2 2
Z
Worked Example 9.4.5. Evaluate sin4 x cos4 x dx.
9.4.4 Products of sin and cos with Different Arguments

R
1. To evaluate sin mx sin nx dx use the identity
1
sin mx sin nx = [cos(m − n)x − cos(m + n)x].
2
Worked Example 9.4.6. Evaluate
π
Z4
sin 2x sin 3x dx.
0
R
2. To evaluate sin mx cos nx dx use the identity
1
sin mx cos nx = [sin(m + n)x + sin(m − n)x].
2
Worked Example 9.4.7. Evaluate Z
sin 5x cos 4x dx.
R
3. To evaluate cos mx cos nx dx use the identity
1
cos mx cos nx = [cos(m + n)x + cos(m − n)x].
2
R
Worked Example 9.4.8. Evaluate cos 5x cos 2x dx.
In the above, note the use of subsection 9.4.1.
9.4.5 Powers of tan x and cot x

Note that students must know that
Z Z
tan x dx = ln | sec x| + C and cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C.
R
1. tann x dx
We factor out tan2 x, use the identity sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x and write
Z Z
tan x dx =
n
tan x tan x dx =
n−2 2
tann−2 x (sec2 x − 1) dx.
This then is separated to give an integral of the following type, which is easily resolved by direct substi-
tution u = tan x:
tanm+1 x
Z
tanm x sec2 x dx = + C.
m+1
Z
Worked Example 9.4.9. Evaluate tan4 x dx.
R
2. cotn x dx
Similar to above but we use cosec2 x = 1 + cot2 x.
R
Worked Example 9.4.10. Evaluate cot3 x dx.
Solution:
Z Z
cot x dx =
3
cot x cot2 x dx
Z
= cot x(cosec2 x − 1) dx
Z Z
= 2
cot x cosec x dx − cot x dx
Z
= cot x cosec2 x dx − ln | sin x|.
cot x cosec2 x dx let u = cot x. Then du = − cosec2 x dx so that

R
For
Z Z
cot x dx =
3
cot x cosec2 x dx − ln | sin x|
Z
= − u du − ln | sin x|
1
= − u2 − ln | sin x| + C
2
1 2
= − cot x − ln | sin x| + C.
2
Tutorial 9.4
1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 8.4 pp. 569–570: 1, 5, 7, 8, 16, 17, 21, 30, 33, 34 or 8.2 12th ed. pp.
466–467 or 8.3 13th ed. pp. 488–489 or 8.3 14th ed. pp. 495–496: 1, 4, 7, 18–22, 27, 28, 33, 46,
51, 52, 56, 57, 60, 62, 63, 64, 67.
2. Evaluate the following integrals (leave answers in powers of sin and cos for b and c))
(a) Z
sin 7x dx
(b) Z
sin4 x cos x dx
(c) Z
cos4 x dx
(d) Z
cos3 x dx
(e)
Zπ/2
cos3 3x dx
0
(f) Z
cos 7x sin 7x dx
(g) Z
cos 7x sin 4x dx
(h)
π
Z3
cosec2 5x dx
π
4
(i) Z
dx
.
(x2 + 1)2
3. Find the volume of the figure formed when the region enclosed by y = arcsin x
5 , x = 1 and the x
axis is rotated about the line x = 1.
9.5 Partial Fraction Decomposition

Z
p(x)
This section provides a technique that can be used to evaluate rational integrals of the form dx
q(x)
with p(x) and q(x) polynomials, q(x) , 0.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
skill)
1. understand the concept of partial fraction decomposition,
2. identify an improper rational function [deg(numerator) ≥ deg(denominator)] and perform Long
Division reducing it to a proper rational function,
3. meet the prerequisite requirement of factorizing the denominator of a rational function,
4. identify the type of factors in the denominator of a rational function as either non-repeating
linear, linear repeated, irreducible non-repeating quadratic or irreducible repeated quadratic,
5. decompose any rational function into partial fractions using the appropriate outcome of denom-
inator factorization,
6. use the technique of partial fraction decomposition in evaluating an integral of a rational func-
tion,
1. degree(p(x)) < degree(q(x))
Case I Denominator is a product of distinct linear factors

If
p(x) p(x) p(x)
= n =
q(x) Q (a1 x + b1 )(a2 x + b2 ) · · · (an x + bn )
(ai x + bi )
i=1
bi
where ai , 0 for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n and all numbers are distinct, then each linear factor ai x + bi in
ai
Ai
the denominator gives rise to a term of the form with constant Ai , so that the rational function is
ai x + b
decomposed as
p(x) A1 A2 An
= + + ··· + .
q(x) a1 x + b1 a2 x + b2 an x + bn
p(x)
This is called the partial fractions decomposition of the rational function .
q(x)
Worked Example 9.5.1. Evaluate the following integrals by first decomposing the integrand into partial
fractions.
(a)
3x + 4
Z
dx.
x +x−6
2
(b)
4x2 + 13x − 9
Z
dx.
x3 + 2x2 − 3x
Case II Denominator is a product of repeated linear factors

For each factor of q(x) of the form (ax + b)r where r ≥ 1, the partial fraction decomposition contains a
sum of r partial fractions of the form
A1 A2 A3 Ar
+ + + ··· + .
ax + b (ax + b)2 (ax + b) 3 (ax + b)r
Worked Example 9.5.2. Decompose the integrand into partial fractions and then evaluate the integral.
(a)
2x2 + 3
Z
dx
x(x − 1)2
(b) Z
12
dx
x4 − x3 − 2x2
(c)
3x3 − 18x2 + 29x − 4
Z
dx
(x + 1)(x − 2)3
Case III Denominator contains non-repeating irreducible quadratics

Every nonconstant polynomial with real coefficients can be written as a product of linear and irre-
ducible quadratic polynomials with real coefficients. Here a quadratic polynomial with real coefficients
ax2 + bx + c, a , 0, is called irreducible if it has no real root. This happens if and only if its discriminant
is negative, i. e., ∆ = b2 − 4ac < 0. Such a factor is called non-repeating if the polynomial has no other
(irreducible) quadratic factor of the form d(ax2 +bx+c). Each non-repeating quadratic factor ax2 +bx+c
in the denominator gives rise to a term of the form
Ax + B
ax2 + bx + c
p(x)
in the partial fractions decomposition of the rational function . Completing the square in the de-
q(x)
nominator, the integral can be evaluated as
2Dx + E
Z Z Z
2(x − d) 1
dx = D dx + (E + 2Dd) dx
(x − d) + e
2 2 (x − d) + e
2 2 (x − d)2 + e2
E + 2Dd
!
x−d
= D ln |(x − d)2 + e2 | + arctan + C.
e e
Worked Example 9.5.3. Decompose the integrand into partial fractions and then evaluate the integral.
(a)
2x3 − 4x − 8
Z
dx
(x2 − x)(x2 + 4)
(b)
Z √3
x+1
dx.
x
Case IV Denominator contains repeated irreducible quadratics
Each irreducible quadratic factor (ax2 + bx + c)r , ∆ < 0, gives rise to an expression of the form
A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2 A3 x + B3 Ar x + Br
+ + + ··· + .
ax2 + bx + c (ax2 + bx + c)2 (ax2 + bx + c)3 (ax2 + bx + c)r
Worked Example 9.5.4. Decompose the integrand into partial fractions and then evaluate
8x3 + 13x
Z
dx.
(x2 + 2)2
Worked Example 9.5.5. Give the partial fraction decomposition of the following:
3x4 + x3 + 20x2 + 3x + 31
(a) ,
(x2 + 4)2 (x + 1)
x6 − x3 + 1
(b) 4 .
x + 9x2
Solution. One may be tempted to write
x6 − x3 + 1 A B Cx + D
= + 2+ 2 .
x4 + 9x2 x x x +9
However, this is incorrect since deg(numerator) > deg(denominator) so that we have to do long division
first! Consequently,
x6 − x3 + 1 −x3 + 81x2 + 1
= x 2
− 9 +
x4 + 9x2 x4 + 9x2
−x + 81x2 + 1
3 A B Cx + D
= x2 − 9 + = x2 − 9 + + 2 + 2 .
x (x + 9)
2 2 x x x +9
Worked Example 9.5.6. In the following examples complete the partial fraction decomposition in terms
of variables (A, B, C, D, . . . ) in column 2, then solve for these variables and write the final decomposition
in column 3. Thereafter find the integral with integrand column 3.
P(x)
Partial fraction decomposition Solution
Q(x)
2x − 1
1.
(x + 1)(3x + 2)
x(x + 1)
2.
(x − 1)(x − 2)
3
3.
x(3x − 1)2
1
4.
x3 (x+ 2)
2
5.
(x − 1)(x2 + 1)
x2 − x − 1
6.
x3 − 8
x3 + 1
7.
(x2 + 1)2
2. Long division first

Z
p(x)
dx and deg(p(x)) ≥ deg(q(x)) ⇒Do Long Division
q(x)
Worked Example 9.5.7. Evaluate

(a)
x3 − 6x2 + 5x − 3
Z
dx
x2 − 1
(b)
Z √
x
√ dx.
x+1
Tutorial 9.5
1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 8.3 pp. 563-564: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26,
32, 35, 38 or 12th ed. 8.4 pp. 479–480 or 13th ed. 8.5 pp. 501–502 or 14th ed. 8.5 pp. 507–508:
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 36, 39, 42, 46.
2. What is the remainder if you divide 4x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1 by 4x2 + 3x + 2?

8x2 −x+9
3. Decompose x4 +x3 −8x2 −9x−9
into its partial fractions.
4. Evaluate the following integrals
(a)
x4 − 3x2 + x
Z
dx
x2 − 4
(b) Z
6
dt
t2 + 3 2
(c)
2y3 − 3y2 + 3
Z
dy
y4 − 2y3 + 6y + 17
5x2 −3
5. Given that h(x) = x2 −1
(a) Write down the partial fraction decomposition of h(x) (i.e., find f (x) and g(x) if h(x) =
5 + f (x) − g(x).
(b) Evaluate the intersection point(s) of 5 + f (x) and g(x).
(c) Express the area enclosed by 5 + f (x) and g(x) as an integral in terms of h(x).
Chapter 10
Improper Integrals
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
skill)
1. understand the meaning of an improper integral,

2. identify when an integral is improper,
3. evaluate an improper integral,
4. use L’Hôpital’s Rule in evaluating an improper integral,
5. know when an improper integral converges or diverges,
Recall that the definition of the definite integral on [a, b] in terms of Riemann Sums
Zb n
X
f (x) dx = lim f (xi∗ )∆x
n→∞
a i=1
requires the interval [a, b] to be finite. Furthermore, the FTC requires that f be continuous. In this
chapter integrals are considered which fail to meet these two requirements.
Zb
The integral f (x) dx is called improper if
a
1. one or both of the limits of integration are infinite or
2. f has a finite number of infinite discontinuities in the interval [a, b].
Note that f has an infinite discontinuity at c if
lim f (x) = ±∞ or lim f (x) = ±∞.

x→c− x→c+
54
10.1 Type I: Infinite Interval of Integration
Definition of Improper Integrals with Infinite Integration Limits: Type I

Z∞ Zt
1. If f is continuous on [a, ∞), then f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx.
t→∞
a a
Zb Zb
2. If f is continuous on (−∞, b], then f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx.
t→−∞
−∞ t
Z∞ Zt Z∞
3. If f is continuous on (−∞, ∞), then f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx for any t ∈ R.
−∞ −∞ t
In the first two cases, the improper integral converges if the limit exists (and is finite). In this case
Zt Zb
lim f (x) dx = L or lim f (x) dx = M. Then:
t→∞ t→−∞
a t
Z∞ Z∞
f (x) dx converges to L, and we write f (x) dx = L;
a a
Zb Zb
f (x) dx converges to M, and we write f (x) dx = M.
−∞ −∞
If the limits do not exist, then the improper integrals diverge.
Z∞ Zt Z∞
In the third case, the improper integral f (x) dx diverges if either f (x) dx or f (x) dx diverges.
−∞ −∞ t
Zt Z∞ Z∞
If both f (x) dx and f (x) dx converge, then f (x) dx is convergent.
−∞ t −∞
Worked Example 10.1.1. (Type I)

Determine whether the following integrals are convergent or divergent.
1.
Z∞
1
dx.
(x − 1)2
2
2.
Z∞
1
dx.
x−1
2
1
Remark: If the region under the graph of f (x) = from 2 to t is revolved about the x-axis, then the
x−1
volume of the solid generated (Gabriel’s Horn) is (by the Disk Method)
Zt
1
V=π dx.
(x − 1)2
2
The improper integral

Z∞
1
π dx
(x − 1)2
2
may be regarded as the volume of the unbounded solid obtained by revolving, about the x-axis, the graph
1
of y = for x ≥ 2. By Worked Example 1 above
x−1
Z∞
1
π dx = π(1) = π.
(x − 1)2
2
This gives us a rather curious fact that although the area of the region is infinite, the volume of the solid
of revolution it generates is finite!
3.
Z0
xe x dx.
−∞
4.
Z∞
ex
dx.
1 + e2x
−∞
The following theorem will be useful in Chapter 11.
Theorem 10.1.  1
Z∞
1

 if p > 1
=

p−1
p
dx
x


diverges if p ≤ 1.

1
Proof: If p = 1, then
Z∞ Zt
1 1
dx = lim dx
xp t→∞ x
1 1
#t
= lim ln x
t→∞
1
= lim [ln t − ln 1]
t→∞
= lim ln t
t→∞
= ∞.
Z∞
1
Thus for p = 1, dx diverges.
xp
1
Now suppose that p , 1. Then
Z∞ Zt
1 1
dx = lim dx
xp t→∞ xp
1 1
#t
x−p+1
"
= lim
t→∞ −p + 1
" 1−p 1 #
t 1
= lim −
t→∞ 1 − p 1− p
!" #
1 1
= lim − 1 .
t→∞ 1 − p t p−1
1
If p < 1, then p − 1 < 0 so that as t → ∞, → ∞. Thus for p < 1,
t p−1
Z∞
1
dx = ∞.
xp
1
Hence,
Z∞
1
dx diverges for p < 1.
xp
1
1
If p > 1, then p − 1 > 0 so that as t → ∞, t p−1 → ∞ and hence → 0. Thus for p > 1,
t p−1
Z∞ !" #
1 1 1
dx = lim −1
xp t→∞ 1 − p t p−1
1
!
1 1
= lim −1
1 − p t→∞ t p−1
1
= (0 − 1)
1− p
1
= .
p−1
Hence,  1
Z∞
1

 if p > 1
=

p−1
p
dx
x


diverges if p ≤ 1.

1
Worked Example 10.1.2. 1.

Z∞
1
√ dx.
x
1
2.
Z∞
1
dx.
x3/2
1
10.2 Type II: Infinite Discontinuities
Definition of Improper Integrals with Infinite Discontinuities: Type II

Zb Zt
1. If f is continuous on [a, b) and f has an infinite discontinuity at b, then f (x) dx = lim− f (x) dx.
t→b
a a
Zb Zb
2. If f is continuous on (a, b] and f has an infinite discontinuity at a, then f (x) dx = lim+ f (x) dx.
t→a
a t
3. If f is continuous on [a, b] except for some c ∈ (a, b) at which f has an infinite discontinuity, then
Zb Zc Zb
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx.
a a c
In the first two cases, the improper integral converges if the limit exists (and is finite). In this case
Zt Zb
lim− f (x) dx = L or lim+ f (x) dx = M. Then:
t→b t→a
a t
Zb Zb
f (x) dx converges to L, and we write f (x) dx = L;
a a
Zb Zb
f (x) dx converges to M, and we write f (x) dx = M.
a a
If the limits do not exist, then the improper integrals diverge.
Zb Zc Zb
In the third case, the improper integral f (x) dx diverges if either f (x) dx or f (x) dx diverges.
a a c
Zc Zb Zb
If both f (x) dx and f (x) dx converge, then f (x) dx is convergent.
a c a
Worked Example 10.2.1. Determine whether the following improper integrals converge or diverge.
1. Left endpoint infinite discontinuity
Z1
ln x dx.
0
2. Right endpoint infinite discontinuity

(a)
Z1
1
√ dx.
1 − x2
0
(b)
π
Z2
sec x dx.
0
3. Interior infinite discontinuity
(a)
Z4
1
dx.
(x − 3)2
0
1
Solution. The integrand is not defined at x = 3 ∈ (0, 4) and has an infinite discontinuity there.
(x − 3)2
Thus, the given integral has an interior infinite discontinuity, hence is improper of Type II. Then
Z4 Z3 Z4
1 1 1
dx = dx + dx.
(x − 3)2 (x − 3)2 (x − 3)2
0 0 3
The given integral converges if both improper integrals on the right converge. If one of the improper
integrals on the right diverges, then the given improper integral diverges. Now
Z3 Zt
1 1
dx = lim− dx
(x − 3)2 t→3 (x − 3)2
0 0
" #t
1
= lim− −
t→3 x−3 0
" !#
1 1
= lim− − − −
t→3 t−3 0−3
" #
1 1
= lim− − −
t→3 t−3 3
!
1
=∞ ∵ → −∞ as t → 3 .
−
t−3
Z3 Z4
1 1
Hence, dx diverges and consequently, dx diverges.
(x − 3)2 (x − 3)2
0 0
Z4
1
Note: There is no need to evaluate dx. Also, the FTC2 cannot apply here. If we did not
(x − 3)2
3
identify that the integral is improper we would have concluded the incorrect result
Z4 #4
1 1 1 4
2
dx = − = −1 − =− WRONG!
(x − 3) x−3 0 3 3
0
(b)
Z7
1
2
dx.
(x + 1) 3
−2
An integral can be doubly improper, i.e., it is improper of Type I and improper of Type II.
Worked Example 10.2.2. (Doubly Improper) Determine whether the following integrals are conver-
gent or divergent.
1.
Z∞
dx
√ .
x(x + 1)
0
2.
Z∞
1
dx
x + x2
0
Tutorials 10.1 and 10.2
1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 8.8 p. 615 or 12th ed. 8.7 p. 505 or 13th ed. 8.8 p. 527: 1, 4, 10, 11,
13, 16, 18, 22, 25, 31, 35, 42, 45, 51, 60, 65 or 14th ed. 8.8 p. 533: 1, 4, 10, 11, 13, 16, 18, 22,
25, 31, 39, 46, 49, 55, 64, 69.
2. Determine which of the following integrals is/are improper. For those that are improper, determine
whether they converge or diverge. Where possible, compute the answer.
(a)
Z7
x
dx
1 − x2
5
(b)
Z7
x
dx
1 − x2
0
(c)
Z∞
ln3 5x dx
1
(d)
Z∞
7
dx
x3
1
(e)
Zπ/2
sec2 x dx
0
(f)
Z5
1
dx
x2 + 3x + 4
0
(g)
Z7
57 x dx
−∞
(h)
Z∞
x3 − x
dx
x2 + 3x − 4
−∞
NOTE: Revise Sandwich Theorem before the next tut.

Chapter 11
Infinite Sequences and Series
11.1 Sequences
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
On completion of this section you should
1. be able to distinguish between convergent and divergent sequences,

2. know the limit laws for sequences,
3. know the Squeeze Theorem for sequences,
4. know how to calculate the limit of convergent sequences,
5. know the definitions of increasing, decreasing, monotonic and bounded sequences.
A sequence is an ordered list of infinitely many numbers
a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , . . . , an , . . .
The number an is called the n-th term of the sequence. The subscript n is called the index. Often, one
omits the general n-th term and simply writes
a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , . . .
In case of particularly given sequences, the latter notation may be ambiguous, whereas the first one is
quite clumsy. Therefore, one also uses the notations
{an } and {an }∞

n=1
Note. The index of the sequence does not have to start at 1, e. g.,
{a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . }, {a2 , a3 , a4 , . . . }, {a2 , a4 , a6 , . . . }
are sequences, say with an = n, although different sequences.
62
Example 11.1.1. In this example, each line gives several different notations for a particular sequence:
n n ∞ ( ) ( )
1 2 3 1 2 3 n
(a) ; ; , , ,... ; , , ,..., ,...
n+1 n + 1 n=1 2 3 4 2 3 4 n+1
(−1)n (n + 1) (−1)n (n + 1)
( ) ( )
2 3 4
(b) ; an = ; − , ,− ,...
5n 5n 5 25 125
 √ 
nπ ∞ nπ nπ  3 1 nπ 
; an = cos , n ≥ 0; an = cos , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . ;  , , . . . , , . . .
 
(c) cos 1, 0, cos
 
6 n=0 6 6 2 2 6

 


Note that in (c) above we have written n ≥ 0 to indicate which indices n we take to build the sequence.
Here it is understood that indices are integers [unless otherwise stated].
Worked Example 11.1.2. Consider the sequences )∞

n+1
n ∞ n ∞ (
(i) , (ii) , (iii) .
n + 1 n=1 n + 1 n=0 n + 2 n=0
Which of these sequences are identical?
Worked Example 11.1.3. Find the general term of the sequence

( )
3 4 1 6 7
,− , ,− , ,...
5 25 25 625 3125
Worked Example 11.1.4. Many sequences cannot easily be guessed from their first terms; indeed, only
the simplest sequences with an “obvious” rule should be written in “dots” notation. Try to guess a rule
for the following sequences:
(i) {7, 1, 8, 2, 8, 1, 8, 2, 8, 4, 5, . . . }, (ii) {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . . }.
Note. (i) A sequence can be identified with a function on the (positive) integers:
an = f (n).
(ii) A sequence can be plotted as points of the real axis or as the graph of the function, see (i).
n
Below is a plot for the sequence from Example 11.1.1 (a): an = .
n+1
a1 a2 a3
1
0 2 1
an
n
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
From the above graph it appears to be obvious that the line y = 1 (denoting the co-ordinate direction of
the an with y) is a horizontal asymptote. That is, for sufficiently large n, an comes as close to 1 as we
want, and we say the sequence {an } converges to 1.
This is formalized in the following definition:
Definition 11.1. A sequence {an } is said to converge if there is a number L such that an is as close to L
as we like for all sufficiently large n. We write
lim an = L or an → L as n → ∞
n→∞
A sequence which does not converge is said to diverge.
Compare this definition with the definition of horizontal asymptotes, see Calculus First Semester Study
Guide [CFSSG], page 8.
Theorem 11.1. If lim f (x) = L and an = f (n) for integers n, then lim an = L.
x→∞ n→∞
In particular, CFFSG, Theorem 2.1 immediately gives
Theorem 11.2 (Limit Laws). Let c ∈ R and suppose that lim an = L and lim bn = M both exist. Then
n→∞ n→∞
1. lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn = L + M.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
2. lim (an − bn ) = lim an − lim bn = L − M.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
3. lim (can ) = c lim an = cL.
n→∞ n→∞

4. lim (an bn ) = lim an lim bn = LM.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
lim an
an n→∞ L
5. if M , 0, lim = = .
n→∞ bn lim bn M
n→∞
an
6. if L , 0 and M = 0, then lim does not exist.
n→∞ bn
k
7. if k ∈ Z+ , lim akn = lim an = Lk .
n→∞ n→∞
8. lim c = c.
n→∞
√k √k
9. if k ∈ Z+ , lim
q
an = k lim an = L. If k is even, we assume L > 0.
n→∞ n→∞
10. if lim |an | = 0, then lim an = 0.
n→∞ n→∞
The Sandwich theorem, CFSSG, Theorem 2.7 has a variant for sequences
Theorem 11.3 (Sandwich Theorem). If an ≤ bn ≤ cn and lim an = lim cn = L, then lim bn = L.

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
Theorem 2.3 in CFSSG leads to
Theorem 11.4. If r > 0, then

1
lim = 0.
n→∞ nr
Definition 11.2. If an becomes larger than any positive number for sufficiently large n, i. e., if for every
M > 0 there is an integer N such that
an > M whenever n > N,
then the sequence {an } is said to diverge to ∞, and we write
lim an = ∞.
n→∞
Theorem 11.5. If lim |an | = ∞, then {an } diverges.

n→∞
For a proof see bounded sequences below.
Worked Example 11.1.5. For each of the following sequences, determine if it converges or diverges,
and find the limit if it exists.
n
1. an =
n+1
ln n
2. an =
n
3. {−1, 1, −1, 1, −1, 1, . . . }
(−1)n
4. an =
n
n!
5. an =
nn
Worked Example 11.1.6. For which values of r does the sequence {rn } converge?
Definition 11.3. A sequence {an }∞

n=1 is called
increasing if an < an+1 for all n ≥ 1,

decreasing if an > an+1 for all n ≥ 1,
monotonic if it is either increasing or decreasing.
Worked( Example
) 11.1.7. Determine if the following sequences are decreasing or increasing:
3
1.
n +n5
2.
2n2 − 1
Definition 11.4. A sequence {an }∞

n=1 is called
bounded above if there is a number M such that an ≤ M for all n ≥ 1,

bounded below if there is a number m such that an ≥ m for all n ≥ 1,
bounded if it is bounded above and below.
We will see applications of the following important theorem in later sections.
Theorem 11.6 (Monotonic Sequence Theorem). Every bounded, monotonic sequence is convergent.
Tutorial 11.1
1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 11.1 pp. 741–742: 1, 3, 4, 6, 17, 21, 25, 29, 33, 35, 42, 62, 73, 81–84
or 12th ed. 10.1 pp. 559–560 or 13th ed. 10.1 pp. 595–596: 1, 3, 4, 6, 17, 21, 29, 33, 37, 39, 46,
66, 73, 87–90 or 14th ed. 9.1 pp. 551–596: 1, 3, 4, 6, 17, 21, 33, 37, 41, 43, 50, 70, 83, 97–100.
2. Which of the following mathematical expressions represent the same sequences?
(a) an = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ...}

(b) bn = {2n }
(c) cn = {2n }n≥0
(d) dn = bn
2
(e) en = {3n − 1n }
q
(f) fn = { 41−n }
(g) gn = { 4−n/2
1
}
(h) hn = {2n}
3. What is the nth term in the sequence {−2, 8, −18, 32, −50, 72, −98, 128, −162, 200, . . . }?
4. Answer True or False for the following statements. If you answer False, provide a counterexample.
(a) A convergent sequence will always be monotonic.

(b) A bounded sequence will always converge.
(c) If a sequence is decreasing and bounded it will always converge.
5. Theorem 11.2 is based on Theorem 1.1. Discuss why there are thirteen statements in Theorem 1.1
but only ten in Theorem 11.2.
6. Which of the following is NOT a plot of a sequence? Justify your answer.

Plot A Plot C
8
1
B I
6
0
12345678910 N
0 C
4
−1 J
2
A
−2
0 F
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
L
−2
D K
M
G
−4
H
2 Plot B −6
1 −8
0 E
−10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
O
−1 −12
−14
7. Use the Sandwich Theorem to determine whether the sequence {sin( πn )} converges or diverges.
11.2 Series
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
skill)
1. know how to use the n-th partial sum s of a series to determine if a series is convergent or
n
divergent,
2. be able to calculate the sum of a convergent series, ∞
3. be able to prove the theorem that if the series P a is convergent, then limit of the sequence
n=1
n
{an } is 0,
4. know how to apply the test for divergence,
5. know the properties of convergent series.
Given a sequence {an }∞

n=1 , we can formally consider the expression
a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an + . . .
and called it a series, written symbolically as

∞
X X
an or an .
n=1
But how do we add up infinitely many numbers? Does it make sense at all?
Example 11.2.1. Consider the sequence {1, −1, 1, −1, 1, . . . }. Adding up the first n terms, we arrive at
1, 0, 1, 0, 1, . . . for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
and it does not make sense to assign a unique value to the infinite sum.
However, what we obtain in this way is a sequence of numbers

n
X
sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an = ai , n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
i=1
∞
X
of well-defined sums, called partial sums of the series an . If by adding more and more terms of the
n=1
series a certain number is approached, we will assign this number as the value of the series. Formally,
we have the following definition:
∞
X n
X ∞
X
Definition 11.5. Given a series an , and denoting by sn = ai its n-th partial sum, the series an
n=1 i=1 n=1
is said to converge if the sequence {sn } converges. In this case, the number s = lim sn is called the sum
n→∞
of the series and we write
∞
X
an = s
n=1
A series which does not converge is said to diverge or to be divergent.
∞
X
Note. 1. Observe that an denotes a series (convergent or divergent) as well as its sum if it converges.
n=1
2. A series does not have to start at n = 1. The change of notation is obvious for other starting indices.
Example 11.2.2. Consider the geometric series

∞
X
arn , a , 0, r ∈ R.
n=0
Recall the partial sums for r , 1:
sn = a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn ,
rsn = ar + ar2 + · · · + arn + arn+1 .
Subtracting these equations gives

sn − rsn = a − arn+1 ,
and so
a(1 − rn+1 )
sn = .
1−r
By Example 11.1.6, {sn } and thus the geometric series converges if |r| < 1, with
∞
X a
arn = lim sn = ,
n=0
n→∞ 1−r
and diverges if |r| > 1 or r = −1. Finally, for r = 1, sn = a(n + 1), and thus |sn | → ∞ as n → ∞.
Thus we have shown
Theorem 11.7. The geometric series

∞
X
arn , a , 0,
n=0
is convergent if |r| < 1, with sum

∞
X a
arn = .
n=0
1−r
If |r| ≥ 1, the geometric series diverges.
Worked Example 11.2.3. Find the sum of the geometric series
10 20 40
5− + − + ...
3 9 27
∞
X
Worked Example 11.2.4. Is the series 22n 31−n convergent or divergent?
n=1
Worked Example 11.2.5. Write the number 2.317 = 2.3171717 . . . as a ratio of integers.
∞
X 1
Worked Example 11.2.6. Show that the series converges and find its sum.
n=1
n(n + 1)
∞
X
Theorem 11.8. If the series an converges, then lim an = 0.
n→∞
n=1
Proof. Let
sn = a1 + a2 + · · · + an .
Then
an = sn − sn−1 .
∞
X
Since an converges,
n=1
lim sn = s
n→∞
exists. Since also n − 1 → ∞ as n → ∞,
lim sn−1 = s.
n→∞
Hence
lim an = lim (sn − sn−1 ) = lim sn − lim sn−1 = s − s = 0.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
∞
X 1
Note. The converse of Theorem 11.8 is not true, see the harmonic series done later.
n=1
n
The contrapositive statement to Theorem 11.8 is very useful:
∞
X
Theorem 11.9 (Test for Divergence). If lim an does not exist or if lim an , 0, then the series an
n→∞ n→∞
n=1
diverges.
∞
X
Note. From lim an = 0 nothing can be concluded about the convergence of the series an .
n→∞
n=1
∞
X n2
Worked Example 11.2.7. Show that the series diverges.
n=1
5n2 + 4
From Theorem 11.2 we immediately infer

∞
X ∞
X
Theorem 11.10 (Sum Laws). Let c ∈ R and suppose that an and bn both converge. Then also
n=1 n=1
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
(can ), (an + bn ) and (an − bn ) converge, and
n=1 n=1 n=1
∞
X ∞
X
1. (can ) = c an ,
n=1 n=1
X∞ ∞
X ∞
X
2. (an + bn ) = an + bn ,
n=1 n=1 n=1
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
3. (an − bn ) = an − bn ,
n=1 n=1 n=1
∞ !
X 3 1
Worked Example 11.2.8. Find the sum of the series + .
n=1
n(n + 1) 2n
Note. For convergence it does not matter at which index the series starts. But it matters for the sum.
More precisely:
∞
X ∞
X
Theorem 11.11. Let k < m be integers. Then the series an converges if and only if the series an
n=k n=m
converges, and
∞
X m−1
X ∞
X
an = an + an .
n=k n=k n=m
Tutorial 11.2
1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 11.2 pp. 753–754: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 13, 19, 23, 25, 51, 58 or 12th ed. 10.2
pp. 569–570 or 13th ed. 10.2 pp. 605–606: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 13, 15, 16, 19, 26, 27 ,29, 31, 33, 37, 41,
49, 51, 63, 64 or 14th ed. 9.2 pp. 562–563: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 13, 15, 16, 23, 30, 31, 33, 35, 37, 41, 45,
53, 55, 67, 68.
2. What is the difference between a sequence and a series?

∞ ∞
i! i
y = k! k
y.
P P
3. True or false: ii kk
i=0 i k=0 k
4. Write down the 5th partial sum of the series {1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 + . . . }.

P 4
5. Write down the nth partial sum of the series 7i
.
i≥0
∞
1
=
P
6. 3×2n
n=0
7. TRUE or FALSE:
∞
P
(a) If an → 0 as n → ∞, then an converges.
n=0
∞ ∞
an
= an−1
P P
(b) bn+1 bn
n=0 n=1
∞
P −5
8. Consider the series 2n .
n=1
(a) What is the third term?

(b) What is the third partial sum?
(c) Write down the sequence {an }
(d) Write down the sequence {sn } (You will need to find a formula for the n-th term)
(e) Use partial sums to determine whether the given series diverges or converges (and if so to
what)?
(f) check your answer without using partial sums. What kind of series is this?
9. Determine whether the following series converge or diverge. Give a reason for your answer. In
each case, if it converges, what does it converge to?
2 + 3 + + + + + ...
1 2 3 4 5 6
(a) 4 5 6 7
∞ n
P e
(b) 2n
n=0
P √ k √ k+1
(c) ( 5 − 5 )
k≥0
∞
(−1)n+1 π3n
P
(d)
n=2
∞
P 1
(e) n2 −1
n=4
For the last two cases above, rewrite the sum to start at n = 0 and verify that both sides of Theorem
11.11 are the same.
11.3 Convergence Tests for Series
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. know how to apply the Integral Test to test if a series a is convergent or divergent,
X
n
2. know how to compare a given series with a series that is known to be convergent or divergent,
3. know how to deal with series whose terms are alternately positive and negative,
4. know how to test if an alternating series converges,
5. be able to distinguish between series which are absolutely convergent and those which are con-
ditionally convergent,
6. know the statement of the Absolute Convergence Test which shows that absolute convergence
implies convergence,
7. know how to apply the Ratio Test and the Root Test.
11.3.1 The Integral Test
Let f be a continuous, positive, decreasing function on [1, ∞). Considering lower and upper sums, L
Zn
and U, for the integral f (x) dx
1
y y = f (x)
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
it follows that
n
X Zn n−1
X
f (i) = L ≤ f (x) dx ≤ U = f (i).
i=2 1 i=1
Using Theorem 11.11 and the Monotonic Sequence Theorem, one can show that
Theorem 11.12 (Integral Test). Let f be a continuous, positive, decreasing function on [1, ∞) and let
∞
X Z∞
an = f (n). Then the series an converges if and only if the integral f (x) dx converges.
n=1 1
Note. We can start the series or the integral at any suitable integer. In particular, f only has to be positive
and decreasing for sufficiently large x.
∞
X 1
Worked Example 11.3.1. Test the series for convergence.
n=1
n2 +1
∞
X 1
Theorem 11.13 (p-series Test). Let p ∈ R. The p-series converges if p > 1 and diverges if
n=1
np
p ≤ 1.
1
Proof. If p ≤ 0 then 6→ 0 as n → ∞, so the p-series does not converge.
np
1
If p > 0, then f (x) = p is continuous, positive, and decreasing. So the Integral Test is applicable. By
x
Z∞
dx
Theorem 10.1, converges if and only if p > 1, and the result follows.
xp
1
Worked Example 11.3.2. Determine whether the following series converge:

∞ ∞ ∞
X 1 X 1 X 1
(i) 3
, (ii) 1
, (iii) .
n=1
n n=1 n 3 n=2
n ln n
∞
1 X 1
Note. For 0 < p ≤ 1, lim p = 0, but diverges.
n→∞ n
n=1
np
1 1 1
In particular, the harmonic series 1 + + + + . . . diverges.
2 3 4
Tutorial 11.3.1
Thomas Exercises 12th ed. 10.3 p. 575 or 13th ed. 10.3 p. 612 or 14th ed. 9.3 p. 569: 3, 5, 6, 7, 9.
11.3.2 The Comparison Test

P P
Theorem 11.14 (Comparison Test). Let an and bn be series with positive terms.
P P
(i) If bn converges and an ≤ bn for all n, then also an converges.
P P
(ii) If bn diverges and an ≥ bn for all n, then also an diverges.
Note. The most common series with known convergence behaviour to compare with are p-series and
geometric series.
Worked Example 11.3.3. Determine whether the following series converge:

∞ ∞
X 5 X ln n
(i) , (ii) .
n=1
2n + 4n + 3
2
n=1
n
Tutorial 11.3.2
Thomas Exercises 12th ed. 10.4 p. 580 or 13th ed. 10.4 p. 617 or 14th ed. 9.4 p. 575: 1, 3, 5, 6, 7. 8.
11.3.3 Alternating Series
An alternating series is a series of the form

∞
X ∞
X
(−1)n bn or (−1)n−1 bn with bn > 0,
n=1 n=1
that is, the terms of the series are alternately positive or negative. For example,
∞
X (−1)n−1
1 1 1
1 − + − + ··· = .
2 3 4 n=1
n
∞
X ∞
X
n
Theorem 11.15 (Alternating series test). If the alternating series (−1) bn or (−1)n−1 bn satisfies
n=1 n=1
(i) bn ≥ bn+1 for all n,
(ii) lim bn = 0,
n→∞
then the series converges.
Note. lim bn = 0 is necessary by Theorem 11.9 since lim (−1)n bn = 0 ⇔ lim bn = 0 ⇔ lim (−1)n−1 bn =
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
0.
Example 11.3.4. The alternating harmonic series

X (−1)n−1 ∞
1 1 1
1− + − + ··· =
2 3 4 n=1
n
1 1 1
satisfies (i) > and (ii) lim = 0. Hence the series converges by the Alternating Series Test.
n n+1 n→∞ n
∞
X
Example 11.3.5. The alternating series (−1)n−1 bn with
n=1
1

if n is odd,




n

bn = 



 1


 2 if n is even.
n
satisfies (ii) but not (i). Note that the series of the terms with even indices is the negative of the p-
series for p = 2 and thus converges, whereas the series of the odd terms is the divergent harmonic
series. Note that filling up a series with zeros does not change its convergence behaviour. Since the
sum of a convergent and a divergent series is divergent (this follows by proof by contradiction from
X∞
Theorem 11.10), (−1)n−1 bn diverges.
n=1
∞
X 3n
Example 11.3.6. The alternating series (−1)n−1 does not converge since
n=1
4n − 1
3n 3
lim = ,0
n→∞ 4n − 1 4
and thus (ii) is not satisfied, which is necessary for convergence. See the note following the statement of
the Alternating Series Test.
∞
X n2
Worked Example 11.3.7. Find whether the series (−1)n−1 is convergent.
n=1
n3 + 1
Tutorial 11.3.3
Thomas Exercises 12th ed. 10.6 p. 591 or 13th ed. 10.6 p. 629 or 14th ed. 9.6 p. 587: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11.
11.3.4 Absolute Convergence and the Ratio and Root Tests
P P
Definition 11.6. A series an is called absolutely convergent if the series of its absolute values |an |
converges.
Example 11.3.8. The series

∞
X (−1)n
n=1
n2
is absolutely convergent since

∞ n ∞
(−1) = 1
X X
n2 n2
n=1 n=1
is a convergent p-series (p = 2).

P
Definition 11.7. A series an is called conditionally convergent if it is convergent but not absolutely
convergent.
∞ ∞
X (−1)n X 1
Example 11.3.9. The alternating harmonic series is conditionally convergent since is
n=1
n n=1
n
divergent.
P
Theorem 11.16. If a series an is absolutely convergent, then it is convergent.
∞
X sin n
Worked Example 11.3.10. Determine whether the series is convergent.
n=1
n2
∞
an+1 X
Theorem 11.17 (Ratio Test). (i) If lim = L < 1, then the series an converges absolutely,
n→∞ an
n=1
∞
an+1 X
(ii) If lim = L > 1, then the series an diverges,
n→∞ an
n=1
∞
an+1 X
(iii) If lim = L = 1, then no conclusion about convergence of the series an can be drawn fron
n→∞ an
n=1
the Ratio Test.
Note. The Ratio Test is useful if the n-th term contains many factors, including factors of the form rn
and n!. If it contains only factors of the form n p , then it is normally not successful.
∞
X n3
Worked Example 11.3.11. Determine if the series (−1)n converges.
n=1
3n
∞
X nn
Worked Example 11.3.12. Determine if the series converges.
n=1
n!
∞
√n X
Theorem 11.18 ( n-th Root Test). (i) If lim |an | = L < 1, then the series an converges absolutely,
n→∞
n=1
∞
√n X
(ii) If lim |an | = L > 1, then the series an diverges,
n→∞
n=1
∞
√ X
(iii) If lim n |an | = L = 1, then no conclusion about convergence of the series an can be drawn from
n→∞
n=1
the Root Test.
The root test is most useful if an contains (only) n-th powers.

∞ !n
X 2n + 3
Worked Example 11.3.13. Determine if the series converges.
n=1
3n + 2
Tutorial 11.3.4
1. Thomas Exercises 12th ed. 10.5 p. 585 or 13th ed. 10.5 p. 623 or 14th ed. 9.5 p. 581: 1, 3, 5, 7,
9, 11, 13, 15.
2. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 11.6 p. 776: 13, 15, 19, 33, 39, 42 or 12th ed. 10.6 p. 591 or 13th ed.
10.6 p. 629 or 14th ed. 9.6 p. 588: 17, 19, 23, 35, 41, 44.
11.3.5 Strategy for Testing Series
There are no straightforward rules as to which test to apply in order to determine convergence or diver-
gence of a series. However, the shape of the n-th term may give an educated guess which test may work.
Note that more than one convergence test may work, or none of those we have learnt. Here is a list of
patterns and suggested tests.
1. Look out for lim an , 0. Then apply the Divergence Test.

n→∞
P 1
2. If the series is of the form , use the p-series test.
np
3. If the series is of the form arn , it is a geometric series, which converges if and only if |r| < 1.
P
4. For rational functions and roots of rational functions, consider “highest powers”, which should
give a p-series, and then apply the Comparison Test.
5. If the series is of the form (−1)n bn or (−1)n−1 bn with positive bn , then try the Alternating
P P
Series Test.
6. If an contains factorials or n-th powers, the Ratio Test may be successful.
7. If an = (bn )n , the Root Test may give a result.
8. Cases for the p-series Test are normally inconclusive with the Ratio and Root Tests; in particular
if an is a rational function of n, the Root and Ratio Test are inconclusive.
R∞
9. If an = f (n) with a function f for which the convergence behaviour of 1 f (x) dx can be found,
the Integral Test may apply.
Worked Example 11.3.14. Complete the following table.

Series Suggested Test Reason
∞
X n−1
n=1
2n − 1
∞ √
X n3 + 1
n=1
3n3 + 4n2 + 2
∞
X 2
ne−n
n=1
∞
X n3
(−1)n
n=1
n4 + 1
∞
X 2n
n=1
n!
∞
X 1
n=1
2 + 3n
Tutorial 11.3.5
1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 11.3 pp. 759–760: 5, 9, 10, 16, 25 or 12th ed. 10.3 p. 575 or 13th ed.
10.3 p. 612 or 14th ed. 9.3 p. 570: 17, 21, 22, 28, 37.
Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 11.4 p. 765: 1, 3, 7, 11, 22, 31 or 12th ed. 10.4 p. 580 or 13th ed.
10.4 p. 617 or 14th ed. 9.4 p. 575: 17, 19, 25, 28, 41, 49.
Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 11.5 p. 770: 1, 3, 5, 13, 17, 21 or 12th ed. 10.5 p. 585 or 13th ed.
10.5 p. 623–624 or 14th ed. 9.5 p. 581–582: 17, 19, 21, 29, 33, 37, 43.
2. Determine whether the following series converge, and write down which convergence test(s) you
used.
(a)
∞
X 1
n=1
n!
(b)
X 3
n≥1
n2 +n+2
(c)
X 3n
n≥1
n2 +n+2
(d)
X k2 − 1 k
k≥1
3k2 + 5
(e)
X1
r≥1
r
(f)
X (−1)r
r≥1
r
(g)
X 3n2 − 5n − 2 n
n≥1
−2n2 + 5n − 2
(h)
X ln n n
n≥1
n
(i)
X (ln n)2
n≥1
n
(j)
X ln k
k≥1
2k
(k) X m
m≥2
ln m
(l)
X (−2)i
i≥1
3i
11.4 Power Series
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
∞ ∞
1. be able to recognize the form of a power series: c x or c (x − a) ,
X X
n n
n n
n=0 n=0
2. know how to apply the tests for convergence to calculate the values of x for which a given power
series converges,
3. know how to calculate the radius and interval of convergence.
A series
∞
X
cn (x − a)n
n=0
is called a power series in (x − a) or a power series centered at a or a power series about a.
Note that (x − a)0 = 1. If a = 0, the power series simplifies to

∞
X
cn xn .
n=0
For x = a, all terms from the second onwards are 0, so the series converges to c0 for x = a.
Note that if a power series converges (for more than one x), then it represents a function of x. Two
natural questions arise:
• For which x does the series converge?

• Has the series a “closed form” representation?
Example 11.4.1. The geometric series

∞
X
xn
n=0
converges if −1 < x < 1 and diverges otherwise, see Theorem 11.7.

∞
X
Worked Example 11.4.2. For which values of x does the series n!xn converge?
n=0
Worked Example 11.4.3. For which values of x does the Bessel function of order 0 defined by
∞
X (−1)n x2n
J0 (x) =
n=0
22n (n!)2
converge?
∞
X (x − 3)n
Worked Example 11.4.4. For which values of x does the series converge?
n=0
n
X
Theorem 11.19. There are three alternatives for the domain of a power series cn (x − a)n :
n=0
(i) The series converges only for x = a.
(ii) The series converges for all x ∈ R.
(iii) There is R > 0 such that the series converges if |x − a| < R and diverges if |x − a| > R.
The number R in case (iii) is called the radius of convergence. It is convenient to put the radius of
convergence as R = 0 in (i) and R = ∞ in (ii).
Note that (iii) says that the series converges for x in the interval (a − R, a + R) and diverges outside
[a − R, a + R]. For x = a − R and x = a + R anything can happen. In any case, the domain of the series
is an interval, called the interval of convergence, and for 0 < R < ∞, there are four possibilities for the
interval of convergence:
(a − R, a + R), (a − R, a + R], [a − R, a + R), [a − R, a + R].
Note that the Ratio and Root Tests fail at the endpoints of the interval of convergence, and other tests
have to be used.
Worked Example 11.4.5. Find the radius of convergence and the interval of convergence for the series
∞
X (−3)n xn
1. √
n=0 n3 + 1
∞
X n(x + 2)n
2.
n=0
3n+1
Below is a summary of the examples of this section.
Series Radius of convergence Interval of convergence

X∞
Geometric series xn R=1 (−1, 1)
n=0
X∞
Example 11.4.2 n!xn R=0 {0}
n=0
∞
X (−1)n x2n
Bessel function J0 R=∞ (−∞, ∞)
n=0
22n (n!)2
∞
X (x − 3)n
Example 11.4.4 R=1 [2, 4)
n=0
n
∞
(−3)n xn
" #
X 1 1 1
Example 11.4.5.1 √ R= − ,
n=0 n3 + 1 3 3 3
∞
X n(x + 2)n
Example 11.4.5.2 R=3 (−5, 1)
n=0
3n+1
Tutorial 11.4
1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 11.7 p. 788: 1, 5, 9, 13 or 12th ed. 10.7 pp. 600–601 or 13th ed. 10.7
pp. 638–639 or 14th ed. 9.7 pp. 598–599: 1, 5, 9, 13, 37, 39.
2. Which of the following is/are power series:

∞
xn
P
a.
n=0
∞
nxn
P
b.
n=−∞
∞
k(x + 1)k
P
c.
k=0
∞
(xi − 5i )
P
d.
i=0
P (x−4)n
e. n
n≥0
∞
(3x − 4)n
P
f.
n=1
3. True or False:
a. A closed form representation must involve a Sigma.

b. An infinite radius of convergence means that the sequence never converges
c. A radius of convergence must be strictly larger than 0.
d. An interval of convergence must be an open interval (have round brackets)
e. Anything can happen at the endpoints of an interval of convergence.
∞
P xk
4. If k! is the power series centred at 0, what is the equivalent power series centred at c?
k=0
∞
ln n
− 4)n converge?
P
5. For which values of x does the series n! (x
n=1
∞ √
n(x − 1)n (−2)−n ?
P
6. What is the radius and interval of convergence of the power series
n=0
∞
P (1+3x)n
7. What is the radius and interval of convergence of the power series n3
?
n=1
There are more practise examples in the tutorials for the next few sections.
11.5 Representations of Functions as Power Series
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. know how to represent certain types of functions as sums of power series,
2. know how to differentiate and integrate power series term-by-term.
Recall that
∞
1 X
= xn , |x| < 1
1 − x n=0
and that the geometric series converges exactly for |x| < 1 (i.e., only valid in (−1, 1)).
∞
1 X
Worked Example 11.5.1. Express as a sum of a power series about 0 (i.e., as cn xn ).
1 + x2 n=0
Solution. Replace x by −x2 in the geometric series:

∞ ∞
1 1 X X
= = (−x 2 n
) = (−1)n x2n = 1 − x2 + x4 − x6 + . . .
1+x 2 2
1 − (−x ) n=0 n=0
This series converges for | − x2 | < 1, i. e., |x| < 1. Hence the radius of convergence is 1 and interval of
convergence is (−1, 1).
Worked Example 11.5.2. Find a power series representation for 1/(x + 2) about 0.
Worked Example 11.5.3. Find a power series representation for x3 /(x + 2) about 0.
∞
X
Theorem 11.20. If the power series cn (x − a)n has radius of convergence R > 0, then the function f
n=1
defined by
∞
X
f (x) = cn (x − a)n = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + . . .
n=0
is differentiable (and thus continuous) on the interval (a − R, a + R), and
∞
X
(i) f (x) =
0
ncn (x − a)n−1 = c1 + 2c2 (x − a) + 3c3 (x − a)2 + . . . ,
n=0
∞
(x − a)n+1 (x − a)2 (x − a)3
Z X
(ii) f (x) dx = C + cn = C + c0 (x − a) + c1 + c2 + ...
n=0
n+1 2 3
The radii of convergence of the power series in (i) and (ii) are R.
Note. Theorem 11.20 says that a power series can be differentiated and integrated term by term. This is
seen by rewriting
∞ (i) and (ii) there in the form
∞
d  X  X d
 cn (x − a)  =
n 
[cn (x − a)n ],

(iii) 
dx  n=0 dx
Z X  n=1 ∞ Z
 ∞  X
(iv)  cn (x − a)n  dx = cn (x − a)n dx.
n=0 n=1
Note. Although the radius of convergence does not change, the interval of convergence may change if
we differentiate or integrate a power series.
Example 11.5.4. The derivative of the Bessel function

∞
X (−1)n x2n
J0 (x) =
n=0
22n (n!)2
is represented by the power series

∞ ∞
X d (−1)n x2n X (−1)n 2nx2n−1
J00 (x) = =
n=0
dx 22n (n!)2 n=1
22n (n!)2
1
Worked Example 11.5.5. Find a power series expansion of about 0 by differentiating the
(1 − x)2
1
power series of . Find its radius of convergence.
1−x
Worked Example 11.5.6. Find a power series expansion of ln(1 − x) about 0 and its radius of conver-
gence.
Worked Example 11.5.7. Find a power series representation for f (x) = arctan x.
Z
dx
Worked Example 11.5.8. Find as a power series
1 + x7
Tutorial 11.5
1. Find power series representations for the following functions and indefinite integrals:
1 1 1
(a) (b) (c)
5−x (1 + x) 2 (1 + x)3
2 1+x
! Z
x 1
(d) (e) ln (f) dt
(1 + x) 3 1−x 1 − t8
Also find the intervals of convergence.
2. Use the power series of arctan to prove the following series representation of π:
√ X∞
(−1)n
π=2 3 .
n=0
(2n + 1)3n
π
(Hint: Note that tan 6) = √1 .)
3
11.6 Taylor and Maclaurin Series
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. be able to identify Taylor series of functions centred at a,
2. be able to identify Maclaurin series (Taylor series centred at 0),
3. be able to identify n-th degree Taylor polynomials of f at a, and Maclaurin polynomials,
4. know the Maclaurin series of the elementary functions and their intervals of convergence.
Recursively differentiating in Theorem 11.20 and substituting x = a, we find
Theorem 11.21. If f has a power series representation at a, written as

∞
X
f (x) = cn (x − a)n , |x − a| < R,
n=0
then its coefficients are given by the formula

f (n) (a)
cn = .
n!
That is, every function f which has a power series expansion can be written as
∞
X f (n) (a)
f (x) = (x − a)n
n=0
n!
f 0 (a) f 00 (a) f 000 (a)
= f (a) + (x − a) + (x − a)2 + (x − a)3 + . . . ,
1! 2! 3!
and this power series is called the Taylor series of the function f at a (or about a or centred at a).
The polynomial
n
X f (i) (a)
T n (x) = (x − a)i
i=0
i!
f 0 (a) f 00 (a) f (n) (a)
= f (a) + (x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · · + (x − a)n
1! 2! n!
is called the n-th degree Taylor polynomial at a.

In the special case a = 0, the expansion reads
∞
X f (n) (0) n
f (x) = x
n=0
n!
f 0 (0) f 00 (0) 2 f 000 (0) 3
= f (0) + x+ x + x + ...,
1! 2! 3!
and in this case the power series is also called the Maclaurin series of the function f .
We are now going to find the Maclaurin series for some important functions. We assume, without
proof, that these functions coincide with their Maclaurin series expansions. The existence of a series
representation will be shown in second year. We will only show that the Maclaurin series converge.
Worked Example 11.6.1. Find the Maclaurin series of the function f (x) = e x and its radius of conver-
gence.
The Maclaurin series of e x is

∞
X xn
ex = for all x.
n=0
n!
In particular,
∞
X 1 1 1 1
e= = 1 + + + + ...
n=0
n! 1! 2! 3!
Worked Example 11.6.2. Find the Taylor series for f (x) = e x at 2.
∞ 2
X e
ex = (x − 2)n for all x.
n=0
n!
Worked Example 11.6.3. Find the Maclaurin series for f (x) = sin x.
∞
X x2n+1
sin x = (−1)n
n=0
(2n + 1)!
x3 x5 x7
= x− + − + ...
3! 5! 7!
Worked Example 11.6.4. Find the Maclaurin series for f (x) = cos x.
∞
X x2n
cos x = (−1)n
n=0
(2n)!
x2 x4 x6
=1− + − + ...
2! 4! 6!
Worked Example 11.6.5. Find the Maclaurin series for x cos x.
Note. By Theorem 11.21, if a function has a power series representation about a, then the coefficients
of the power series are uniquely determined.
Below is a table of important Maclaurin series we have found so far, together with their intervals of
convergence.
∞
1 X
= xn = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . . (−1, 1)
1 − x n=0
∞
X xn x x2 x3
e =
x
=1+ + + + ... (−∞, ∞)
n=0
n! 1! 2! 3!
∞
X x2n+1 x3 x5 x7
sin x = (−1)n = x− + − + ... (−∞, ∞)
n=0
(2n + 1)! 3! 5! 7!
∞
X x2n x2 x4 x6
cos x = (−1)n =1− + − + ... (−∞, ∞)
n=0
(2n)! 2! 4! 6!
∞
X x2n+1 x3 x5 x7
arctan x = (−1)n = x− + − + . . . (−1, 1)
n=0
2n + 1 3 5 7
Z
2
Worked Example 11.6.6. Evaluate e−x dx as an infinite series.
ex − 1 − x
Worked Example 11.6.7. 1. Evaluate lim .
x→0 x2
2. (a) Find the Maclaurin series of sinh x from the definition of a Maclaurin series (homework exercise).
(b) Find the Maclaurin series of sinh x using an exponential expansion.
Power series can be multiplied and divided to obtain new power series.
Worked Example 11.6.8. Find the first 3 terms of the power series for
1. e x sin x
2. sec x
3. tan x
Tutorial 11.6
1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 11.8 pp. 794–795: 1, 7, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25 or 12th ed. 10.8 p. 606 or
13th ed. 10.8 p. 634: 1, 3, 9, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27, 33, 35 or 14th ed. 9.8 p. 605: 1, 3, 9, 11, 15, 19,
25, 29, 35, 37.
x − arctan x
2. Find the Maclaurin series representation for .
x3
∞
3. What is the coefficient (in terms of b) of the ith term of the power series g(x) = bn (2x − 4)n
P
n=0
about x = 2? (Hint: we want the coefficient of (x − 2)i−1 .)
4. a. Write down the Taylor series of the function p(t) about d in Sigma notation.
b. What is the 3rd degree polynomial of p(t) about 2?

c. How many terms does your polynomial in the previous question have?
d. What is the Maclaurin series of p(t) in Sigma notation?
5. What is the third non-zero term in the Taylor expansion of ln x about 1?
6. What is the third non-zero term in the Taylor expansion of ln x about 2?

cos(3θ)
7. Write down the Maclaurin series of θ .
cos x
8. Calculate the first five terms of the Maclaurin series of 1−x .
Want more practise? Don’t forget to consult Stewart or Thomas Calculus for more practise exercises.
There are books available at the library, the MAC, or from second hand bookshops. Alternatively, any
first year calculus book should have some examples for you to try.
11.7 Binomial Series
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. know how to write the Binomial Series in expanded form as an infinite series and in abbreviated
form using sigma notation,
2. know under which conditions the Binomial Series converges or diverges,
3. know the definition of the binomial coefficient if k is no longer a positive integer and n ≥ 1.
k
n
Consider the function f (x) = (1 + x)k for any real k. Then
f (x) = (1 + x)k
f 0 (x) = k(1 + x)k−1
f 00 (x) = k(k − 1)(1 + x)k−2
..
.
f (n) (x) = k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1)(1 + x)k−n
and therefore
f (n) (0) = k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1).
The Maclaurin series of (1 + x)k is called the Binomial Series and we have
Theorem 11.22 (Binomial Series). For k ∈ R and |x| < 1,

k(k − 1) 2 k(k − 1)(k − 2) 3
(1 + x)k = 1 + kx + x + x + ...
2! 3!
∞ !
X k n
= x ,
n=0
n
k(k − 1) · · · (k − n + 1)
! !
k k
where = (n ≥ 1) and = 1.
n n! 0
!
k
Note. The binomial coefficent defined in Theorem 11.22 coincides with the usual binomial coeffi-
n
cient when k ≥ n is a nonnegative integer.
Worked Example 11.7.1. Find the Maclaurin series and radii of convergence for the following func-
tions:
1
1.
(1 + x)2
1
2. √
4−x
Tutorial 11.7
1. Thomas Exercises 11th ed. 11.10 pp. 815–817: 3, 7, 9, 63 or 12th ed. 10.10 pp. 620–622 or 13th
ed. 10.10 pp. 659–660 or 14th ed. 9.10 pp. 620–621: 3, 7, 9, 10, 59.
2. Consider the function (1 + x)α for α ∈ R\{0}.
a. Express the binomial series (1 + x)α in sigma notation.

b. For which values of x does the above binomial series converge?
c. The binomial series (1+ x)n for n ∈ N is not an infinite series. Express this in sigma notation.
√
3 2+4t
3. a. Express the function (1+2t)3
as a constant times a binomial.
√
3 2+4t
b. Write down the Maclaurin series of the function (1+2t)3
.
c. What is the interval of convergence of the above series?
Chapter 12
Differential Equations
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
skill)
1. identify the type of differential equation under consideration,
2. know the technique of solving such a differential equation,
3. find the general solution to the given differential equation,
4. find the particular solution to a given initial value problem,
A differential equation is an equation that involves derivatives or differentials of unknown functions. An
equation that involves x, y, y0 , y00 , . . . , y(n) , where y is a function of x is called an ordinary differential
equation of order n (nth order ODE).
dy
Worked Example 12.0.1. 1. = − cos x or y0 = − cos x is a 1st order ODE.
dx
d2 y
2. + kx − sin x = 0 or y00 + kx − sin x = 0 is a 2nd order ODE.
dx2
3. (y000 )4 − x2 (y00 )5 + 4xy = xe x is a 3rd order ODE.
The order of an ODE is thus the highest order derivative occuring in the ODE. In this course we will
primarily deal with solving 1st order ODE’s.
If a function f (x) has the property that substituting f and its derivatives into a differential equation
satisfies the ODE, then f is called a solution to the ODE.
Worked Example 12.0.2. f (x) = cos 2x and g(x) = A sin 2x + B cos 2x, A, B ∈ R are solutions to the
ODE
y00 + 4y = 0.
Tutorial 12.0
d2 y
1. Verify that f (x) = sin 2x and g(x) = R cos(2x − α), α, R ∈ R are solutions to 2 + 4y = 0.
dx
− 23 dy
2. Prove that y = Cx with C ∈ R is a solution to 2xy + 3x y
3 2 2 = 0.
dx
3. If C ∈ R show that y = Cx is a solution to x y + x y − 3xy − 3y = 0.
3 3 000 2 00 0
4. If A and B are any real constants, show that y = sin x − 3 cos x + Ae−x + Be−2x is a solution to
y00 + 3y0 + 2y = 10 sin x.
88
5. Identify the order of each ODE in the above tutorial examples.

6. (a) Show that any function of the form
y = Aekx + Be−kx
or
y = C sinh kx + D cosh kx
satisfies the differential equation y00 = k2 y.
(b) Find y = y(x) such that y00 = 9y, y(0) = −4, y0 (0) = 6.
As can be noted, solutions to ODE’s are not unique. We next focus on finding a solution to various types
of ODE’s.
12.1 Separable Differential Equations

The separable ODE’s are the simplest type. As the name suggests if the ODE can be arranged such that
all x’s are on the left-hand side of the equation and all y’s are on the right-hand side of the equation (or
vice versa), then the ODE is called separable. The general form of a separable ODE is
dy
M(x) + N(y) =0 or M(x) dx + N(y) dy = 0.
dx
The technique to find a solution is
Z Z
M(x) dx + N(y) dy = 0 ⇒ M(x) dx + N(y) dy = C.
Worked Example 12.1.1. Solve

dy sin x
= .
dx cos y
Note that:
1. The solution given above, with the arbitrary constant C, is the general solution. It gives a general
family of solutions.
Z Z
2. The constant arising from cos y dy and the constant from sin x dx are combined into the one
constant C.
3. In general, an nth order ODE will have n arbitrary constants in its solution.
4. Often the general solution is given in implicit form; it may be left that way.
Worked Example 12.1.2. Solve

y4 e2x + y0 = 0.
An initial value problem arises when we wish to solve an ODE with an initial condition. This allows
one to calculate a particular value for the constant C in the general solution. The resulting solution is
then a particular solution to the ODE.
Worked Example 12.1.3. Find the particular solution to the ODE

2x(y + 1) dx − y dy = 0
that satisfies the initial condition y(0) = −2, i. e., y = −2 when x = 0.
Tutorial 12.1
Solve the following separable ODE’s. (* indicates a bit more challenging.)
1. y0 = 2xy.
dy
2. xy = 1 − x2 .
dx
*3. (1 + 3x2 )√
dy = (1 − 3y2 ) dx (you may want to use partial fractions). Find the particular solution that
satisfies y = 3 when x = 1.
dy 2
4. xy + e x ln y = 0.
dx
5. y(x + 1)y0 = x2 + 2, y(0) = 1.
12.2 Homogeneous Differential Equations

A function of two variables f (x, y) is said to be homogeneous of degree n if
f (tx, ty) = tn f (x, y)
for each t > 0.
Worked Example 12.2.1. Show that f (x, y) = 2x5 − x2 y3 + 5xy4 is homogeneous of degree 5.
It is easier to note that if f is a polynomial in x and y such that the sum of the powers of x and y in each
term is the same value n, then f is homogeneous of degree n.
1 x
Worked Example 12.2.2. g(x, y) = e y is homogeneous of degree −2.
x 2 + y2
Solution.
1 tx
g(tx, ty) = e ty
+ (ty)
(tx)2 2
1 x
= 2 2 ey
t (x + y ) 2
= t−2 g(x, y).
Thus g is homogeneous of degree −2.

!
x
Worked Example 12.2.3. h(x, y) = y − x cot is homogeneous of degree 1.
y
A homogeneous differential equation is an equation of the form
f (x, y) dx + g(x, y) dy = 0
where f and g are homogeneous functions of the same degree. To solve such type of equations we make
the appropriate substitution y = vx (or x = vy). Then dy = v dx + x dv (or dx = v dy + y dv). We then
substitute back y and dy (or x and dx) into the original ODE which reduces the homogeneous ODE to a
separable ODE.
Worked Example 12.2.4. Solve the differential equation
(x2 + y2 ) dx − x2 dy = 0.
3y dx + (x + 2y) dy = 0
by using the substitution x = vy.
Tutorial 12.2
State the degree of the following homogeneous ODE’s and then solve them.
1. xdy + ydx = 0 (use y = vx and x = yv and see if you get the same answer).
2. x(x + y) dy − y2 dx
= 0.
− yx
3. x dy + xe − y dx = 0.
4. Use the substitution x = vy to solve 2xy dx + (y2 − x2 ) dy = 0.
12.3 Linear Differential Equations

Equations of the form
dy
+ p(x)y = q(x)
dx
are called first-order linear differential equations.R If the functions p and q are continuous, we can solve
this type of ODE by multiplying the equation by e p(x) dx , called an integrating factor. Then we get
dy R R R
e p(x) dx
+ p(x)ye p(x) dx
= q(x)e p(x) dx
dx
However, the LHS of the above equation is
dy R R
d R
e p(x) dx
+ p(x)ye p(x) dx
= ye p(x) dx
(verify this identity)
dx dx
so that the linear ODE is now reduced to
d R R
ye p(x) dx
= q(x)e p(x) dx
dx
which we then solve by direct integration.
If R
µ(x) = e p(x) dx
is the integrating factor, then the general solution is

Z !
1
y(x) = q(x)µ(x) dx + C .
µ(x)

1 1
y0 + y = 2 , x > 0.
x x
Worked Example 12.3.2. Find the particular solution to
π π
y0 − y tan x = sec x, − <x<
2 2
π
which satisfies y = 0.
4
Tutorial 12.3
Solve the following linear differential equations.
1. Thomas Exercises 9.2 11th ed. pp. 641–643: 1, 3, 5, 9, 15, 19, 35 or 12th ed. 9.2 pp. 526–528 or
13th ed. 9.2 pp. 562–563 or 14th ed. 16.2 pp. 1040–1042: 1, 3, 5, 9, 15, 19, 31.
y
2. y0 + x = 3
x2 +2x+2
y0
3. y + 7 = (x − 1)y−1
4. If p is a function of the variable t (we write this as p = p(t)), then solve the differential equation
p0 (t) = pt + t sec2 t
5. y0 (x) = xy(x) − y(x) + x − 1
12.4 Exact Differential Equations

A prerequisite for this section is the notion of a partial derivative as discussed in the Semester One
Study Guide.
We will be concerned mainly with functions of two variables f (x, y) as seen in the previous section on
homogeneous ODE’s. Recall that if f is a function of two variables, then to find f x (x, y) = f x = ∂∂xf
we may regard y as a constant and differentiate f (x, y) with respect to x in the usual way. Similarly for
fy (x, y) = fy = ∂∂yf .
Partial derivatives are used in solving a particular type of first order ODE’s called exact differential
equations. Let M and N be functions of two variables x and y which have continuous first partial
derivatives. The differential equation
dy
M(x, y) + N(x, y) =0 or M(x, y) dx + N(x, y) dy = 0
dx
is an exact differential equation provided that
∂M ∂N
= or My = N x .
∂y ∂x
We may thus test whether a given ODE
M dx + N dy = 0
is exact by calculating My and N x . Accordingly,
My = N x ⇒ ODE IS EXACT,
My , N x ⇒ ODE IS NOT EXACT.
Worked Example 12.4.1. Show that the differential equation
(2x − 2) dx + (8y − 16) dy = 0
is exact.
Theorem 12.1. If M dx + N dy = 0 is an exact differential equation, then there exists a function f (x, y)
such that f x = M and fy = N and the differential equation has a solution of the form f (x, y) = C for a
constant C.
The above theorem provides a technique for finding a solution to the exact ODE
M dx + N dy = 0.
We illustrate by the following examples.
(2x − 2) dx + (8y − 16) dy = 0.
(y cos x + 2xey ) dx + (sin x + x2 ey + 2) dy = 0.
(2x + y3 ) dx + (3xy2 − e2y ) dy = 0
subject to the initial condition y(−1) = 0.
Tutorial 12.4
Show that the following four differential equations are exact and then solve them.
1. xy2 dx + x2 ydy = 0
2. (2x + 3y + 1) dx + (3x + 4y − 1) dy = 0.
3. (2x + y3 ) dx + (3xy2 + ye2y ) dy = 0.
4. (y cos x + 2xey + x sin x) dx + (sin x + x2 ey + 2y) dy = 0.
5. The differential equation 3ydx + (3x − 1)dy = 0 is separable, homogeneous, linear and exact. Solve
it four different ways and show that you get the same answer each time.
6. Now go back over tuts 12.1-12.4 and see if there is another way to solve each of the differentiable
equations.
Solve the following three differential equations using any of the techniques you have learnt above.
7. y0 = y + x if y(1) = 0.
dy 1
8. = .
dx (3x + 2)2
9. (x + 3y) dx + (3x − 2y) dy = 0.
Chapter 13
Appendix: Tutorial Answers
Tutorial 7.1 Answers

1. See textbook.
x −x e x +e−x
+e−x (b) cosech x = e x −e−x (c) sech x = e x +e−x (d) coth x = e x −e−x
2. (a) tanh x = eex −e 2 2
R sinh x = cosh x (b) dx cosh 3xR = 3 sinh 3x (c) dx coth ax = −a

d d d 2
3. (a) dx R cosech ax
R4. (a) sinh x dx = cosh x + C (b) cosh x dx = sinh x + C (c) sech 7x dx = 2 1
7 tanh 7x + C (d)
tanh bx dx = b ln(cosh bx) + C
1
5. (a), (b), (c)
6. (a) Let y = sinh−1 x. We use the fact that sinh(sinh−1 x) = x for x ∈ R (since sinh x is one-to-one on
R):
esinh x − e− sinh x (ey )2 − 1
−1 −1
x = sinh(sinh x) =
−1
= .
2 2ey
Rearranging the equation yields a quadratic equation in ey ,
(ey )2 − 2xey − 1 = 0,
which has the roots

ey = x ±
p
x2 + 1.
√
Since ey > 0 and x2 + 1 > |x|, we take the positive square root so that
p
sinh−1 x = y = ln x + x2 + 1 .
94
(b) Let y = cosh−1 x ≥ 0. Note that cosh x is an even function. We insist that y ≥ 0 since cosh x is
one-to-one function on [0, ∞) We use the fact that cosh(cosh−1 x) = x for x ∈ R with x ≥ 1. It follows
that
ecosh x + e− cosh x (ey )2 + 1
−1 −1
x = cosh(cosh x) =
−1
= .
2 2ey
(ey )2 − 2xey + 1 = 0,
which has the roots

ey = x ±
p
x2 − 1.
√
Since, by assumption, y ≥ 0 we have ey ≥ 1. For large x we notice that x − x2 − 1 tends to zero. Thus
we take the positive square root, so that
p
cosh−1 x = y = ln x + x2 − 1 .
Alternative proof:
We could also have used the formula for sinh−1 x from (a) as follows:
x2 = cosh2 (cosh−1 x)
= 1 + sinh2 (cosh−1 x) = 1 + sinh2 y
√
so that sinh y = x2 − 1, where we take the positive square root so that y = cosh−1 x ≥ 0. Thus
p
y = sinh−1 (sinh y) = sinh−1 ( x2 − 1)
p q p !
= ln x − 1 + ( x − 1) + 1
2 2 2
p p
= ln x2 − 1 + x2
p
= ln x + x2 − 1
√
since x = x2 ≥ 1.
(c) Let y = tanh−1 x for x ∈ (−1, 1). Since tanh(tanh−1 x) = x we have
(ey )2 − 1
−1 −1
etanh x − e− tanh x
x = tanh(tanh −1
x) = = .
−1
etanh x + e− tanh
−1
x (ey )2 + 1
1+x
(ey )2 =
1−x
which has the non-negative root r
y 1+x
e = .
1−x
Thus r
1+x 1 1+x
!
tanh−1
x = y = ln = ln .
1−x 2 1−x
Alternative proof:
Since cosh2 x = 1 + sech2 x, we find
x2 = tanh2 (tanh−1 x) = tanh2 (y)

1
=1−
cosh2 y
and solving for cosh2 y yields

1
cosh2 y = .
1 − x2
Using the formula from (b), we obtain
!
1
|y| = cosh −1
√
1 − x2
 s !2 
 1 1 
= ln  √ + √ − 1
1 − x2 1 − x2
 r  !
1 x 2  1 |x|
= ln  √ +  = ln √ + √
 

1 − x2 1 − x2  1 − x2 1 − x2
1 + |x| 1 + |x|
! !
= ln √ = ln √ √
1−x 2 1 − |x| 1 + |x|
s 
 1 + |x|  1 1 + |x|
!
= ln    = ln
 .
1 − |x|  2 1 − |x|
Noting that y = tanh−1 x has the same sign as x provides
1+x
!
1
y = ln when x ≥ 0,
2 1−x
!
1 1−x
−y = ln when x < 0.
2 1+x
Both cases yield

1+x
!
1
tanh −1
x = y = ln .
2 1−x
Are there any other methods to arrive at this result?
π
√ √
1. (a) √ (b) π6 (3 + 3) (c) π4 (1 + 2)
2 3
2. Area is exactly 2. (a) and (c) are underestimates, (b) is an overestimate.
16 = 11.0625 and
3. (a) Overestimate (b) 177 = 6.4 (c) 2275
243 = 9.36214, thus 6 rectangles more
32
5
accurate.
Graph is increasing Graph is decreasing
4. Left Riemann Sum under over
Right Riemann Sum over under
5. (a) y = −1
x (b) 2
9 + 2
7 + 2
5 + 2
3
1. See textbook.
2. (a) (3 + 4e7 )/e2 (b) (3 − 2e)/e2 (c) ((2 + 4e6 )/e (d) Yes, it is true. However it is not a proof of
Property 6 as it does not prove the statement in general, it just verifies the theorem for a specific
example.
3. HINT: Use properties 10, 1 and 7.
4. 0
5. 0
6. Both answers are 20 and c = −1.

1
7. e+1 cosh e − cosh 1 .
3 ln 3 .
10 8
8. 3 −
R 4 2 4
3x + = + = + + 3 = 3 = 12
7
2 2 7 16 28 1 7 36
9. 1
dx 63x x
3 3 3 − 3
1
This is the same result as Area = 12 3 2 + 3 3 = 12

10. 13
3 + cos[4]
29 37
11. (a) 12 (b) 12
7 5 22
(−4x+10)dx = ( 14 (10−y)−(y−3))dy = 5 =
R R 121
R 121
12. (a) 5
−3
(x+3)dx+ 7
2
10 (b) 0
5
10 (c) 12 ( 52 −(−3))· 22 121
10
5
2 2
13. (a) 0 (b) 3 (c) 3
1 75
14. (a) 4 (b) 4
15. The answer

√ This is because the integrand (x(x2 − 5)) is the same in all cases and is positive
is (a). √
on (− 5, 0) and ( 5, ∞), so we have:
√
• (a) is positive since integrand is positive and 5 < 5
• (b) is 0 since function is odd
√
• (c) is negative since integrand is negative and −5 < − 5
√
• (d) is negative since integrand is positive and 5 > 5.
Tutorial 8.3 answers
1. See textbook.
4π 2π
2. (a) 3 (b) 3
9π 9π
3. (a) 4 (b) 2
27π
4. (a) 4 (b) 9π.
58 π
4 4
5.
6. (a) 83 π (b) 25 π
7. 2304π
2π
3
8.
9π
9. 2
√
10. 2π 8 2 + 5π

1. See textbook.
 √ 2


 2 x when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1,
2.A(x) =  so volume = 6.

 q
2
 2 3−x 1 < x ≤ 3.

when


2
32
3. √
3
4. The amount of volume of metal that makes the coin is the same regardless of the position or location
of coin.

1. See textbook.
sec x
Z
d h i
2. (a) p0 (x) = (t2 − 1 )dt = (sec x)2 − 1 sec x tan x.
dx
a
x
Z3
d x 1 8
(b)q0 (x) = s3 ds = ( )3 ( ) and q0 (2) = 4 .
dx 3 3 3
1
3
sec x
sec2 x sec x tan x − 1 − sec2 x
Z
d 1 sec x tan x
(c) f (x) =
0
dt = − = .
dx 1 + t2 1 + sec2 x 1 + tan2 x 1 + sec2 x
tan x
Zx3
d
(d) g0 (x) = sin t4 dt = sin(x3 )4 (3x2 ) − sin(x2 )4 (2x) = 3x2 sin x12 − 2x sin x8 .
dx
x2
Zx
d x d 1 1 1 1
(e) h (x) =
0
arcsin − √ dt = q − √ = 0, a > 0.
dx a dx 2
a −t 2 a 1 − ( ax )2 a − x2
2
a
Z−t
d 2 2 2 2 2 2
(f) m0 (t) = x5 −4·3 x dx = (−t)5 −4·3(−t) (−1)− t5 −4·3t (1) = t5 +4·3t −t5 +4·3t = 8·3t .
dx
pt
3. (a) f (x) =
0
x2 (2x) + 1 = 2|x|x + 1, f 0 (p) = 2|p|p + 1.
(b)9
(c)−7. √
(ln x)2 + 1 (ln x)2 + 1
4. (a) x
4
− 2x
4
= 7
24 (ln x)
3 + 18 ln x
(b) and (c) 8x (ln x) + 8x //
7 2 1

1. See textbook.
2. (a) π2.
(b) 12 ln x2 + 6x + 13 + C

(c) 2 21 ln x2 + 6x + 13 − 32 tan−1 x+3
2 +C
√
(d)− −x(x √ + 4)
π
+C
(e)4 − 2 3 + 6
3 3
(f) x6 + 14 sinh 2x3 + C
ln2 (2)
(g) 8

1. SeeR textbook.
R cos x dx = 1 8 + 4 sin(2x) + 32 sin(4x) + C
4 3x 1 1
2.(a)
(b)R e x cos x dx = 2 e x (sin(x) + cos(x)) + C
(c) sin(ln x) dx = 12 x sin(ln(x)) − 12 x cos(ln(x)) + C
3. 0

1. See textbook
R4 √
2. (a) 4 0 16 − x2 dx = 16π.
R4 p
(b) 4 0 16 − y2 dy = 16π.
(c) πr2 = 16π.
√ √ √ √
3. −2 5 + 2 21 + 3 log 3 + 5 − 3 log 5 + 21

1. See textbook
2. (a) − 17 cos(7x) + C
5
(b) sin5(x) + C
(c) 3x8 + 4 sin(2x) + 32 sin(4x) + C
1 1
(d) 3 sin(x)
4 + 121
sin(3x) + C
2
(e) − 9
(f) − 281
cos(14x) + C
1
(g) 6 cos(3x) − 22 1
cos(11x) + C
√
(h) 15 3 + 3
1
(i) 12 arctan x + 2(1+x x

2 ) + C.
R π
3. V = π 0 (1 − sin(5y))2 dy = 20
10 1
π(3π − 8)//
1. See textbook
2. 1
3. x
x2 +x+1
+ 1
x−3 − 2
x+3
x3
3 + x + 2 log(2 − + 2) + C
3
4. (a) x) − 1 log(x
2
t
(b) t2 +3 + √1 arctan √t + C
3 3
(c) 1/2 ln[17 + 6y − 2y3 + y4 ] + C
5. (a) f (x) = √x−1

1
, g(x) = 1
x+1
(b) x q= ± 3/5
R 35
(c) q h(x) dx.
3
− 5
Tutorials 10.1 and 10.2 Answers
1. See textbook
2. (a) (Proper) Ans: − 12 log 2

(b)(Improper: x = −1) - diverges
(c)(Improper: ∞) - see Section 9.2 - diverges
(d)(Improper: ∞) - converges to 72 .
(e)(Improper: x = π/2) - diverges √
5 7
2 tan−1 23
(f)(Proper) - see Section 9.1 - Ans: √
7
57 7
(g)(Improper: −∞) converges to log 7
(h)(Improper: ∞ and −∞)- see Section 9.5. Diverges.
NOTE: Revise Sandwich Theorem before the next tut.
1. See textbook
2. a,c,d are the same and b,f,g are the same.
3. 2(−1)n n2
n
4. (a) F. eg { (−1) n
n } (b) F. eg. {(−1) } (c) T
5. Discuss
6. Plot B as it is continuous (defined for more than just integer values.)
7. One example is to take an = 0 and cn = πn and show they both go to 0 in the limit as n → ∞. How
do you show that sin( πn ) < πn ? See original Sandwich Theorem examples in Section 1.5.
Tutorial 11.2: Answers
1. See textbook
2. A sequence is an infinite list and a series is an infinite sum
3. True
4. 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 31
n
4
= 23 (7 − 7−n )
P
5. 7i
i=0
2
6. 3
7. (a) FALSE (b) TRUE
8. (a) a3 = 8(b) s3 = −5
−5
2 + 4 + 8 =
−5 −5 −35
8 (c) {− 25n } (d) {−5(1 − 21n )} (e) converges to −5
∞
−5/2
2n = 1−1/2
P −5
(f) geometric series.
n=1
9. (a) diverges by divergence test since lim n+1n

=1,0
n→∞
(b) diverges. geometric series with r √>1
(c) diverges since partial sum = 1 − 5n+1 (telescoping series).
−3
(d) geometric series. Converges to π(π+1)
7
(e) converges to 24 . After factorising the denominator, partial fractions give a telescoping series.
Then use partial sums.
1. See textbook.
2. (a) converges (absolutely) by ratio test (it converges to e − 1 - do you know why?)
(b) converges by integral test or p-series and comparison test
(c) diverges by integral test
(d) converges (absolutely) by root test (L = 1/3)
(e) diverges by p-series test
(f) converges by alternating series test
(g) diverges by root test (L = 3/2)
(h) converges by root test. Try l’Hôpital’s rule if you are stuck.
(i) diverges by integral test or p-series and comparison test
(j) converges. geometric series and comparison test
(k) diverges by divergence test
(l) converges by ratio test or a geometric series with |r| < 1. or alternating series test.
1. See textbook.
2. a, c, e and f
3. F,F,F,F,T
∞
P (x−c)k
4. k!
k=0
5. for all x
6. By the ratio test,

a √n + 1
n+1 = √ (x − 1)
an n(−2)
√
which tends to 12 |x−1| as n → ∞, so the radius of convergence is 2. For |x−1| = 2, |an | = n→∞
as n → ∞ and hence the interval of convergence is the open interval (−1, 3).
7. Radius of convergence is 1
3 and interval of convergence is [− 23 , 0]
Tutorial 11.5: Answers

P n
1. (a) 51 n≥0 5x The interval of convergence is (−5 < x < 5).
(b) n≥0 n(−x)n−1 The interval of convergence is (−1 < x < 1).
P
(c) 21 n≥0 n(n − 1)(−x)n−2 The interval of convergence is (−1 < x < 1).
P
(d) 21 n≥0 n(n − 1)(−x)n The interval of convergence is (−1 < x < 1).
P
n n
(e) n≥1 xn − n≥1 (−x) n The interval of convergence is (−1 < x < 1).
P P
t8n+1
(f) ∞ n=0 8n+1 The interval of convergence is (−1 < t < 1).
P
π
2. (Hint: Note that tan 6) = √1 .)
3
1. See textbook.
(−1)n−1 x2n−2
2. ∞ The interval of convergence is [−1 < x < 1].
P
n=1 2n+1
3. bi−1 2i−1
p(n) (d)
4. a.p(t) = − d)n .
P
n! (t
n≥0
p00 (2) p000 (2)
b.p3 (t) = p(2) + p0 (2)(t − 2) + 2 (t − 2)2 + 6 (t − 2)3
c. 4
P p(n) (0) n
d. p(t) = n! t
n≥0
1
5. 3 (x − 1)3
6. − 18 (x − 2)2
P (−1)n 32n θ2n−1

7. (2n)!
n≥0
x2 x3 13x4
8. 1 + x + 2 + 2 + 24
1. See textbook
∞
P α i
2. a. i x
i=0
b. |x| < 1
n
P n i
c. i x
i=0
√
3. a. 3 2(1 + 2t)−5/2
√ P∞
b. 3 2 2i −5/2i t
i
i=0
c. t ∈ R

5.1: Order 2
5.2: Order 1
5.3: Order 3
5.4: Order 2
6 (b) y = −e3x − 3e−3x

2
1. y = Ae x
2. y2 = ln |x| − x2 + B
2 2
√ √ √
3. general solution is 21 ln |1 + 3y| − ln |1 − 3y| = arctan( 3x) + C and particular solution is
√ √ √ √
2 ln |1 + 3y| − ln |1 − 3y| = arctan( 3x) + ln 2 − 2 arctan 3
1
2
4. (ln y)2 − e−x = D
5. y2 = x2 − x + 3 ln |x + 1| + 12
2 2

1. degree 1, y = A/x (if your answer looks different, try to rearrange it using exponential functions).
2. degree 2, yx + ln |y| = C
y
3. degree 1, ln |x| + e x = C
4. degree 2, Ay = x2 + y2

1. See textbook.
2. y = Cx + 2x
3
ln |x2 + 2x + 2| − 3x arctan(x + 1)
3. y = Ce−7x + 7x − 498
4. p(t) = Ct + t tan(t)
x2
5. y = Ce 2 −x − 1

1. C = 21 x2 y2 .
2. C = 3xy + x2 + x + 2y2 − y.
2y 2y
3. C = xy3 + x2 + y e2 − e4 .
4. C = y sin x + x2 ey + y2 − x cos x + sin x.
5. K = y(1 − 3x)
6. see previous answers
7. y = 2e x−1 − x − 1
8. y = 3(3x+2)
−1
+E
x2
9. C = 3xy + 2 − y2

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Contents

2020 Second Semester General Information iv

8 Integration Theory and Applications 3

8.4 Volumes by Slicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

9 Advanced Integration Techniques 39

11 Infinite Sequences and Series 62

13 Appendix: Tutorial Answers 94

take responsibility for your own learning.

Also, remember that

in order to learn you need to make mistakes,

Class D1: Lectures on Diagonal D, students with an odd student number.

I.1.1 Course co-ordinators

I.1.2 Second Semester Course Lecturers

I.3 Calculus Textbooks

Title: Calculus, Any Edition

I.4 Tests and Examinations

I.4.1 Test times and venues

I.4.2 Calculator Policy

I.4.3 Past Papers

I.4.4 Absence from Tests and Exams

I.4.5 Final Marks

I.4.6 Online assignments and tutorial tests

I.6 Mathematics Academic Centre (the MAC)

any questions you may have about the MAC.

For further queries, please contact:

Contact Details: Heads of the MAC (Office MSB306)

Nolwazi Dube: nolwazi.dube@wits.ac.za

I.7 School of Mathematics Administration Staff

Internet access from a Wits computer

To access MyMathLab you need to do the following:

3. Click ‘LOG IN’.

4. Enter your unique username and password

I.9 Using MyMathLab

Please contact Pearson 24/7 if you experience any problems such as

I.10.1 Pop-up Blockers

I.10.2 Personal Computers

Enabling JavaScript and cookies

5. Note: If you do not see a slider on the ‘Privacy’ tab:

b. Select ‘Override automatic cookie handling’.

c. Select ‘Accept’ under ‘First party cookies’ and ‘Third-party cookies’.

d. Select ‘Always allow session cookies’.

I.11 Calculus Curriculum

Outcome: Assessment Criteria:

YOU ARE EXPECTED TO BE ATTENTIVE AND ARE ENCOURAGED TO PARTICIPATE CON-

ALWAYS BE DISCIPLINED IN YOUR BEHAVIOUR IN LECTURES AND SHOW CONSID-

Semester 1 Syllabus – Block 1:

Semester 1 Syllabus – Block 2:

Semester 2 Syllabus – Block 3:

Semester 2 Syllabus – Block 4:

Title: Thomas’ Calculus, Early Transcendentals in SI Units

Title: Calculus, International Metric Version

on pages 438 and 439 of Thomas,

THIS SECTION IS EXAMINABLE!

Integration Theory and Applications

8.1 Riemann Sums and Area Approximation

1. understand the concept of Riemann Sums and its application to areas,

The sum of n terms a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an is written as

and the following formula (proved by Mathematical Induction)

Definition of a Riemann Sum