LECTURE 2:

INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING (cont.)
CHCALC24E
W F– 1730 - 2030

ENGR. STEPHANIE B. MORAL, ChE

PROCESS AND PROCESS VARIABLES
Kinds of Process Variables
1. Mass
2. Volume
3. Mole
4. Density
5. Atomic Weight, Molecular Weight, and Average Molecular Weight
6. Flowrates of Process Materials
7. Composition of Mixtures
8. Temperatures
9. Pressure
PROCESS AND PROCESS VARIABLES
%Composition may be expressed as
a. % Composition with respect to all components
b. % Composition based on a “particular component-free basis”

Example: Flue Gas contains

CH4 – 90%
C2H6 – 5% % composition by mole with
N2 – 5% respect to all components
Express the composition on “N2 free basis”

90 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
% 𝐶𝐻4 = 100 = 94.74%
100 − 5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑁2 − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
%𝐶2 𝐻6 = 100 = 5.26%
100 − 5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑁2 − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
PROCESS AND PROCESS VARIABLES
PRESSURE – force exerted normal or perpendicular to a given area
𝑭 𝑽
𝑷= 𝒃𝒖𝒕: 𝑽 = 𝑨𝒉 ; 𝑨 =
𝑨 𝒉
𝑭𝒉 Area
𝑷=
𝑽
Note: Pressures exerted by Process Material is due to its Mass/Weight

3 Kinds of Pressure Units

1. Force per Area Unit
𝑁
Ex: 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑚
𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑖𝑛2

2. Pressure “head” Unit or “Head of a fluid” – refers to the equivalent height of a column of fluid that
exerts the given pressure @ its base. Ex. mmHg, inches H2O, ft CCl4
3. Special Pressure Unit
atm unit – pressure exerted by the air mass on Earth’s surface @ sea level (1 atm)
torr unit – equivalent to the pressure exerted by 1 mmHg (1 torr=1mmHg)
PRESSURE
CONVERSIONS BETWEEN PRESSURE UNITS

a. Using Standard Equivalent Quantities / Conversion Factors

1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 14.7 psi = 101325 Pa

b. Conversion between pressure heads of different fluid

Conversion Formula: 𝝆𝑨 𝒉𝑨 = 𝝆𝑩 𝒉𝑩
Where: ℎ𝐴 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐴
ℎ𝐵 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐵

Example: Convert 760 mmHg to : (𝜌𝐻𝑔 = 13.546)

a. inches H2O (SG = 1.ooo)
b. ft CCl4 (SG = 1.595)
PRESSURE
Example: Convert 760 mmHg to : (𝜌𝐻𝑔 = 13.546)
a. inches H2O (SG = 1.ooo)
b. ft CCl4 (SG = 1.595)

SOL’N
a. (𝜌ℎ)𝐻2𝑂 = (𝜌ℎ)𝐻𝑔
𝜌ℎ 𝐻𝑔
ℎ𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝐻2 𝑂 =
𝜌𝐻2𝑂
𝑔
13.546 (760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔) 1 𝑐𝑚 1 𝑖𝑛
= 𝑚𝑙
𝑔 10 𝑚𝑚 2.54 𝑐𝑚
1
𝑚𝑙
= 𝟒𝟎𝟓. 𝟑𝟏 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒔 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
PRESSURE
SOL’N
b. (𝜌ℎ)𝐶𝐶𝑙4 = (𝜌ℎ)𝐻𝑔
𝜌ℎ 𝐻𝑔
ℎ𝐶𝐶𝑙4 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐶𝑙4 =
𝜌𝐶𝐶𝑙4

𝑔
13.546 (760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔) 1 𝑐𝑚 1 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑓𝑡
= 𝑚𝑙 ቤ
𝑔 10 𝑚𝑚 2.54 𝑐𝑚 12 𝑖𝑛
1.595
𝑚𝑙

= 𝟐𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 𝒇𝒕 𝑪𝑪𝒍𝟒
ILLUSTRATION:

405.31 in H2O

21.18 ft CCL4
mmHg
760
PRESSURE
C. Conversion between “force/area” and “Pressure Head Unit”
Conversion Formula:
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔 ℎ
𝑔𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑃 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑛
𝑎𝑟𝑒
ℎ = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑠 pressure head of fluid
𝑔 9.8 𝑁 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑏𝑓
= = 980 =1
𝑔𝑐 𝑘𝑔 𝑔 𝑙𝑏𝑚

Example: Calculate the pressure in Pascal exerted by 760 mmHg

Given: P = pressure unit in pascal or N/m2
h = pressure unit in mmHg
Req’d: P in pascal when h=760 mmHg
PRESSURE
Example: Calculate the pressure in Pascal exerted by 760 mmHg

Given: P = pressure unit in pascal or N/m2

h = pressure unit in mmHg
Req’d: P in pascal when h=760 mmHg

Sol’n:
𝑃 = 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑔
𝑔𝑐 ℎ𝐻𝑔

𝑘𝑔 9.8 𝑁
𝑃 = 13.456 1000 ȁ0.76 𝑚𝐻𝑔
𝑚3 𝑘𝑔

𝑵
𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝒂
𝒎𝟐
PRESSURE
Two Kinds of Pressure Measurement
1. ABSOLUTE PRESSURE MEASUREMENT (Pabs) – refer to the total pressure exerted
> Pressure of zero corresponds to PERFECT VACUUM

2.GAUGE PRESSURE MEASUREMENT (Pgage) – refers to the pressure relative to or as compared to the
atmospheric pressure
➢ Maybe positive gage – higher than the atmospheric pressure
➢ Maybe negative gage – lower than the atmospheric pressure
➢ Gauge pressure of Zero indicates that the ABSOLUTE PRESSURE is equal to ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE

𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 + 𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒖𝒈𝒆

Example:
1. 𝑃𝑁𝐻4 , 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = 40 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 + 40 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 800 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
PRESSURE
Example:
2. 𝑃𝐶𝑂2 , 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = −10 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 − 10 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 750 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔

2. NH3 (g) exerts a gauge pressure of 40 mmHg @ 500 K, what will be the total pressure exerted by
NH3 @ 1000 K
Given: P1 gauge = 40 mmHg ; P1 abs = 760 mmHg + 40 mmHg = 800 mmHg
T1 = 500 K
T2 = 1000 K
Req’d: P2
Sol’n:
𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
800 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑃2
=
500 𝐾 1000𝐾
𝑷𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈
PRESSURE
KINDS OF PRESSURES INVOLVING FLUIDS
1. FLUID PRESSURE – pressure due only to a height of a column of fluid of a fluid
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔 ℎ
𝑔𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

2. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE – total pressure experienced at a specified

elevation due to all the pressures exerted above it
Patm
Reference
Point
405.31 in H2O

Fluid B Fluid A
PB
21.18 ft
CCL4

2
mmHg
760

PA

1
FLUID PRESSURE HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
PRESSURE
2. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE – total pressure experienced at a specified elevation due to all the
pressures exerted above it

Where:
𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 @ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝐵 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 @𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 @𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
Patm
Reference
Point
3

Fluid B Fluid A
PB

2
PA

1
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
PRESSURE
ILLUSTRATION:

Gas in a sealed container

a. If initially, container is in a perfect vacuum when gas is filled:

𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠

b. If container is sealed with air trapped inside when gas is filled:

DRY
AIR 𝑃ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 𝑃𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
GAS
 CHAPTER 4: FUNDAMENTALS OF
MATERIAL BALANCES
Materials or Mass Balance – refer to the accounting or inventory of the materials
that “go in” or “go out” of a process unit
- Involved the application of the “LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MATTER (MASS)”
which states that “In all ordinary changes / process matter (mass) is not created
nor destroyed”
- Which means matter (mass) is conserved or remain the same of before and after
the changes/process has taken place

Chemical Process/Processing – any physical (unit operation) or chemical (unit

process) changes done to matter or process material

Process Unit – any equipment used in Chemical Processing

Process Material – refers to the materials used as feed (influent) or products/by-

products (effluent) of a process
 CHAPTER 4: FUNDAMENTALS OF
MATERIAL BALANCES
IMPORTANCE OF MATERIAL BALANCE
Amount of Materials Involved in the process:
1. Are needed in equipment design for “sizing” of equipment
2. Are required in the determination of the of the energy-requirement for processing
3. Is used to determine “ECONOMIC VIABILITY” of the process

KINDS OF CHEMICAL PROCESSING

i. According to the Type of Change Involved
1. Non-reactive Processes – involved only physical changes / unit operations
- Usually include mixing, size reduction, separation/purification process
2. Reactive Processes – involved chemical changes or chemical reactions
- combustion, fermentation, neutralization, mostly organic reaction
KINDS OF CHEMICAL PROCESSING
ii. According to the Properties / Composition of Process Streams / Materials
1. Steady-state Process – the process streams / material maintain a constant
properties/composition during processing (predictable)
2. Unsteady-state process – when properties / composition of the process materials
vary as the processing goes on (unpredictable/ keyword: Accumulation)

iii- According to the Amount of Materials Involved

1. Batch Process – influent and effluent materials are used at one time per process;
- amounts of streams are given as actual mass/mole/volume
2. Semi-batch Process – one stream is used continuously while the other stream is
used at one time
3. Continuous Process – all streams are used continuously in the process
- amount of streams are given as flowrates
- recommended in plant
- high yield
GENERAL BALANCE EQUATION

CONTINUOUS STEADY-STATE BALANCE EQUATION

FLOWCHART
- Refers to a diagram showing the streams involved in the process or process unit

Examples:
1. Drying Process – flowchart showing changes
a. With respect to the wet materials
b. With respect to air
c. With respect to both wet and material & air (drying agent)
2. Distillation Process
3. Crystallization Process
4. Solvent Extraction
5. Combustion
Basis of Computations for Solving Material Balance
- represent the “initial amount” of a particular stream to be used in
solving the amounts of the other streams

Case 1: Actual Amount or Flow rate of one stream is given in the problem
1. Batch Process – actual amount of stream that is given
2. Continuous Process – time duration with respect to the given flowrate of a stream

Case 2: No Actual Amount or Flowrate of a stream is Given

- Be the one to assign your own basis of computation
- Applicable when required value remains constant regardless of the amount of streams
involved
- Ex: a. % Composition of Stream; b. Fractional Values; c. %yield on % Recovery
- Assign in the complete info of any streams
Degree-of-Freedom Analysis
- a way of checking if the no. of unknowns variables is equal to the no. of available
independent equations
𝑛𝐷𝐹 = 𝑛𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠 − 𝑛𝑒𝑞𝑛𝑠
Conditions:
If nDF > 0 ; problem is “ambiguous” ; cannot be solved
If nDF = 0 ; problem can be solved
If nDF < 0 ; problem can be solved but extra equations are available but not needed in solvings

Possible Sources of Equations

1. Materials Balances Equations
2. Equations based on Process Specifications
3. Equations involving physical properties
 MATERIAL BALANCES FOR NON-REACTIVE, SINGLE –
EQUIPMENT PROCESSES

For Steady-State, Non-Reactive System

General Material Balance Equation

INPUT = OUTPUT

- Can be applied as
1. Overall Material Balance Eqn (OMB-Eqn) – counting total amount of streams entering and
leaving the process

2. Component Balance Eqn (CB Eqn) – counting the amount of the specific component present i
the entering and leaving streams
SAMPLE PROBLEM FOR PRESSURE

1. The viewing window in a diving suit has an area of roughly 65 cm2. if an attempt were
made to maintain the pressure on the inside of the suit at 1 atm, what force (N and lbf)
would the window have to withstand if the diver descended to a depth of 150 m. Take
the specific gravity to be 1.05

2. The great Boston molasses flood occurred on January 15, 1919. In it, 2.3 million gallons
of crude molasses flowed from a 30-ft high storage tank that ruptured, killing 21
people and injuring 150. The estimated specific gravity of crude molasses is 1.4. What
were the mass of molasses in the tank in lbm and the pressure at the bottom of the
tank in lbf/in2?
SAMPLE PROBLEM FOR MATERIAL BALANCE
1. Each year 50,000 people move into a city, 75,000 people move out, 22,000 are born, and
19,000 die. Write a balance on the population of the city (ans: A = decreases 22,000 people)
2. One thousand kilograms per hour of a mixture of benzene (B) and toluene (T) containing
50% benzene by mass is separated by distillation into two fractions. The mass flow rate
of benzene in the top stream is 450 kg B/h and that of toluene in the bottom stream is
475 kg T/h. The operation is at steady state. Write balances on benzene and toluene to
calculate the unknown component flow rates in the output streams.

3. Two methanol–water mixtures are contained in separate flasks. The first mixture contains
40.0 wt% methanol, and the second contains 70.0 wt% methanol. If 200 g of the first
mixture is combined with 150 g of the second, what are the mass and composition of the
product?
SAMPLE PROBLEM FOR MATERIAL BALANCE
4. An experiment on the growth rate of certain organisms (e.g., yeasts, bacteria, or viruses)
requires an environment of humid air enriched in oxygen. Three input streams are fed into an
evaporation chamber to produce an output stream with the desired composition.
A: Liquid water, fed at a rate of 20:0 cm3 /min
B: Air (21 mole% O2, the balance N2)
C: Pure oxygen, with a molar flow rate one-fifth of the molar flow rate of stream B
The output gas is analyzed and is found to contain 1.5 mole% water. Draw and label a flowchart of
the process, and calculate all unknown stream variables.
 THANK YOU!
CHCALC24E
W F– 1730 - 2030

ENGR. STEPHANIE B. MORAL, ChE