Topic: Simple Proposition

Propositional logic - (or categorial proposition) a branch of mathematical logic that studies the
truth and falsity of propositions.

Simple Proposition - a declarative sentence subject to affirmation or denial which does not
contain a connective. It is a statement with a truth value.

Properties of Simple Propositions

● Qualitative Property - talks about the affirmative or negative propositions.

Affirmative Proposition Negative Proposition

Whales are mammals. Tomato is not a fruit.

● Quantitative Property - talks about the universal or particular propositions.

Type Description Examples

Universal Subjet term is taken in full All quadrilaterals are

extension. polygons.
No parallel lines meet at a
point.
Every integer is a real
number.

Particular Subject term is taken only in Some algebraic expressions

particular extension. are polynomials.
Not all algebraic expressions
are polynomials.

Singular Subject term denotes a single A prime number has only two
person or thing. factors.

Square of Opposition: Qualitative and Quantitative

Universal Particular

Affirmative A I
All x are y. Some x are y.

Negative E O
All x are not y. Some x are not y.

Example:

Given the simple proposition below, identify A, E, I, and O propositions.

“All squares are similar”

A - All squares are similar.

E - All squares are not similar.
I - Some squares are similar.
O - Some squares are not similar.
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Topic: Compound Proposition

Compound Proposition - (or hypothetical proposition) is a proposition formed by combining

two or more simple propositions using propositional connectives.

Connective Symbol Read As… Resulting Prop In Symbols…

˄ and Conjunction p^q

(p and q)

˅ or Disconjunction p˅q
(p or q)

→ implies Implication p→q

(p implies that q;
If p, then q)

⟷ Is equivalent to Equivalence p⟷q

If and only if (p is equivalent to q;
p iff q)

~ not Negation ~p
(not p)
● Types of Implications
○ Inverse - assumes the opposite of each of the original statements and is denoted
~ p → ~ q.
○ Converse - denoted as q → p.
○ Contrapositive - a combination of the previous two in the form ~ q → ~ p.

Example: Symbolic Form to English Sentence

Write each symbolism in a sentence:

p: It is very cold.
q: It is raining.

p˄q It is very cold and it is raining.

p˅q It is very cold or it is raining.

p→q It is very cold implies that it is raining

If it is very cold, then it is raining.

~q→~p It is not raining implies that it is not very cold.

If it is not raining, then it is not very cold.

q→p It is raining implies that it is very cold.

If it is raining, then it is very cold.

~p⟷q It is not very cold is equivalent to it is raining.

It is not very cold iff it is raining.

~q˅~p It is not raining or it is not very cold.

Example: English Sentence to Symbolic Form

“A triangle is right if and only if it has a 90-degree angle”

Let p be the sentence “A triangle is right”.

Let q be the sentence “A triangle has a 90-degree angle”.

Answer = p ⟷ q

Additional Example:

a. Arnold is a working student (p) or under 25 years old (q), and lives in Manila (r).
b. Arnold is a working student (p), or under 25 years old (q) and lives in Manila (r).

The use of commas indicates which simple statements are grouped together.
a. (p v q) ^ r
b. p v (q ^ r)
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Topic: Operations on Propositions (Truth Values of Propositions)

● Truth Table - a scheme that will determine whether the resulting proposition is true or
false.
○ Conjunction - a result of combining two other propositions called conjuncts with
the connective word “and” ( ˄ ).
p q p˄q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

○ Disjunction - a result of combining two other propositions called disjuncts with

the connective word “or” ( ˅ ).
p q pvq

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

○ Implication - a result of combining a hypothesis (antecedent) to a conclusion

(consequent) in the form of "if…, then…” ( → )
p q p→q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T
 ○ Equivalence - a result of combining two other propositions in the form “... if and
only if…” ( ⟷ )

p q p⟷q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T

○ Negation - the result of reversing the truth value of a given proposition ( ~ )

p ~p

T F

F T

Example:

● “Four is an odd number and a composite number.”

p: Four is an odd number → False, because four is an even number.

q: Four is a composite number → True

p q p^q

F T F

Answer: p ^ q | FALSE

● “If cats are bigger than mice, then horses are bigger than dogs.”

p: Cats are bigger than mice → True

q: Horses are bigger than dogs → True

p q p→q

T T T

Answer: p → q | TRUE

Note: Always look on the truth tables above.

Tautology - a proposition which is always true.
p v ~q | TRUE

Contradiction - a proposition which is always false.

p v ~q | FALSE

Contingency - a proposition which is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

p and ~p

Examples:
1. ~ (p ^ q) = Contingency

p q p^q ~ (p ^ q)

T T T F

T F F T

F T F T

F F F T

2. ( ~p → q) v (~p ^ ~q) = Tautology

p q ~p ~q ( ~p → q) ( ~p ^ ~q) Given

T T F F T F T

T F F T T F T

F T T F T F T

F F T T F T T

3. ( p ^ q ) ^ ~p = Contradiction

p q p^q ~p Given

T T T F F

T F F F F

F T F T F

F F F T F

Note: Huwag po kayo papalito sa mga truth tables po pag ganito po.
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Made by: John Paul Salvador

From St. Jude Thaddaeau