1

GLOSSARY OF GEOGRAPHICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL

TERMS FOR UNISA GEOGRAPHY STUDENTS
IGLOSARI YAMATEMU EJOGRAFI NEZEMVELO
EYENZELWE ABAFUNDI BASE-UNISA ABENZA ISIFUNDO
SEJOGRAFI

Author: Sux Zietsman PhD (Pr Sci Nat)

Umbhali: Sux Zietsman PhD (Pr Sci Nat)

Translation: Unisa Language Services

Ukuhumusha: Umnyango Wezemisebenzi Yolimi e-Unisa

All opinions expressed in this glossary are those of the author

and do not necessarily reflect those of the Department of
Geography at Unisa. The author takes full responsibility for all
scientific errors that might appear in the English text, but not in
the text as translated to isiZulu.
Yonke imibono ezwakaliswe kule glosari ngeyombhali weglosari futhi
ukuvezwa kwayo lapha akusho neze ukuthi leyo mibono ihambisana
neyoMnyango Wezejografi wase-Unisa. Umbhali uyowamukela
njengomthwalo wakhe ngokuphelele wonke amaphutha ezesayense
okungenzeka abe khona embhalweni wesiNgisi, kodwa hayi
njengasembhalweni njengoba kuhunyushelwe olimini lwesiZulu.

Although great care was taken to provide a contextually relevant

translation, this is a work in progress. As improved translations
of terminology and explanations are proposed in future, updates
to the glossary will be made as necessary.
Yize kwenziwe izjnto ngokucophelela okukhulu ukuze kukhiqizwe
umsebenzi ofanele ohunyushwe ngokwesimo, lokhu kuchaza
umsebenzi oqhubekayo. Njengoba imisebenzi ehunyushiwe
ethuthukisiwe yetheminoloji kanye nezincazelo kuzophakanyiswa
esikhathini esizayo, kanti kunjalo-nje kunesidingo sokuthi kwenziwe
izinguquko kuglosari.

March 2021/Mashi 2021

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Introduction
This glossary contains a selection of geographical and environmental terms used in
your study material. It is organised alphabetically. Each term is briefly defined,
described and/or explained. Numerous well-known examples are given to enhance
the definitions, descriptions and explanations. With the aid of these examples the
terms could be converted from abstract concepts to the realities of the world you live
in. A deliberate attempt was made to cite many examples because this increases the
chance that an example with which you are familiar might be mentioned. Preference
was given to examples from South Africa and Southern Africa, because most of
Unisa’a students live in these regions. Where applicable, references to other terms in
the glossary have been provided. No references to other literature are cited in the
text although a multitude of seminal and authoritative works have been consulted to
define or describe each term; however, no definition or description has in its entirety
been lifted from one or more sources. References to the literature have deliberately
been omitted in order to avoid cluttering and to make the text more readable. The
isiZulu terminology is given in a different type face directly underneath the English
description or definition.

Isingeniso
Le glosari iqukethe amatemu akhethiweyo ejografi kanye nezemvelo,
asetshenziswe kwizinsizakufunda zakho. Amatemu ahleleke
ngokulandelana kwawo ngokwe-alfabhethi. Itemu ngalinye lihambisana
nencazelo yalo emfushane. Kuhlinzekwe futhi nezibonelo eziningana
ezaziwayo, ngenhloso yokwenza kube lula ukuqonda incazelo
enikeziwe. Ngokulekelelwa yilezi zibonelo ezihlinzekiwe, itemu ngalinye
liyaguquka libe yinto yangempela futhi eyiqiniso, eyingxenye yomhlaba
ophila kuwona, esikhundleni sokugcina nje ngokuba yinto ebonakala
ngamehlo engqondo kuphela. Kulo mbhalo kuhlinzekwe ngabomu
izibonelo eziningi ngoba phela lokho kukhulisa amathuba okuthi
uhlangabezane nesibonelo osaziyo kulezo ezihlinzekiwe. Kuqokwe
ikakhulukazi izibonelo ezithathwe eNingizimu Afrika noma esifundeni se-
Southern Africa, ngoba phela iningi labafundi base-Unisa lihlala kulezi
zifunda. Lapho kufanelekile, kuhlinzekwe nezinkomba (references)
eziphathelene namanye amatemu akhona kule glosari. Azikho
izinkomba zezinye izincwadi ezihlinzekiwe emibhalweni yale glosari
nakuba kunezinye izincwadi eziningi ezibalulekile futhi ezinohlonze
ezisetshenzisiwe ngenkathi kuhlanganiswa incazelo yetemu ngalinye;
kodwa-ke nakuba kunjalo, ayikho incazelo ekule glosari ethathwe
njengoba injalo komunye umbhalo noma imibhalo engumthombo
wolwazi. Izinkomba zezincwadi ezisetshenzisiwe zishiywe ngaphandle
ngabomu ngenhloso yokuvimbela imfuhlumfuhlu yemininingwane
eminingi ngokweqile futhi lokho kwenzelwe nokuthi lo mbhalo ufundeke
kalula. Amatemu isiZulu ahlinzekwe ngaphansi kwezincazelo zesiNgisi
futhi wona abhalwe ngendlela ehlukile kunalawo esiNgisi.
________________________________________________
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A
Absolute location: See “location”.

I-absolute location: Bheka i-“location”.

Accessibility: The ease with which anything or place can be reached, found or
entered. A number of factors could make a certain place more accessible or less
accessible. These include distance, altitude (height above sea-level), political
reasons, security arrangements, cultural taboos, and many more. New York City is
more accessible than the moon because a trip by boat, motorcar, train, bus or
aeroplane to New York is more readily avaibale and costs far less than a space flight
to the moon. The top of Table Mountain in Cape Town is more accessible than the
peak of Mount Everest because the atmosphere on Everest contains too little oxygen
to sustain human life. Any relatively young and reasonably fit person can walk to the
top of Table Mountain – albeit a stiff walk! – but to climb to the summit of Everest,
one needs “bottled” oxygen from oxygen canisters that have to be carried up the
mountain (see “adventure tourism” and “responsible tourism”). People using
wheelchairs might find it impossible to enter certain buildings, which makes those
buildings inaccessible for them. For political reasons, there is no easy movement of
people between South and North Korea, although they are situated right next to one
another. Consequently, North Korea is highly inaccessible for South Koreans. For
security reasons it is very difficult or even impossible to enter the Union Buildings in
Pretoria (the seat of government), but Unisa’s buildings on the Pretoria campus may
be entered by any member of the general public. Accessibility of information is
another good example. It is easy to find information about the soccer matches
played in South Africa in any particular week, but information about the nuclear
capability of the USA is highly inaccessible (difficult or impossible to come by).

Ukufinyeleleka: Ukufinyelela kalula, ukuthola kalula noma ukungena

kalula entweni ethile noma indawo. Kunezinto eziningana ezingenza
ukuthi kube lula noma kungabi lula ukufinyelela endaweni ethile. Lokhu
kubandakanya ibanga, i-altitude (ubude bokuphakama ngaphezu
kwezinga lolwandle), izizathu zepolitiki, izinyathelo zokuvikeleka, izenzo
ezibonakala njengehlazo nechilo ezingavumelekile ngokwesiko, kanye
nokunye okuningi. Isibonelo, idolobha lase-New York lifinyeleleka kalula
uma liqhathaniswa nenyanga (moon) ngoba zitholakala kalula izithuthi
zokufinyelela e-New York, njengesikebhe, imoto, isitimela, ibhasi noma
ibhanoyi futhi lokhu kubiza imali ephansi kakhulu uma kuqhathaniswa
nemali yokugibela isiphuphutheki esiya phezulu enyangeni.
Kufinyeleleka kalula esiqongweni se-Table Mountain eKapa uma
kuqhathaniswa nokufinyelela esiqongweni se-Mount Everest ngoba
kune-oksijini encane kakhulu emkhathini phezu kwentaba i-Everest,
okwenza kube nzima ukuthi umuntu aphile lapho. Noma yimuphi umuntu
osemusha, ozivocavocayo futhi osengumqemane uyakwazi
ukukhuphuka ehamba ngezinyawo aze ayofinyelela esiqongweni se-
Table Mountain – nakuba lowo kungumqansa impela futhi
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kukhuphukeka kanzima! – kepha uma umuntu efuna ukukhuphuka aze

ayofinyelela esiqongweni sentaba i-Everest, udinga i-oksijini egcinwe
eziqukathini ze-oksijini (oxygen canisters) okumele azithwale ngenkathi
ekhuphuka eya esiqongweni sentaba (bhekha i-“adventure tourism”
kanye ne-“responsible tourism”). Abantu abasebenzisa izihlalo
zabakhubazekile ezinamasondo kungenzeka bangakwazi ukungena
emabhilidini athile, okwenza lawo mabhilidi angafinyeleleki kubona.
Ngenxa yezizathu zepolitiki, abantu base-South Korea kanye nabase-
North Korea bakuthola kunzima ukungena nokuphuma phakathi
kwalawa mazwe amabili, nakuba lawa mazwe esondelene kakhulu futhi
engomakhelwane. Ngenxa yalokho-ke, kunzima kakhulu kubantu base-
South Korea ukufinyelela e-North Korea. Ngenxa yezizathu
eziphathelene nokuvikeleka, kunzima kakhulu noma kuyinto
engenakwenzeka ukuthi umuntu akwazi ukungena eziNdlini Zombuso
(Union Buildings) ePitoli (isakhiwo esiyikomkhulu likahulumeni), kodwa-
ke noma yiliphi ilungu lomphakathi lingazingenela kalula nje ezakhiweni
ze-Unisa ekhempasini yasePitoli. Ukufinyelela olwazini ngesinye
isibonelo esihle salokhu. Kulula kakhulu ukuthola ulwazi oluphathelene
nemidlalo yebhola edlalwe eNingizimu Afrika, kepha kunzima kakhulu
noma kuyinto engenakwenzeka nakancane ukuthi umuntu athole ulwazi
oluphathelene nobukhulu bamandla obuxhakaxhaka benuzi (nuclear
capability) bezwe laseMelika (USA).
Accountability: To be answerable to an authoritative body or person for one’s
actions or decisions. In a democratic state the voters elect a political party or a
person to govern the country. The elected leader or leaders are then entrusted with
the responsibility to govern the state and they are accountable to the voters (the
electorate). Should the state be governed poorly, the leader or leaders have to
answer to the electorate. If the electorate is not satisfied with the performance of the
leader or leaders, they could vote for another party or person at the next election. In
an environmental context, every living person has the responsibility to care for the
natural and human-made environment and not exploit it for personal gain. We are
accountable to all future generations for our actions and the way we execute our
environmental responsibility. The environmental interest of the future generations is
protected by laws and procedures executed by the government. It actually boils
down to the government’s will and ability to enfoce the laws. In South Africa, the
protection of the environment is enshrined in the Constitution of the Republic of
South Africa Act number 108 of 1996, the Environmental Conservation Act number
73 of 1989, the National Environmental Management Act number 107 of 1998
(popularly known as NEMA), the National Environmental Management Amendment
Act number 8 of 2004, and a myriad of related Acts dealing with different aspects of
the environment.

Ukuphendula: Ukuphendula mayelana nezenzo noma izinqumo zakho

enhlanganweni noma kumuntu othile onegunya. Ezweni elibuswa
ngokwentando yabantu abavoti bakhetha iqembu lezepolitiki noma
umuntu ozophatha izwe. Umholi noma abaholi abakhethiwe banikezwa
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igunya nomsebenzi wokuphatha izwe futhi kumele baphendule kubavoti

ngezinqumo nezenzo zabo. Uma kukhona okungahambi kahle
ekuphathweni kwezwe, umholi noma abaholi kumele baphendule
kubavoti ngalokho. Uma abavoti bengagculisekile ngendlela enza ngayo
umsebenzi anikezwe wona umholi noma abaholi, banelungelo
lokuvotela elinye iqembu noma omunye umuntu okhethweni
olulandelayo. Esimweni semvelo, wonke omuntu ophilayo unesibopho
sokunakekela izinto aphila phakathi kwazo kanye nendawo aphila
kuyona, okuyizinto ezakheke ngokwemvelo noma ezakhiwe ngumuntu,
futhi akufanele neze asebenzise lezo zinto ngenhloso yokuzuza okuthile
okuqondene naye. Thina njengabantu sinesibopho sokuphendula
ezizukulwaneni zangomuso ngezenzo zethu kanye nendlela esenza
ngayo umsebenzi wethu futhi esifezekisa ngayo isibopho sethu
maqondana nokunakekelwa kwemvelo. Izidingo zemvelo zezizikulwane
zangomuso zivikelwe yimithetho nezinqubo zikahulumeni. Kahle-kahle
lokhu kuncike kakhulu emandleni kahulumeni nokuzimisela kwakhe
ukuqinisekisa ukuthotshelwa nokuhlonishwa kwemithetho ebekiwe.
ENingizimu Afrika, ukuvikelwa kwemvelo kuyinto evikelwe
nguMthethosisekelo WeRiphabhulikhi yaseNingizimu Afrika, uMthetho
ongunombolo 73 we-1989, uMthetho Kazwelonke Wokuphathwa
Kwemvelo ongunombolo 107 we-1998 (odume kakhulu ngele-NEMA),
iSichibiyelo Somthetho Kazwelonke Wokuphathwa Kwemvelo
ongunombolo 8 wezi-2004, kanye neminye iMithetho eminingi eqondene
nezinto ezihlukahlukene eziphathelene nemvelo.
Accreditation: Some form of official recognition that testifies to the fact that a
tourist destination, a place, area or terrain meets certain requirements or a certain
set of criteria. International bodies like the United Nations Agency for Education,
Science and Culture (UNESCO) or international conventions such as the Ramsar
Convention (see “conventions”) may grant a site (be it a place, a terrain or an area)
formal status when it meets certain standards. An international accreditation vastly
increases the tourism potential of the site and the surrounding area. The importance
of the archaeological remains in a cave system such as in the Cradle of Humankind
world heritage site, including Zwartkrans, Sterkfontein and Kromdraai caves, meet all
the UNESCO criteria for declaring the area a terrain of international importance. This
area was duly granted world heritage status. South Africa boasts other world
heritage sites, such as the Vredefort Dome (an impact dome caused by a meteorite
colliding with the Earth millions of years ago) and the Mapungubwe Hill ancient
archaeological site in the northern part of Limpopo. An accreditation such as this
implies certain managerial imperatives. Should managerial practices drop to a
standard which is beneath the required level, the accreditation might be withdrawn.
Recent mining activities adjacent to Mapungubwe world heritage site threatened the
site’s integrity and its international accreditation status. The South African
government had to step in to regulate the mining activities in order to salvage the
international accreditation of Mapungubwe. There are several accreditations from a
variety of recognised bodies, but the UNESCO and Ramsar accreditations (see
“wetlands”) are probably the most well-known. A lesser known international
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accreditation is the Blue Flag accreditation granted to beaches with the necessary
qualities, facilities, safety services and well-appointed recreation areas. Many South
African beaches have already been awarded this status, for instance Marina Beach
in KwaZulu-Natal. An international accreditation from any prestigious body is
extremely important for any site of natural or cultural importance. Once acquired, all
managerial efforts should be directed at retaining international accreditation.

Ukugunyazwa: Ukugunyazwa ngokusemthethweni okuthile okufakazela

ukuthi indawo yezokuvakasha ethile iyahlangabezana nezidingo ezithile
noma imigomo namazinga athile abekiwe. Izinhlangano zomhlaba
ezinjenge-United Nations Agency for Education, Science and Culture
(UNESCO) noma izivumelwano zamazwe ngamazwe ezinjenge-Ramsar
Convention (bheka “izivumelwano”) zingasihlinzeka isizinda esithile
(okungenzeka kube yindawo ethile noma indawo yemvelo
engudedangendlale) ukugunyazwa nokwamukeleka okusemthethweni
uma sihlangabezana nemigomo namazinga athile. Ukugunyazwa
nokwamukeleka okusezingeni lomhlaba kuwakhuphula kakhulu
amathuba aleyo ndawo kanye nezinye izindawo ezakhelene nayo
okuheha abavakashi. Ukubaluleka kwemivukubulo noma izinsalela
zamathambo abantu noma ezilwane ezaziphila emandulo
(archaeological remains) atholakale emigedeni yakuleli enjenge-Cradle
of Humankind world heritage site, kubandakanya nemigede yase-
Zwartkrans, Sterkfontein kanye ne-Kromdraai, kuyahlangabezana nayo
yonke imigomo namazinga abekwe yi-UNESCO okumenyezelwa
ngokusemthethweni kwendawo ethile njengendawo enokubaluleka
okuthile emhlabeni. Lezi zindawo sezamukelwe futhi zagunyazwa
ngokusemthethweni njengezindawo ezingamagugu omhlaba. INingizimu
Afrika inazo ezinye izizinda ezingamagugu omhlaba, njenge-Vredefort
Dome (indawo eyisiyingi ewumphulela wesigameko sokungqubuzana
komhlaba (Earth) nedwalakazi elivela emkhathini (meteorite) eminyakeni
eyizigidi ngezigidi eyadlula, kanye ne-Mapungubwe Hill ancient
archaeological site esengxenyeni eseningizimu yesifundazwe
saseLimpopo. Ukugunyazwa ngokusemthethweni okunjengalokhu kusho
ukuthi kunezinto eziphathelene namazinga okuphatha aphoqelekile
okumele afezekiswe futhi agcinwe. Uma kwenzeka ehla amazinga
okuphatha nokulawula, aze afinyelele ngaphansi komkhawulo obekiwe
futhi odingekayo, kungenzeka kuhoxiswe ukugunyazwa
ngokusemthethweni kwesikhungo noma kwendawo ethile. Umsebenzi
wakamuva wokumbiwa kwezimbiwa eduze kweMapungubwe world
heritage site kwabeka lesi sikhungo engozini yokuhoxiswa
kokwamukelwa nokugunyazwa kwaso ngokusemthethweni
njengendawo yamagugu esezingeni lomhlaba. Kwadingeka ukuthi
uhulumeni waseNingizimu Afrika angenelele ukuze alawule umsebenzi
wokumbiwa kwezimbiwa kuleya ndawo ngenhloso yokuvikela
ukugunyazwa nokwamukelwa ngokusemthethweni kweMapungubwe
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njengendawo yamagugu esezingeni lomhlaba. Kunezinhlobo

zokugunyazwa ezihlukahlukene ezihlinzekwa yizinhlangano
ezihlukahlukene ezihlonishwayo futhi ezisemthethweni, kepha
ukugunyazwa okuhlinzekwa yi-UNESCO kanye ne-Ramsar (bheka ama-
“wetlands”) yikona okudume kakhulu emhlabeni. Uhlobo lokugunyazwa
olungadumile kakhulu yi-Blue Flag, okuwukugunyazwa okunikezwa
amabhishi anezindawo nezinsizakalo zokungcebeleka ezisezingeni
eliphezulu kakhulu, kubandakanya nezokuphepha. Maningi impela
amabhishi aseNingizimu Afrika asenikezwe lokhu kugunyazwa
nokuhlonishwa okusemthethweni, njenge-Marina Beach, KwaZulu-
Natali. Ukugunyazwa okusezingeni lomhlaba okuhlinzekwe ngenye
yezinhlangano ezihlonishwayo emhlabeni kusemqoka kakhulu kunoma
yisiphi isizinda semvelo noma samasiko esibalulekile. Uma isizinda
esithile sesikutholile ukugunyazwa okunjengalokho, kumele yonke
imizamo yokuphatha nokulawula iqondiswe ekuqinisekiseni ukuthi
kuyagcinwa lokho kugunyazwa kwesizinda okusezingeni lomhlaba.
Acculturation: The voluntary adoption of certain aspects or a certain element
of the culture of one group of people by people of a different culture. Sport has been
and still is a very strong force for acculturation. The adoption of soccer (football) as
the main sport of most African countries is an excellent example of acculturation.
Even African peoples who have retained many or most of their own African cultural
traits, have chosen soccer as their favourite sport. The world-wide adoption of the
martial arts from East Asia, the ritual sparring from Africa, and the ancient combat
techniques from Western Europe (eg karate, Kung Fu, tai chi ch’uan, stickfighting
[molamo] and jousting) as popular forms of sport in many parts of the world serve as
examples of sport as an acculturation factor. Language is an integral component of
any culture. People do not readily replace their language with another, but they
adopt another language such as English or French as a second or third language
because these are international business and science languages. Christmas has
long been a very important cultural event for Christian peoples in Europe and the
Americas, but today it is also being celebrated by non-Christian nations, albeit in a
different way. The American culture is particularly attractive to millions of people
world-wide. Halloween is part of the American culture and has nothing to do with the
South African cultures, but nowadays many young people of all racial groups in
South Africa celebrate Halloween. Denim jeans used to be part of the American
culture, but it has now been adopted as the normal attire of many groups in many
parts of the world. Globally, acculturation is happening at an ever-increasing rate. It
is the result of the increasing interaction between different peoples. As globalisation
(see “globalisation”) is turning the world into a so-called global village, acculturation
is accelerated. There are even fears that some indigenous cultures might disappear
altogether as people the world over are “Americanising”. Acculturation should not be
confused with enculturation which is not a voluntary process. During the imperialist
period, people of the colonised countries were forced to adopt the language of the
colonial nations. After the Anglo-Boer War (1889 – 1902) in South Africa, Afrikaans
was banned from all schools and English became the only language of instruction.
During the apartheid era in South Africa, Afrikaans and English were the only
languages of instruction, while the use of the African languages in education was
 8

suppressed. During the Nazi rule of 1933 to 1945 certain books, plays and music
were banned in Germany. Exactly the same was the case in the USSR and South
Africa in the 1970s and 1980s. Many other examples of acculturation and
enculturation could be named, and you would probably recognise many from your
own life. Consider the internet and the social networks as factors of acculturation in
your life. (See “demonstration effect”.)

Ukuguquka kosikompilo: Ukuquka kwezinto ezithile noma izingxenye

ezithile zosikompilo leqembu labantu abathile ngokuthi bamukele noma
babe yingxenye yosikompilo elihlukile kwelabo futhi lokho okuyinto
abayenza ngokuzithandela kwabo, ngaphandle kokuphoqelelwa.
Ezemidlalo zisalokhu ziyinto esemqoka kakhulu egqugquzela
ukuguquka kosikompilo. Ukwamukelwa kwebhola likanobhutshuzwayo
(ibhola lezinyawo) njengomdlalo ohamba phambili emazweni amaningi
ase-Afrika kuyisibonelo esihle kakhulu sokuguquka kosikompilo. Ibhola
lezinyawo lamukelwe njengomdlalo oyintandokazi ngisho nayilabo bantu
base-Afrika abaqoke ukugcina iningi lezinto zabo kanye nemikhuba
yabo yendabuko eyingxenye yosikompilo lwabo. Ukwamukelwa
emhlabeni wonke jikelele kobuciko bokulwa (martial arts) obuvela kwela-
East Asia, umdlalo wendabuko wokungcweka (ritual sparring) ovela
kwelase-Afrika, izindlela namasu okulwa asemandulo avela e-Western
Europe (isib. i-karate, Kung Fu, tai chi ch’uan, ukulwa ngezinduku
[molamo] kanye nomdlalo wasemandulo wokungcwekisana kwabantu
abagibele amahhashi bephethe imikhonto emide engacijile)
njengemidlalo ethandwa kakhulu ezingxenyeni eziningi emhlabeni
kuyisibonelo sokubaluleka kwezemidlalo kanye nendima yezemidlalo
ekuguqukeni kosikompilo. Ulimi luyingxenye esemqoka kakhulu kunoma
yiluphi usikompilo. Abantu abavamisile neze ukuyeka ulimi lwabo,
esikhundleni salo basebenzise olunye, kepha bayalwamukela olunye
ulimi njengesiNgisi noma isiFulentshi (French) njengolimi lwabo lwesibili
noma lwesithathu ngoba lezi zilimi yizona ezisetshenziswa kakhulu
emhlabeni njengezilimi zokwenza ibhizinisi noma izilimi ezisetshenziswa
kwezesayensi. Sekuphele isikhathi eside impela uKhisimusi ugujwa
njengosuku oluphathelene nosikompilo olubaluleke kakhulu kubantu
abangamaKristu (Christians) e-Europe nakumazwekazi aseMelika,
kepha kulezi zinsuku lolu suku selugujwa ngisho nayizizwe ezingewona
ama-Kristu, nakuba-ke zona zilugubha ngendlela ehlukile. Abantu
abaningi emhlabeni jikelele liyabaheha uSikompilo lwaseMelika
ngalokho bagcine sebelwamukele. I-Halloween iyingxenye yosikompilo
lwaseMelika futhi ayiyona neze ingxenye yamasikompilo aseNingizimu
Afrika, kepha kulezi zinsuku abantu abasha bezinhlanga zonke
zaseNingizimu Afrika bayalugubha usuku lwe-Halloween. Esikhathini
esedlule ibhulukwe likadangala (denim jeans) laliyingxenye yosikompilo
lwaseMelika, kepha manje selamukelwe ngabantu ezingxenyeni eziningi
mhlabeni jikelele njengempahla ejwayelekile yokugqoka. Ukuguquka
 9

kosikompilo kuyinto eyenzeka ngesivinini esikhulu emhlabeni wonke

jikelele. Lokhu kungenxa yokukhula kokuxhumana kalula kwabantu
abahlukahlukene emhlabeni. Njengoba ukuxhumana nokusebenzisana
komhlaba wonkana (bheka i-“globalisation”) sekuguqule umhlaba
kwawenza isigodi esisodwa somphakathi wamazwe ngamazwe (global
village), sekwenzeka ngokushesha okukhulu impela ukuguquka
kosikompilo. Sekukhona ngisho nokwesabela ukuthi kungenzeka
ashabalale amasikompilo endabuko athile njengoba abantu emhlabeni
jikelele “bemukela futhi belandela usikompilo laseMelika”
(“Americanising”). Ukuguquka kosikompilo akufanele kuphanjaniswe
nenqubo yokuphoqelelwa kosikompilo oluthile phezu kwabantu,
okuyinqubo ongenakho ukuzikhethela ngentando yakho kuyona.
Ngesikhathi sokuqonelwa kwamazwe ngabezizwe (imperialist period),
abantu balawo mazwe ayengaphansi kwesandla sabezizwe
aphoqelelwa ukuthi amukele futhi asebenzise izilimi zabaqoneli
(colonial nations). Emva kwempi phakathi kwamaBhunu namaNgisi
(yowe-1889 – 1902) eNingizimu Afrika, kwenqatshelwa
ukusetshenziswa kolimi lwesiBhunu kuzo zonke izikole zakuleli futhi
ulimi lwesiNgisi kwaba yilona kuphela ulimi lokufundisa. Ngesikhathi
sobandlululo eNingizimu Afrika, isiBhunu nesiNgisi kwakuyizona kuphela
izilimi zokufundisa, futhi kwakucindezelwa ukusetshenziswa kwezilimu
zabomdabu kwezemfundo. Ngesikhathi sokuphatha kwama-Nazi
ngowe-1933 kuya kowe-1945 izincwadi ezithile, imidlalo yasesiteji kanye
nomculo kwakunqatshelwe futhi kungavumelekile neze kwelase-
Germany. Kwenzeka into efana ncamashi e-USSR kanye
naseNingizimu Afrika ngeminyaka yawo-1970 kuya eminyakeni yawo-
1980. Ziningi ezinye izibonelo umuntu angazisho lapha zokuguquka
nokuphoqelelwa kosikompilo, futhi nawe kungenzeka ukuthi ziningi oke
wahlangabezana nazo empilweni yakho. Ake ucabange nje
ngokubaluleka kwe-inthanethi kanye nezinkundla zokuxhumana (social
networks) kanye nomthelela walokhu empilweni yakho, okuyizinto
ezihambisana nokuguquka kosikompilo. (bheka “demonstration effect”.)
Acid rain: Rainwater is normally more acidic than pure, clean water. Pure, clean
water has a neutral pH of 7,0 but rainwater normally has a lower pH; the average pH
of rainwater is 5,6. The reason why rainwater is more acidic than pure water is
because rainwater contains small amounts of dissolved natural particles as well as
some anthropogenic (human-made) pollutants that act as condensation nuclei. The
atmosphere is never devoid of natural substances like dust, smoke, ash and pollen
and these dissolve in the rainwater as the raindrops travel through the atmosphere.
Hence, all rainwater contains small volumes of carbon, sulphur and nitrous
compounds which turn the rainwater into very weak, diluted carbonic, sulphuric and
nitric acids. Human activities release huge volumes of pollutants, such as carbon
dioxides, sulphur dioxides and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. This is called air
pollution (see “air pollution”). All of these pollutants could dissolve in the moisture in
the atmosphere or in the raindrops, with the result that the rain falling from a heavily
 10

polluted atmosphere is more acidic than what rainfall normally is. Rain that contains
more than normal the concentrations of these acids – especially carbonic and
sulphuric acids – becomes “acid rain”. Acid rain has pH values of 5,2 to as low as 5,0
and is a far more corrosive solution than normal rainwater. Vegetation dies when it
receives acid rain for a lengthy period. Millions of hectares of cypress, spur, spruce,
pine and birch forests in Northern Europe and Canada have already been lost as a
result of acid rain caused by industrial airpollution in Southern European countries
and the USA. From a geographical point of view, it is very important that air pollution
caused in one region, might result in acid rain in another region since winds convey
the pollutants. In the Eastern and South-Eastern Highveld of South Africa (mainly
Mpumalanga and Limpopo) a wide variety of problems might possibly be ascribed to
the acid rain caused by air pollution from coal-burning power stations in the Eastern
Highveld and the petrochemical industry in Sasolburg and Secunda. These problems
range from respiratory diseases in children, to sluggish growth and die-off of pine
forests, to decreasing soil productivity (through soil acidification), but no irrefutable
cause and result relationships have yet been established.

Imvula ene-asidi: Amanzi emvula avamise ukuba ne-asidi eningi

uma eqhathaniswa namanzi ahlanzekile ajwayelekile. Amanzi
ahlanzekile ajwayelekile ane-neutral pH ka-7,0 kodwa amanzi emvula
wona avamise ukuba ne-pH ephansi; futhi i-avareji ye-pH yamanzi
emvula ingu-5,6. Isizathu sokuba khona kwe-asidi eningi emanzini
emvula wukuthi amanzi emvula anomthamo omncane wezinhlayiyana
zemvelo ezincibilikile kanye nezinukubalisimanzi (ezikhiqizwa ngabantu)
ezisebenza njengezinhlayiya zenguqukomhwamuko (condensation
nuclei). Umkhathi (atmosphere) akwenzeki ungabi nazo izinto
ezinjengothuli, intuthu, umlotha kanye nempova (pollen) futhi lokhu
kuyancibilika emanzini emvula ngenkathi amathonsi emvula ehla
emkhathini. Yingakho-ke, wonke amanzi emvula equkethe umthamo
omncane wekhabhoni (carbon), isibaluli (sulphur) kanye nenayithrojini
futhi lokhu yikona okuguqula amanzi emvula abe ngama-asidi
angashubile kakhulu aqukethe ikhabhoni, isibaluli kanye nenayithrojini.
Izenzo nemisebenzi yabantu ikhiqiza umthamo omkhulu wezinukubalisi
(pollutants), ezinjengesikhutha se-carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide kanye
ne-nitrogen oxide zingene emkhathini. Lokhu kubizwa
ngokungcoliseka komoya (bheka i-“air pollution”). Zonke lezi
zinukubalisi kuyenzeka zincibilike emhwamukweni osemkhathini noma
emathonsini emvula, okuholela ekutheni imvula eyenzeka emkhathini
ongcoliseke kakhulu ibe ne-asidi eningi kunaleyo etholakala emvuleni
ejwayelekile. Imvula equkethe umthamo walawa ma-asidi ongaphezulu
kojwayelekile – ikakhulukazi i-carbonic ne-sulphuric acid – iba “yimvula
ene-asidi”. Imvula ene-asidi inomthamo we-pH ongu-5,2 futhi
kungenzeka lokhu kwehle kuze kufinyelele ku-5,0 futhi imvula ene-asidi
ingadala umonakalo omkhulu uma iqhathaniswa nemvula ejwayelekile.
Izitshalo ziyafa uma zithola imvula ene-asidi isikhathi eside. ENyakatho
Yurophu kanye nase-Canada sekushabalale izigidi ngezigidi zamahlathi
 11

e-cypress, spur, spruce, pine kanye ne-birch ngenxa yokungcoliseka

komoya okubangelwa yizimboni zamazwe aseNingizimu Yurophu ne-
USA. Ngasohlangothini lwejografi, kusemqoka kakhulu ukwazi ukuthi
ukungcoliseka komoya okwenzeka esifundeni esithile somhlaba
kungaholela ekutheni kube nemvula ene-asidi kwesinye isifunda
somhlaba njengoba izinukubalisi-moya zithuthwa futhi zihanjiswe
ngumoya ezingxenyeni eziningi zomhlaba. Ezindaweni ezise-Eastern
nase-South-Eastern Highveld yeNingizimu Afrika (ikakhulukazi
eMpumalanga naseLimpopo) izinkinga eziningi ezenzeka lapho
kungenzeka ukuthi ziwumphumela wemvula ene-asidi ebangelwa
wukungcoliseka komoya ngenxa yokushiswa kwamalahle ezikhungweni
eziphehla ugesi e-Eastern Highveld nasezimbonini ezikhiqiza uphethiloli
e-Sasolburg nase-Secunda. Lezi zinkinga zibandakanya izifo
eziphathelene nokuphefumula ezihlasela izingane, ukungakhuli kahle
nokufa kwamahlathi kaphayini, ukuncipha komkhiqizo wesivuno
esiphuma emhlabathini (ngenxa yokuba khona kwe-asidi eningi
ngokweqile emhlabathini), kepha-ke abukatholakali ubufakazi obuqanda
ikhanda bokuthi ngempela lokhu yikona okubangela lezi zinkinga.
Adventure tourism: Deliberately and voluntarily visiting a place or taking a trip
that entails a certain amount of danger or risk. The level of risk that the tourist is
prepared to take, varies from low to high. Mountaineering serves as a good example
of the development of this type of tourism. A small number of people have always
climbed mountains because it presented them with a challenge. There was no real
need to climb the mountain, its mere “being there” served as motivation enough,
and the more difficult it was to climb, the greater the allure. Over the years,
mountaineering has gained more and more adherents. Technological advances
produced better equipment and more difficult climbs could be attempted with greater
safety. This “safety” is, of course, purely relative, but as the so-called safety
increased the activity grew in popularity. The ultimate challenge, of course, was
climbing Mount Everest. The first serious attempt to scale Everest, ended in the
tragic deaths of George Mallory and Andrew Irvine in 1924. But attempts to reach the
summit continued and more deaths followed. Once Sir Edmund Hillary and Sherpa
Tenzing Norgay planted a flag on the summit in 1953 – and lived to tell the tale –
climbing Everest became an irresistible challenge to increasing numbers of serious
mountaineers. The fact that quite a number of those who attempted this died in the
process, perversely made it more attractive. A whole tourism industry to support
prospective climbers developed. Today it is a huge industry and extremely important
for the economies of Tibet and especially Nepal. Nowadays people who could not by
any stretch of the imagination be called “mountaineers” or “athletes”, but have
enough money to pay enormous fees to join a guided and cosseted “expedition”,
attempt to climb the mountain. They are more or less carried, dragged, pushed and
nursed to the summit of Everest and back by well-paid teams of guides and Sherpas
(the native people of the Himalayas) and an endless supply of oxygen canisters, but
the risk of dying has not been removed entirely. If the weather suddenly changed a
whole number of people on the mountain could die within a few hours as happened
in May 1996 when 10 people died there in one night. In fact, the mortality statistics
are soberingly high. Yet people want to do it and are prepared to pay an arm and a
 12

leg to do so – and in many cases a lost arm or leg becomes the harsh reality! In the
2013 climbing season 580 paying clients summited the mountain, but eight –
including two Sherpas – died as a result of people-congestion along the climbing
trail. Some climbers had to wait no less than six hours to ascend the technically
difficult Hillary Step, and “traffic jams” formed on the fixed lines. The Nepalese
tourism authorities have now decided to step in and install safety measures to lessen
the death rate. A fixed ladder is to be secured on the Hillary Step and two separate
fixed lines will be secured, one for the ascending and one for the descending “traffic”.
One could simply change the details in the history written above and apply it to white
water rafting, kayaking, canoeing, scuba diving, extreme skiing, solo navigation
around the world, or hiking through wildlife areas such as the Kruger National Park.
The increasing popularity of adventure tourism has already produced a sizeable
industry. There is no predicting where this trend will end, but currently a multitude of
people all around the world make a living out of tourists who want to take relatively
risky trips and do relatively risky activities. (See “environmental business”, “carrying
capacity”, “alternative tourism” and “accountability”.)

Ezokuvakasha zamathandangozi: Ukuthatha uhambo ngabomu futhi

ngokuzithandela oluya endaweni okungenzeka ibe nobungozi obuthile.
Liya ngokwehluka izinga lobungozi esizimisele ukubhekana nabo
isivakashi, kusukela ebungozini obuphansi kuya kobuphezulu. Umdlalo
wokuqwala intaba uyisibonelo esihle sokuthuthuka kwalolu hlobo
lwezokuvakasha. Kunabantu abambadlwana abakukhonzile ukuqwala
izintaba ngoba kubanikeza inselele. Kahle-kahle asikho neze isidingo
sokuqwala intaba, kodwa nje bakhuthwazwa yilukuluku “lokuba lapho”
ukuze basho ukuthi nabo bake bafinyelela esicongweni sentaba, futhi
ubunzima obukhulu obuhambisana nokuqwala intaba ethile yikona
impela-ke okubahehayo, kubanikeze itshisekelo nelukuluku lokuqwala
intaba. Kule minyaka eminingana edlule lilokhu likhule njalo inani
labantu abanelukuluku lokuqwala izintaba. Ubuchwepheshe
besimanjemanje sebukhiqize impahla engcono yokuqwala izintaba futhi
lokho kwenza ukuthi labo abathanda lo mdlalo bakwazi ukuqwala
ngokuphepha izintaba okunzima kakhulu ukuziqwala. Lokhu “kuphepha”
kuncike kakhulu ezimweni ezithile, kodwa njengoba kuba ngcono
ukuphepha liyakhuphuka nenani labantu abazibandakanya kulo mdlalo.
Kuyinto eyaziwayo ukuthi inselele enkulu kunazo zonke wukuqwala i-
Mount Everest. Umzamo wokuqala wangempela wokuqwala intaba i-
Everest, waphela kabuhlungu ngokufa kuka-George Mallory kanye no-
Andrew Irvine ngowe-1924. Kodwa noma kunjalo yaqhubeka imizamo
yokufinyelela esicongweni sale ntaba, futhi ngokunjalo baningi abantu
abalahlekelwa yizimpilo zabo. Emva kokuthi u-Sir Edmund Hillary kanye
no-Sherpa Tenzing Norgay bekwazile ukugxumeka ifulegi esicongweni
sale ntaba ngowe-1953 – futhi emva kwalokho bakwazi ukwehla
ngokuphepha ukuze baxoxe ngempumelelo yabo – ukuqwala intaba i-
Everest kwaba yinselele elangazelelekayo kubantu abaningi
abawuthandayo umdlalo wokuqwala izintaba. Kuyinto exakayo ukuthi
 13

nakuba bebaningi abantu abafa ngenkathi bezama ukuqwala intaba,

lokhu kwaba yinselele eheha abanye abantu abaningi. Sekunemboni
yezokuvakasha ephelele impela eyenza umsebenzi wokusekela
nokulekelela abantu abafuna ukuzama ukuqwala intaba. Namuhla, lena
sekuyimboni enkulukazi impela futhi ebaluleke kakhulu emnothweni
wase-Tibet, futhi ikakhulukazi nowase-Nepal. Kulezi zinsuku,
sekunabantu abaningi abazamayo ukuqwala intaba, abangathathwa
“njengabaqwali bezintaba” bangempela noma “ama-athlete” oqobo,
kodwa abanemali eningi ngokwanele yokukhokha isamba esiphakeme
kakhulu semali yokuhlinzekwa ngethuba lokuthatha uhambo lokuqwala
intaba beqashwe ngeso lokhozi, ngaphansi kokunakekelwa
nokuvikeleka okukhulu futhi bephathiswe okwamaqanda. Bayathwalwa,
badonswe, bafuqwe futhi batatanyiswe baze bayofinyelela esicongweni
sentaba i-Everest futhi baphinde balekelelwe ngenkathi sebehla
bebuyela phansi, futhi lokhu kwenziwa ngamathimba abalekeleli
nabanakekeli kanye nama-Sherpas (abomdabu base-Himalaya)
abakhokhelwa izimali ezishisiwe, abahlinzeka lezi zitatanyiswa
ngenqwaba yeziqukathi ze-oksijini, kepha-ke noma kunjalo lokhu
kunakekelwa nokulekelelwa akubuqedi ngokuphelele ubungozi bokufa
komuntu ngenkathi eqwala intaba. Uma kwenzeka siguquka
kungalindelekile isimo sezulu, baningi abantu abangafa entabeni
ngamahora ambalwa nje, njengoba kwenzeka ngoMeyi 1996 lapho
kwashona khona abantu abayishumi ngobusuku obubodwa. Empeleni,
isibalo sabantu abafela entabeni siphezulu ngendlela ethusayo. Kepha
nakuba kunjalo abantu basafuna ukuqwala intaba, futhi bazimisele
ukulahlekelwa noma ngabe yini ngenhloso nje yokuqwala intaba – futhi
abanye babo bathola isifundo esibuhlungu kakhulu lapho
sebelahlekelwe yingalo noma umlenze! Ngesizini yokuqwala intaba
yowezi-2013 angama-580 amakhasimende akwazi ukuqwala intaba
ngempumelelo, kepha bayisishiyagalombili abantu – kubandakanya
nama-Sherpas amabili – abafa ngenxa yesiminyaminya emzileni obheke
esiqongweni sentaba. Abanye abaqwali bentaba kwadingeka ukuthi
balinde isikhathi esingaphezu kwamahora angaphezu kwayisithupha
ngaphambi kokuba bathole ithuba lokwehla engxenyeni yentaba ebucayi
kakhulu futhi enobunzima obukhulu ebizwa nge-Hillary Step, futhi kwaba
nesiminyaminya sabantu (“traffic jams”) endaweni yokuqwala intaba
enezindophi ezixhunywe phansi. Manje iziphathimandla zezokuvakasha
kwelase-Nepal sezinqume ukungenelela nokuthi zifake izinyathelo
zokuphepha ngenhloso yokunciphisa izinga lokufa kwabantu.
Kuzogxunyekwa iladi ku-Hillary Step futhi kuxhunywe nezindophi
zokuqwala intaba ezimbili ezihlukene, okuyindophi yabantu
abakhuphukayo kanye nendophi yabantu abehlayo. Wonke lo mlando
obhalwe ngenhla ungafaniswa nomlando walokho okwenzeka
 14

emdlalweni wokuthatha uhambo emfuleni ngesihlenga (white water

rafting), kayaking, canoeing, scuba diving, extreme skiing, nokuthatha
uhambo oluzungeza umhlaba uhamba wedwa noma ukuqombola
emahlathini nasezintabeni (hiking) eziqiwini ezinjenge-Kruger National
Park. Ukukhula kwesasasa lokuvakasha kwamathandangozi
sekukhiqize imboni enkulu impela. Akekho ongabikezela ukuthi leli
sasasa lemidlalo enobungozi ekugcineni liyophelelaphi, kodwa
njengemanje baningi abantu emhlabeni jikelele abaziphilisa
ngezivakashi ezinelukuluku lokuthatha izinkambo ezinobungozi kanye
nokwenza ezinye izinto eziyingozi. (bheka i-“environmental business”,
“carrying capacity”, “alternative tourism” kanye ne-“accountability”.)
Aerial photography: The process of taking photographs of the Earth’s surface
from some height above the surface. An airphoto is a remotely sensed image of a
portion of the Earth’s surface produced by a camera that takes a photograph
(picture) from an aircraft. It is the oldest form of remotely sensed images of the
Earth’s surface. The first airphotos were taken about 250 years ago by cameras
mounted on airballoons. It was first used for military surveillance in the American
Civil War (1861–1864). The same method of military surveillance was used by the
British forces during the Second War of Independence (or the so-called “Anglo-Boer
War”) in what was then the Republics of Transvaal and the Orange Free State (in the
present day South Africa) in 1899–1902. When aeroplanes were built, they were
immediately used for photography from higher altitudes than the balloons could
reach and larger portions of the Earth’s surface could be captured on every image.
There are different types of airphotos, such as oblique, vertical, high altitude and low
altitude photos and various combinations of the aforementioned. The best known
and commonly used airphotos are the official vertical airphoto series which were
published in many countries (including South Africa) and were freely available and
used for a myriad of purposes. Airphoto analysis became a very sophisticated
scientific technique, and when high-altitude, radar evading aircraft were developed,
they offered an irresistible instrument for very high level photography of “non-
friendly” territory. The photographs from these so-called “spy planes” and the most
modern, super-high altitude, unmanned craft (called “drones”) necessitated the
development of even more complicated analysis techniques to detect and recognise
everything on the surface in enemy territory. Ordinary photographic images were
largely superseded by the development of more sophisticated imaging techniques,
but when needs be, ordinary airphotographs are still extensively used, as was done
by the CIA (the Central Investigation Agency of the USA) in their search for Osama
Bin Laden up to his ultimate demise in 2012.

Izithombe ezithwetshulwe emoyeni: Inqubo yokuthwebula izithombe

phezulu emoyeni, okuyibanga elithe ukuphakama impela kusuka phansi
emhlabeni. Isithombe esithwetshulwe emoyeni yisithombe esithathwe
ngomshini wokuthwebula izithombe phezulu ebhanoyini, esibonisa isimo
somhlaba phansi. Lena yindlela endala kakhulu yokuthatha izithombe
ezibonisa isimo sokwakheka komhlaba. Izithombe zasemoyeni zokuqala
ngqa zathathwa ngesithwebuli-zithombe esixhunywe kuma-airballoons.
Ekuqaleni, lezi zithombe zazisetshenziselwa ukuqapha okuphathelene
 15

nezempi ngesikhathi sempi ebizwa nge-American Civil War (1861–

1864). Le ndlela yokuqapha kwezempi yasetshenziswa futhi
ngamasosha aseBhrithane nesikhathi se-Second War of Independence
(ebizwa “nge-Anglo-Boer War”) ezingxenyeni zakuleli lizwe, ngaleso
sikhathi ezazibizwa ngamaRiphabhulikhi, okuyi-Republic of Transvaal
kanye ne-Orange Free State ngowe-1899–1902. Emva kokwethulwa
kwamabhanoyi, aqala ngokushesha ukusetshenziselwa ukuthwebula
izithombe zasemoyeni, ebangeni eliphakeme kakhudlwana, lapho
ayengakwazi ukufinyelela khona ama-airballoons, futhi zonke lezi
zithombe zebhanoyi zazikwazi ukubonisa ingxenye enkulu yesimo
sokwakheka komhlaba. Ziningi izinhlobo zezithombe ezithwetshulwe
emoyeni, njengalezo ezithwetshulwe esimweni esitshekile (oblique),
esimweni esiqondile esibheke phansi (vertical), ebangeni eliphezulu
kakhulu emoyeni noma ebangeni eliphansi emoyeni noma
inhlanganisela yalezi zimo ezishiwo lapha ngenhla zokuthwebula
isithombe. Izithombe zasemoyeni ezidumile futhi ezisetshenziswa
kakhulu wuchungechunge olusemthethweni lwezithombe eziqondile
ezibheke phansi olwashicilelwa emazweni amaningi (kubandakanya
neNingizimu Afrika) futhi ezazitholakala kalula, futhi ezazisetshenziselwa
izinhloso eziningi ezihlukahlukene. Ukuhlaziywa kwezithombe
zasemoyeni kwaba yindlela yokusebenza yezesayensi edinga ongoti
ukwenza lo msebenzi, futhi emva kokuthuthukiswa nokwakhiwa
kwamabhanoyi ahamba ebangeni eliphezulu kakhulu emoyeni, akwaziyo
ukuzifihla ukuze angabonakali kwi-radar, lokho kwahlinzeka ngethuluzi
elihle kakhulu lokuthwebula izithombe ezisezingeni eliphezulu,
zezindawo ezithathwa njengezindawo “zesitha”. Izithombe ezithathwe
yilawa mabhonoyi ayebizwa “ngamabhanoyi ezinhloli” kanye
namabhanoyi esimanjemanje angenamshayeli ahamba phezulu kakhulu
emoyeni (abizwa “ngama-drones”) zaholela ekutheni kube nesidingo
sokuthuthukiswa kwezindlela ezinohlonze zokuhlaziya izithombe
ngenhloso yokuhlonza nokubona konke okuvezwa yisithombe
sasemoyeni okuphansi emhlabeni endaweni yesitha. Izithombe
ezijwayelekile zaphelelwa yisikhathi ngoba indawo yazo yathathwa
yizindlela zesimanjemanje zokuthwebula izithombe zohlobo oluphuma
phambili, kepha-ke uma kunesidingo, zisasetshenziswa kakhulu impela
izithombe ezijwayelekile njengoba lokhu kwabonakala ngenkathi uphiko
lwezobunhloli lwaseMelika i-CIA (Central Investigation Agency of the
USA) luthungatha u-Osama Bin Laden, kwaze kwafika isikhathi lapho
abanjwa khona wabulawa ngowezi-2012.
Agglomeration economy: Several firms with interests in the same industry
choose to locate in the same area in order to share costs and thereby minimise their
own respective overhead costs. This can be achieved by linkages between the firms
who join together to buy in bulk, or to train a specialist workforce, or share support
services (such as water and electricity supply), or share commuter services to
 16

transport their workers to and from work. According to Weber’s model of industrial
location agglomeration is regarded as the most important single factor in the
location of firms and industries, but this is not undisputed. Car assembly plants,
panelbeating firms and firms that manufacture individual car parts are often located
in the same area where they can use economies of scale.

Ukuqoqelana ndawonye komnotho: Amafemu ahlukahlukene enza

umkhiqizo ofanayo embonini efanayo aqoka ukwakha endaweni eyodwa
ukuze abelane ngezindleko, futhi ngalokho anciphise izindleko zawo
zokuqhuba ibhizinisi. Lokhu kungafezekiswa ngokuxhumana phakathi
kwamafemu ngokuthi athenge impahla ayidingayo ngobuningi, noma
ngokuqeqesha abasebenzi bawo abathile abenza imisebenzi
yobungcweti, noma abelane ngezinsiza zokuqhuba umsebenzi
(njengokuphakelwa kwamanzi nogesi), noma ukwabelana ngezithuthi
zabasebenzi ezibathwalayo ngenkathi beya noma bebuya emsebenzini.
Ngokwemodeli ka-Weber yendawo okwakhiwe kuyona izimboni,
ukuqoqelana ndawonye komnotho kuthathwa njengento eyodwa
esemqoka kunazo zonke mayelana nendawo okwakhiwe kuyona
amafemu nezimboni, kodwa-ke bakhona abaphikisanayo nalo mbono.
Amafemu akha izimoto, namafemu alungisa futhi elule izingxenye
zezimoto ezilimale engozini kanye namafemu akha izingxenye zezimoto
avamise ukwakhiwa endaweni eyodwa lapho ekwazi ukubambisana
kanye nokusebenzisa umkhiqizo wawo ophakeme ngenhloso
yokunciphisa izindleko zokuqhuba ibhizinisi (economies of scale).
Aggregation: A rather generalised description of the spatial distribution of a
certain variable in a specific area. In their quest to describe the spatial distribution of
a variable, geographers draw a map of the study area and indicate the entire area or
areas where the variable might occur in that specific study area. It is like using a
sieve with very large holes to sort the larger and smaller grains of a heap of rock
debris (see “weathering” and “mass wasting”). All the particles larger than sand size
are separated from the debris mass, but we know that in the remaining heap of
material, grain size is still highly variable. In a graphic representation we can draw a
generalised map of the spatial distribution of, say, affluence in a city. First, we group
together all the houses that are worth more than R1 million. The areas where these
houses occur are demarcated on a map. We might find a small number of such
areas (say, three or four). This way we have produced a map of the distribution of
wealth in the city. But we know that some of the houses in those demarcated areas
are worth R10 million, others R5 million and some only R1 or R2 million and some
are not even worth R1 million. We have actually aggregated data, that is, grouped
together all expensive houses in the city to obtain a generalised picture of spatial
distribution of wealth. Should we want to do a finer analysis, we shall have to
disaggregate the “wealthy” areas in the city, by further sorting. Then we use a
stricter set of criteria (like a set of finer sieves) and distinguish those houses that
cost more than R10 million from those that cost between R8 million and R9,9 million,
and so forth. The original three or four identified areas will fall apart and form a larger
number of smaller areas. In this way we draw a far more detailed map and our
representation of the spatial distribution of affluence is far more informative than the
 17

map drawn from the aggregated data. Exactly the same technique is used for all
types of spatial data, for instance the distribution of vegetation types, the occurrence
of sinkholes, the distribution of wetlands, the distribution of foreigners in a country,
and so forth. (See “disaggregation”.)

Ukuqoqela ndawonye: Incazelo ebanzi yokusabalala kwezinto

ezithile endaweni ethile. Emzamweni wazo wokuchaza ukusabalala
kwezinto ezithile endaweni ethile, izazi zejografi zidweba ibalazwe
lendawo okuzokwenziwa kuyona ucwaningo bese zibonisa indawo
ephelele okungenzeka kusabalale kuyona into ethile endaweni ethile
okwenziwa kuyona ucwaningo. Lokhu kufana nokusebenzisa isisefo
esinezimbobo ezinkulu kakhulu ngenhloso yokuhlukanisa ngokuhlunga
izinhlayiya ezinkulu kwezincane engqumbini yezimvithi zamatshe (bheka
i-“weathering” kanye ne-“mass wasting”). Zonke izinhlayiya
ezinobukhulu obungaphezu kwenhlayiya yesihlabathi ziyahlukaniswa,
zisuswe engqumbini yezimvithi, kodwa-ke noma kunjalo siyazi ukuthi
kule ngqumbi yezimvithi esele, ubukhulu bezinhlayiya busalokhu
bunokungalingani okukhulu. Ukwenza nje isibonelo, emfanekisweni
singadweba ibalazwe elinemininingwane ebanzi yokusabalala
komcebo edolobheni elithile. Okokuqala, siqoqela ndawonye zonke
izindlu ezibiza inani elingaphezu kuka-R1 million. Izindawo lapho
kwakhiwe khona lezi zindlu ziyaklanywa noma zihlukaniswe ngokucacile
ebalazweni. Kungenzeka sithole inani elincane lezindawo ezinjalo
(mhlawumbe izindawo ezintathu noma ezine). Ngale ndlela yokuqoqela
ndawonye sikwazile ukukhiqiza ibalazwe elibonisa ukusabalala komcebo
edolobheni. Kodwa-ke siyazi ukuthi ezinye zezindlu kulezo zindawo
eziklanyiwe zibiza u-R10 million, ezinye zibiza u-R5 million futhi
kunezinye ezibiza u-R1 million noma u-R2 million nje kuphela, futhi
kukhona ngisho nezinye izindlu ezingafiki ku-R1 million ngokwenani.
Esikwenzile empeleni lapha wukuqoqela ndawonye idatha
(imininingo) yazo zonke izindlu ezibiza imali enkulu ezakhiwe kuleli
dolobha, ngenhloso yokuthola isithombe esibanzi sokusabalala
komcebo ngokwezindawo okuhlala kuzona abantu. Uma sifuna
ukuhlaziya le ndawo ngokujulile, kufanele sihlukanise imininingo
yezindawo zabantu “abacebile” abahlala kuleli dolobha, futhi lokhu
singakwenza ngokuthi siqhubeke nokuhlunga. Ukwenza lokho-ke
sisebenzisa iqoqwana lemigomo yokucubungula ngokujulile (isibonelo,
njengeqoqwana lezisefo ezinezimbobo ezincane) bese sihlukanisa lezo
zindlu ezibiza imali engaphezu kuka-R10 million kulezo ezibiza imali
ephakathi kuka-R8 million no-R9,9 million, njalo njalo. Imininingo
yezindawo ezintathu noma ezine ezinhlonzwe ekuqaleni iyahlakazwa
bese kwakhiwa inani elikhudlwana lezindawo ezincane. Ngale ndlela
siyakwazi ukudweba ibalazwe elinemininingo ejulile futhi umfanekiso
wethu obonisa ukusabalala kwezindawo zabantu abacebile usinikeza
 18

ulwazi olujulile uma kuqhathaniswa nebalazwe elidwetshwe

kusetshenziswa idatha eqoqelwe ndawonye. Kusetshenziswa indlela
efana ncamashi nalena echazwe lapha ngenhla ukuhlunga nokuhlaziya
zonke izinhlobo zedatha ephathelene nesimo sezindawo zokuhlalisa
abantu, isibonelo, ukusabalala kwezinhlobo zezitshalo, ukuba khona
kwamabhobe (sinkholes) endaweni, ukusabalala kwamaxhaphozi
(wetlands), ukusabalala kwabantu abadabuka emazweni angaphandle
(foreigners) , njalo njalo. (Bheka i-“disaggregation”.)
Agricultural change: Different alterations in land husbandry and land-use
practices have occurred in all food-producing systems in all parts of the world over
the past few thousand years. The most dramatic and far-reaching changes have
been the so-called agricultural revolution of some 10 000 to 12 000 years ago
when people abandoned their nomadic lifestyles and started to settle in specific
locations where they had to produce all their food themselves and surpluses could
be bartered with neighbouring groups of people. This is when agriculture in the true
sense of the word was born. People had to learn how to produce crops year after
year on the same land and develop methods of animal husbandry and sustainable
crop cultivation. The second most influential agricultural change happened during the
so-called “green revolution” in the1950s when scientifically bred or selected animal
breeds and varieties of wheat, rice and maize where introduced in order to increase
food production. These variant species of grain greatly increased the world’s food
production (see “food security”). New variants are still being bred and pest control is
perpetually improving, so that world food production is continually increasing. Yet
some populations in certain countries are more or less continually experiencing
famine or near-famine (see “vulnerability”). In many regions agricultural changes in
the form of converting to altogether different types of agriculture and production have
happened or are taking place. In certain regions of Zambia, maize is being replaced
by cotton which is a more profitable cash crop, and in certain regions of South Africa
game farming is fast replacing cattle farming. In many respects certain species of
game are less expensive to keep than cattle and since the farming sector in South
Africa is not subsidised anymore as it is in the USA and the countries of the
European Union, many South African farmers are changing from crop cultivation to
animal husbandry and game farming. Ostrich farming has more or less replaced
sheep farming in parts of the Klein Karoo region. How successful these changes
have been will only be clear in a few years from now, as at the time of writing, the
outcome of this agricultural change is still unpredictable.

Uguquko lwezolimo: Izinguquko ezikahlukahlukene eziphathelene

nokulinywa nokusetshenziswa komhlaba, ezenzeke kuzo zonke izinhlelo
nezinqubo zokukhiqiza ukudla, ezingxenyeni zonke zomhlaba
eminyakeni eyizinkulungwane ezimbalwa edlule. Izinguquko ezinohlonze
futhi ezinomthelela omkhulu ezenzekile esikhathini esedlule zibizwa
ngoguquko olunohlonze lwezolimo (agricultural revolution),
olwenzeka eminyakeni eyizi-10 000 kuya kweyizi-12 000 eyadlula lapho
abantu bayeka impilo yabo yokungazinzi endaweni eyodwa nokwehla
benyuka, baqoka ukuhlala nokuzinza ezindaweni ezithile lapho
kwadingeka khona ukuthi bazikhiqizele ngokwabo konke ukudla
 19

abakudingayo, futhi uma kukhona ukudla okusele bashintshisane

ngakho namaqembu abantu abakhelene nabo. Yiso-ke lesi sikhathi
okwazalwa ngaso ezolimo ngokwempela. Abantu kwadingeka ukuthi
bafunde ukukhiqiza izitshalo unyaka nonyaka emhlabeni ofanayo futhi
bathuthukise nezindlela zokufuya izilwane futhi balime izitshalo
ngendlela esimeme, ezoqhubeka isikhathi eside. Uguquko lwezolimo
lwesibili olwaba nomthelela omkhulu lwenzeka ngesikhathi esibizwa
nge-“green revolution” ngeminyaka yawo-1950 lapho kwethulwa
izindlela zesayensi zokuzalanisa imfuyo noma izinhlobo ezikhethekile
zezilwane ezifuywayo kanye nezinhlobo zikakolweni ezihlukahlukene,
nezelayisi kanye nommbila, ngenhloso yokukhuphula nokwandisa
umkhiqizo wokudla. Lezi zinhlobo ezihlukahlukene zokudla
okusanhlamvu zawukhuphula kakhulu umkhiqizo wokudla emhlabeni
(bheka i-“food security”). Isalokhu iqhubeke njalo imizamo yokuthola
izindlela zokukhiqiza ukudla ezintsha futhi kuyaqhubeka nokwenziwa
ngcono kwezindlela zokulawula nokubulala izinambuzane eziwuhlupho,
ngenhloso yokuqinisekisa ukuthi kuyaqhubeka ukukhiqizwa kokudla
emhlabeni. Kepha-ke kusenabantu emazweni athile abakhahlanyezwa
wububha nendlala (bheka i-“vulnerability”). Ezifundeni zomhlaba eziningi
zenzekile futhi ziyaqhubeka nokwenzeka izinguquko kwezolimo lapho
kuguqukelwa khona ezindleleni ezihlukahlukene futhi ezintsha zolimo
nokukhiqiza. Ezifundeni ezithile kwelase-Zambia, indawo yommbila
seyithathwe wukotini, ngoba wona uyisitshalo esinenzuzo ngoba
ungenisa imali eningi engukheshi futhi nasezifundeni ezithile
zaseNingizimu Afrika kuqhubeka ngesivinini esikhulu impela ukufunywa
kwezinyamazane nezilwane zasendle esikhundleni sokufunywa
kwezinkomo. Ezimweni eziningi, kushibhile ukufuya izinhlobo ezithile
zezinyamazane uma kuqhathaniswa nokufuya izinkomo, futhi njengoba
umkhakha wezolimo waseNingizimu Afrika ungasayitholi imixhaso
nezibonelelo, okuyinto engafani nalokho okwenzeka kwelase-USA
nakwamanye amazwe ayingxenye ye-European Union lapho umkhakha
wezolimo uhlinzekwa ngemixhaso nezibonelelo, futhi abalimi abaningi
baseNingizimu Afrika sebeyaphuma emkhakheni wokulima izitshalo
bangene ekufuyweni kwezilwane zasendle nezinyamazane. Ukufuywa
kwezintshe (ostrich farming) sekuthathe indawo yokufuywa kwezimvu
ezingxenyeni eziningi zesifunda se-Klein Karoo. Sekuyocaca kule
minyaka embalwa ezayo ukuthi lezi zinguquko zibe nempumelelo
engakanani, njengoba ngesikhathi sokuloba leli bhukwana, singakwazi
ukusho nokubikezela ngoweqisino ukuthi lezi zinguquko zizoba
yimpumelelo yini noma cha.
Air pollution: A condition of elevated levels of trace components in the
atmosphere at the Earth’s surface. Such a condition is often anthropogenic, that is,
caused by human activities. Normally the atmosphere at the Earth’s surface contains
 20

0,04 percent trace components, but when humans release huge amounts of carbon
dioxide and/or monoxide, sulphur dioxide and/or oxide, nitrogen oxides,
hydrocarbons (like methane), particulates (solid particles like dust), and
chlorofluorocarbon compounds (CFCs), the percentage of trace components is
raised. Air containing high concentrations of these pollutants may be harmful or even
highly toxic to human beings, and in the long run it might perhaps change climatic
conditions on Earth. (See “acid rain” and “climate change”.)

Ukungcoliseka komoya: Isimo samazinga aphakeme

amakhemikhali nesikhutha emkhathini ngaphezu komhlaba. Esikhathini
esiningi, lesi simo sibangelwa yimisebenzi nezenzo zabantu emhlabeni.
Ngokujwayelekile, umkhathi uqukethe amaphesenti angu-0,04
amakhemikhali nesikhutha, kodwa uma abantu bekhiqiza umthamo
ophakeme kakhulu we-carbon dioxide kanye/noma i-monoxide, sulphur
dioxide kanye/noma i-oxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons (njenge-
methane), izinhlayiyana eziqinile zothuli, kanye nama-chlorofluorocarbon
compounds (CFCs), liyakhuphuka izinga lamakhemikhali nesikhutha.
Umoya oqukethe umthamo ophakeme kakhulu walezi zinikubalisi
ungaba nobungozi noma ube noshevu omkhulu oyingozi kakhulu
kubantu, futhi ngokuhamba kwesikhathi lokhu kungaholela ekuguqukeni
kwesimo sezulu emhlabeni. (Bheka i-“acid rain” kanye ne-“climate
change”)
Albedo: Solar energy is received by the Earth in the form of short-wave
radiation called insolation. The Earth’s surface reflects a certain amount of the
incoming radiation back into the atmosphere. The ratio between the amount of
incoming radiation and the amount that is reflected is expressed as a percentage
and is called the albedo. The properties of the Earth’s surface determine what
percentage is reflected, and these properties vary from place to place. Water bodies,
grasslands, equatorial forests, deserts, ice masses, and urban areas all have
different albedos. An ice mass will reflect most of the radiation it receives, while a
dark, green, vegetated area will absorb most of the incoming radiation.
Consequently, the albedo varies from place to place on the Earth’s surface. Light-
coloured areas such as sandy deserts and ice masses reflect far more radiation
energy than dark coloured areas such as water bodies and vegetated areas.

I-albedo: Amandla elanga afinyelela emhlabeni ngemisebe yelanga

ebizwa nge-insolation. Umhlaba ubuyisela emkhathini umthamo othile
wemisebe ethile engenayo emhlabeni evela elangeni. Isilinganisonani
phakathi komthamo wemisebe engenayo kanye nomthamo wemisebe
ebuyiselwa emuva emkhathini siboniswa njengephesenti elithile futhi
lokhu kubizwa nge-albedo. Izici nezimo ezikhona phansi emhlabeni
yizona ezinomthelela ekutheni lingakanani izinga lemisebe yelanga
ebuyiselwa emkhathini, futhi lezi zimo nezici zihluke ngokwezindawo
ezihlukene. Amachibi amanzi, izimfunda (grasslands), ama-equatorial
forests (amahlathi atholakala ezindaweni ezinemvula eningi), ugwadule,
izindunduma zeqhwa, kanye nezindawo ezisemadolobheni konke
 21

kunama-albedo ahlukahlukene. Indunduma yeqhwa iyibuyisela emuva

imisebe eminingi eyitholayo evela elangeni, kanti izindawo
ezinamahlathi notshani obuningi ezinebala elimnyama noma eliluhlaza-
satshani ziyayimunca imisebe yelanga engenayo evela elangeni.
Ngenxa yalokhu-ke, i-albedo iya ngokwehluka ezindaweni
ezihlukahlukene emhlabeni. Izindawo ezinebala elikhanyayo (light-
coloured areas) njengogwadule olunesihlabathi kanye nezindunduma
zeqhwa zibuyisela emuva amandla emisebe amaningi uma
kuqhathaniswa nezindawo ezinebala elimnyama njengamachibi amanzi
kanye nezindawo ezinamahlathi nezitshalo eziningi.
Alternative tourism: A visit to a place or an area without degrading it by
mass consumption and without having to endure an overwhelming crowd of other
tourists. In order to achieve the two ideals contained in this definition a different type
of tourism, called alternative tourism, has developed over the past 30 years. To
achieve the first ideal, specific management steps have to be taken to prevent the
the more sensitive and fragile tourist sights from degradation caused by too many
tourists (see “carrying capacity”). If these managerial steps were not taken, the
destination might degrade to a point where its very success would destroy the
resource base. The second ideal is achieved by developing alternative tourist
destinations. While many people enjoy visiting mass destinations like Disneyland
and are not bothered by the crowds and the queues, a significant proportion of
tourists feel “crowded-out” and fear being trampled by the hordes of youngsters
running after Mickey Mouse. Entrepreneurs realised that there was a huge niche in
the tourist market and started to develop various types of alternative destinations to
cater for people who want to partake in tourism, but avoid mass tourist destinations.
Consequently, a multitude of widely varying, lower density alternative tourist
destinations have been developed over the past three decades. On a tourist density
continuum alternative tourism lies very far from mass tourism, but alternative tourist
destinations also form a continuum from relatively low-density destinations to the
most exclusive solitary eco-experiences. Alternative tourism will never replace mass
tourism, but its existence has grown the tourist market significantly.

Uzokuvakasha ezihlukile kulezo ezijwayelekile: Ukuvakashela

indawo ethile, kepha ungayicekeli phansi ngokusebenzisa nokuqeda
zonke izinsizakalo ezitholakala kuyona futhi ngaphandle kokugcwalisa
leyo ndawo ngabavakashi abaningi ngokweqile. Ngenhloso
yokufezekisa imigomo emibili equkethwe kule ncazelo, kule minyaka
engama-30 edlule sekuthuthukiswe uhlobo oluhlukile lwezokuvakasha,
olubizwa ngezokuvakasha ezihlukile kulezo ezijwayelekile. Ukufezekisa
umgomo wokuqala, kumele kuthathwe izinyathelo zokuphatha ezithile
ngenhloso yokuvimbela ukucekeleka phansi kwezizinda zokuvakasha
ezibucayi, okubangelwa yisiminyamninya sabavakashi abaningi
ngokweqile abavakashela indawo eyodwa ngesikhathi esisodwa (bheka
i-“carrying capacity”). Uma zingathathwa lezi zinyathelo, leyo ndawo
okuvakashelwa kuyona ingagcina isicekeleke phansi kangangokuthi
impumelelo ebangelwa wukuvakashelwa kwaleyo ndawo ingagcina
 22

isinomthelela ongemuhle obungalindelekile wokucekelela phansi

kwesimo sokwakheka kwaleyo ndawo kanye nemvelo, okuyiyona eheha
labo bavakashi abaningi. Umgomo wesibili ufezekiswa
ngokuthuthukiswa kwezinye izindawo zokuvakasha ezihlukile.
Nakuba abantu abaningi bekuthokozela ukuvakashela izindawo eziheha
abavakashi abaningi, njenge-Disneyland, futhi kungabakhathazi
nakancane ukugcwala ngokweqile kwabavakashi kuleyo ndawo kanye
nemigqa emide, kunabanye abantu abaningana impela
abangakuthandisisi lokhu ngoba bazizwa bempitshekile futhi
“bengakwazi nokuzinwaya” ngenxa yokugcwala kakhulu kwabantu
abasha abathokozile, abehla benyuka belandela noma besukela u-
Mickey Mouse. Osomabhizinisi babona ukuthi kunamathuba amaningi
futhi kunendima enkulu abangayidlala emakethe yezokuvakasha futhi
ngalokho-ke baqala ukuthuthukisa izinhlobo ezihlukahlukene zezindawo
zokuvakasha ezihlukile ngenhloso yokubhekelela labo bantu abanesifiso
sokuzibandakanya kwezokuvakasha, kodwa abangathandi
ukuvakashela lezo zindawo ezivakashelwa ngabantu abaningi kakhulu.
Ngenxa yalokho-ke, kule minyaka engama-30 edlule sekuthuthukiswe
izindawo zokuvakasha eziningi ezihlukile kulezo ezijwayelekile, futhi
ezingagcwali kakhulu. Uma kubhekwa isimo esiqhubekayo sokugcwala
nokuminyana kwabavakashi, umkhakha wezokuvakasha ohlukile
unomehluko omkhulu uma uqhathaniswa nokuvakasha okubandakanya
izindawo zokuvakasha eziheha abavakashi abaningi, kepha-ke
izindawo zokuvakasha ezihlukile kwezijwayelekile nazo zakha esazo
isimo esiqhubekayo esisukela kulezo zindawo zokuvakasha
ezingagcwali kakhulu kuya kulezo zindawo ezenzelwe abantu
abakhethekile abayingcosana kakhulu, lapho bezothokozela
ngokuphelele ubumnandi nokunethezeka okuhlinzekwa yimvelo.
Ezokuvakasha ezihlukile kwezijwayelekile ngeke neze zithathe indawo
yezindawo zokuvakasha ezivakashelwa ngabantu abaningi, kodwa-ke
ukuba khona kwazo sekuyikhulise kakhulu imakethe yezokuvakasha.
Anthropocentrism: A philosophical viewpoint that human interests should be
at the centre of all our actions in, and decisions about, the environment. Humans are
seen as more important than nature and nature actually only exists to provide for
humans. This is called utilitarianism (or sometimes utilism) and it means that the
only value of nature is that it serves as a resource for humankind. Nature has no
intrinsic value, and all environmental conservation, protection and management is
ultimately aimed at sustaining and improving human existence. Most of the
mainstream environmental sustainability views and theories are based in the notion
that the environment has to be managed in order to ensure a good life for the future
generations. Humans are seen as having the responsibility to protect the
environment for the wellbeing of the generations to come. Humans are therefore
accountable to the future generations for the condition of the environment they will
inherit. An anthropocentric viewpoint is in direct opposition to an envirocentric one
(see “ecocentrism”), where the environment is regarded as having intrinsic value,
 23

that is, value for its own sake, not for the sake of humans. The environmental
management that you will study in this Geography or Environmental Management
courses is underpinned by an anthropocentric philosophy. Envirocentric strategies
have never found enough traction to become mainstream ethical viewpoints on
which theory and practice could be based; they remain the ethics and ways of
thinking and doing of the radical fringe (that is, the fringe paradigms). (See
“accountability” and “genetically manipulated organism”.)

Ukubekwa phambili kwezidingo zabantu (anthropocentrism):

Umbono othi izidingo nezimfuno zabantu kumele kube wumongo
wazo zonke izinyathelo nezinqumo zethu mayelana nemvelo. Ngaphansi
kwalo mbono, abantu babonakala njengento ebaluleke ngaphezu
kwemvelo futhi empeleni ukuba khona kwemvelo kwenzelwe
ukuhlinzekela abantu kanye nokwanelisa izidingo zabo. Lokhu kubizwa
nge-utilitarianism (futhi ngesinye isikhathi kubizwa nge-utilism) futhi
kusho ukuthi imvelo ibaluleke ngento eyodwa nje kuphela, ukuba
wumthombo wempilo kubantu kanye nokwanelisa izidingo zabo. Imvelo
ayinakho ukubaluleka okuyisisekelo noma ukubaluleka kwangaphakathi
(intrinsic value), futhi yonke imisebenzi yokongiwa, ukuvikelwa kanye
nokuphathwa kwemvelo, iqondiswe ekusekeleni, ekusimamiseni kanye
nasekwenzeni ngcono impilo yabantu. Iningi lemibono namathiyori
ajwayelekile okusimama kwemvelo asekelwe phezu kwenkolelo yokuthi
imvelo kumele ilawulwe ngendlela efanele ngenhloso yokuqinisekisa
ukuthi izizukulwane zangomuso ziphila impilo enhle. Abantu babonakala
benesibopho sokuvikela imvelo ukuze kuqinisekiswe inhlalakahle
yezizukulwane ezizayo. Ngakho-ke kumele baphendule ngesimo
semvelo esiyotholwa yizukulwane zangomuso. Umbono obeka phambili
izidingo nezimfuno zabantu uphikisana ngokucacile nombono wokugxila
ezidingweni zemvelo (envirocentric) (bheka i-“ecocentrism”), lapho
imvelo ithathwa njengento enokubaluleka kwangaphakathi, okusho
ukuthi, ayigcini nje ngokubaluleka ngenhloso yokufezekisa izidingo
zabantu. Ukuphathwa kwemvelo ozofunda ngakho kulesi sifundo
seJografi noma esifundweni sokuPhathwa Nokulawulwa Kwemvelo
kusekelwe phezu kwefilosofi yokubekwa kwabantu nezidingo zabo
eqhulwini. Amasu agxile ezidingweni zemvelo awakaze abe nesasasa
ngokwanele ukuze abe yingxenye ephelele yezinkambiso ezilungileyo
okuzosuselwa kuzona amathiyori nezinkambiso ezithile; futhi lawo maso
asalokhu ethathwa njengenkambiso elungileyo kanye nendlela
yokucabanga, futhi awumphumela wezinkolelo ezingaphandle
kokucabanga okujwayelekile (fringe paradigms). (Bheka i-
“accountability” ne-“genetically manipulated organism”.)
Aquaculture: Farming with aquatic plants and animals. It does not include
commercial fishing in open ocean waters. Aquaculture is the deliberate cultivation
(breeding and feeding) of either salt or fresh water organisms, until they reach a
desired size when they are sold (marketed). It includes a variety of fish, crustaceans
 24

(such as shrimps and prawns), molluscs (such as mussels and oysters) and plants
such as edible waterlilies (known in South Africa as “waterblommetjies”), seaweed
and other plants believed to have either medicinal or agricultural applications (such
as fertilisers). It can be practised in artificial water bodies or in fenced-off portions of
existing salt or fresh water bodies. Fresh water species are mostly farmed in artificial
ponds such as on trout farms in the cooler regions of South Africa, for instance in
Mpumalanga, and in Lesotho. Oysters, mussels, shrimps and prawns are mostly
cultivated in portioned-off areas of shallow salt water bodies, like the oyster beds
(rows of baskets) in the Knysna lagoon. Aquaculture is a very old industry. It dates
from long before the Roman Empire and has been practised for hundreds or even
thousands of years in China, India, Japan, South-East Asia, South America and
Europe. The volume and value of aquaculture production has been steadily
increasing since the 1950s, but it is doubtful that the industry will ever overtake
commercial fishing as a food source. Breeding purely decorative koi fish and
cultivating oysters to produce cultured pearls, are sometimes classified as
aquaculture and sometimes not. Crayfish is not bred in aquaculture enterprises,
simply because it has not yet been accomplished successfully and crayfish grows so
slowly that its agricultural profitability is doubtful.

I-aquaculture: Ukulinywa kwezitshalo eziphila emanzini nokufuywa

kwezilwane zasemanzini. Lokhu kubandakanya nokudotshwa
kwezinhlanzi olwandle ngenhloso yokuthengisa ezimakethe ezinkulu. I-
aquaculture ichaza ukulinywa nokufunywa (ukuzalaniswa
nokuphakelwa) kwezilwane nezitshalo eziphila olwandle noma eziphila
emifuleni, zize zikhule ngokwanene futhi emva kwalokho bese
zithengiswa ezimakethe. Lokhu kubandakanya izinhlobo
ezihlukahlukene zezinhlanzi, ama-crustaceans (njengama-shrimps
kanye nama-prawns), iminenke (njengama-mussels nama-oysters)
kanye nezitshalo ezinjengama-edible waterlilies (aziwa eNingizimu
Afrika ngegama lesiBhunu elithi “waterblommetjies”), ukhula
lwasolwandle (seaweed) kanye nezinye izitshalo okukholakala ukuthi
zingaba wusizo kwezokwelapha noma kwezolimo (okusho ukuthi
zingatshenziswa njengomanyolo). I-aquaculture ingenziwa amadanyini
noma emachibini amanzi okuzenzela (okusho ukuthi enziwe ngabantu)
kanye nasezingxenyeni zolwandle noma zemifula ekhona njengamanje
ezibiyelwe. Izitshalo nezilwanyana ezilinywa noma zifuywe emanzini
omfula, okusho, amanzi angenawo usawoti, zifuywe ikakhulukazi
emachibini okuzakhela (artificial) njengama-trout farms ezifundeni
ezipholile zaseNingizimu Afrika, njengasesifundazweni
saseMpumalanga, futhi lokhu kuyenziwa nasezweni lase-Lesotho. Ama-
oysters, mussels, shrimps kanye nama-prawns alinywa ikakhulukazi
ezindaweni ezibiyeliwe zezingxenye zolwandle ezinamanzi angashoni
kakhulu phansi, njengama-oyster beds (obhasikidi abaklelisiwe) afuywa
e-Knysna lagoon. I-aquaculture yimboni eyaqala emandulo, ngaphambi
kwezikhathi zoMbuso wamaRoma futhi seyiqhutshwe amakhulu-khulu
noma izinkulungwane ngezinkulungwane zeminyaka kwelase-China,
 25

India, Japan, South-East Asia, South America kanye nase-Europe.

Umthamo nobukhulu bomkhiqizo we-aquaculture ulokhu ukhule njalo
kusukela ngeminyaka yawo-1950, kepha-ke kuyangabazeka ukuthi le
mboni iyokwazi ukukhula idlule umkhakha wokudoba ngenhloso
yokuthengisa ezimakethe (commercial fishing) njengomthombo wokudla.
Ukuzalanisa uhlobo lwenhlanzi olubizwa nge-purely decorative koi fish
kanye nokulima ama-oysters ngenhloso yokukhiqiza ama-cultured
pearls, kwesinye isikhathi kubizwa nge-aquaculture kodwa futhi
ngesinye kuyenzeka kungabizwa nge-aquaculture. U-Crayfish awufuywa
emabhizinisini e-aquaculture, ngenxa yokuthi imizamo yokwenza lokhu
ayikabonisi ukuba yimpumelelo ephathekayo futhi u-crayfish ukhula
ngesivinini esiphansi kakhulu okwenza kube nongabazane mayelana
nokuthi lo msebenzi ungaba nayo yini inzuzo noma cha.
Aquifer: Another name for an aquifer is a “water carrier”. It is a water bearing or
water containing layer or layers of rock. These rocks contain spaces between their
particles and water could occupy these interstices. Such rocks are called
permeable. Rocks that are permeable contain spaces (called interstices, interstitial
spaces or pores) between the solid particles and water may seep into these spaces,
which makes the rock a water carrier or an aquifer. Should a borehole be drilled into
such a rockbed, the interstitial water (that is, the water in the pore spaces between
the particles) may be extracted. Some aquifers may contain enormous volumes of
water, and the Ogallala Aquifer in Kansas and Nebraska, USA, is probably the most
well-known one in the world as it provides irrigation water for one of the world’s most
productive agricultural regions. Underneath the sands of the Sahara Desert an
enormous aquifer is said to exist. But it does not mean the whole Sahara could be
irrigated for crop cultivation since salinisation of the soil might occur (see
“salinisation”). Some rocks are not permeable (called impermeable rocks or
aquicludes), that is, the particles that constitute the rock are so densely arranged
that there are no spaces between them for water to occupy; these rocks are not
aquifers, that is, they carry no or very little extractable water and will never serve as
significant underground water sources. (See “drainage basin”.)

I-aquifer: Elinye igama le-aquifer “yisithwali-manzi”. Lokhu

wunqenqema lwamadwala aqukethe amanzi. Lawa ngamadwala
anezikhala phakathi kwezinhlayiyana zawo futhi kuyenzeka kube
namanzi phakathi kwalezo zikhala. Amadwala anjalo abizwa
ngamadwala avumela uketshezi ukuba lungene futhi ludlule kalula
kuwona (permeable). Amadwala avumela uketshezi ukuthi ludlule
kalula aqukethe izikhala (ezibizwa ngama-interstices, interstitial spaces
noma izimbotshana) eziphakathi kwezinhlayiyana eziqinile zedwala futhi
kuyenzeka amanzi angene kulezi zikhala, okwenza leli dwala libe
yisithwali-manzi noma i-aquifer. Uma kugujwa ipitsi elingena lijule
edwaleni ngaphansi komhlaba amanzi asezikhaleni eziphakathi
kwamadwala (interstitial water) (okusho, amanzi asezimbotsheni
phakathi kwezinhlayiya zamadwala) angadonswa noma amuncwe eze
ngaphezulu emhlabeni. Amanye ama-aquifers kuyenzeka abe namanzi
 26

amaningi kakhulu futhi i-Ogallala Aquifer ese-Kansas nase-Nebraska,

kwelase-USA, iyona edume kakhulu emhlabeni jikelele njengoba
ihlinzeka ngamanzi okunisela izitshalo kwesinye sezifunda zolimo
esikhiqiza ukudla okuningi impela emhlabeni. Ngaphansi kwezihlabathi
ze-Sahara Desert kukhona i-aquifer enkulukazi. Kodwa-ke lokhu akusho
ukuthi lonke ugwadule lwe-Sahara lunganiselwa ngenhloso yokulima
izintshalo, ngoba phela lokho kungaholela ekukhuleni komthamo
kasawoti emhlabathini (bheka i-“salinisation”). Amanye amadwala
awakhekile ngendlela eyenza akwazi ukuvumela amanzi ukuthi angene
futhi adlule ngaphakathi kuwona (abizwa ngamadwala angakuvumeli
ukudlula kwamanzi (impermeable) noma ama-aquicludes
(okungamadwala akwaziyo ukumunca nokugcina amanzi kodwa-ke
angakwazi ukudlulisa lawo manzi ngokwezinga elanele futhi elikulungele
ukuhlinzeka iziphethu noma imithombo ngamanzi), okusho ukuthi,
izinhlayiya ezakhe idwala ziminyene kakhulu kangangokuthi akubi khona
nesincane isikhala phakathi kwezinhlayiya, okwenza ukuthi idwala
lingakwazi ukumunca nokumumatha amanzi; amadwala anjengalawa
awawona ama-aquifers, okusho ukuthi, awanawo nakancane amanzi
noma-ke aqukethe amanzi amancane kakhulu angeke adonseke eze
ngaphezu komhlaba futhi angeke neze abe ngumthombo wamanzi avela
ngaphansi komhlaba. (Bheka i-“drainage basin”.)
Attraction: A place, phenomenon, view, landscape, opportunity, activity or event
that people want to see, view, partake in or be present at. In Geography and
environmental management, the term is mostly used with regard to commuting,
migration, tourism, economic activity and service provision. Places might be
attractive because they offer job opportunities (for instance Zimbabweans and
Malawians who seek employment in South Africa), access to important religious
rituals and activities (for instance the annual hajj pilgrimage to Mecca), beautiful
golden beaches (as in Durban, Cape Town and Rio de Janeiro), magnificent
waterfalls (such as the Iguassú Falls beween Brazil and Argentina, and the Victoria
Falls between Zimbabwe and Zambia), or huge waves to surf (as in Hawaii or Bondi
Beach in Australia). Attractions generate human movement and from the examples
mentioned above, it should be clear that a lot of that movement takes place across
international boundaries. Political agreements that facilitate unhindered movement
between different countries in order to view a tourist sight from all sides have long
been in place. Few tourists realise that they cross the Brazilian-Argentinein border
while they are out on a trip to view the Iguassú waterfalls. A relatively new and fast-
growing form of cross-border movement has been created by the development of
trans-boundary wildlife or nature reserves. South Africa already shares trans-
boundary parks with Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia and Lesotho. In
these parks and reserves the physical boundaries have actually been removed and a
traveller does not even know that he/she has entered a different country. This
unrestricted movement of tourist groups over state boundaries to view spectacular
natural features was brought about by political negotiations culminating in
international agreements, but one has to bear in mind that there is a distinct political
component enmeshed in transboundary environmental developments. (See
“refugee”.)
 27

Izizinda ezikhangayo: Indawo, isimangaliso, umbukwane omuhle,

ingxenye yezwe ebukeka kahle kakhulu, ithuba, okuthile okwenziwayo
noma isigameko, abangathanda ukukubona noma ukukubukela abantu,
noma ukubamba iqhaza kukhona noma ukuba khona lapho kwenzeka
noma ukuba yingxenye yakho. Kujografi nezokuphathwa kwemvelo, leli
temu lisetshenziswa ikakhulukazi kwezokuhamba kanye nokwehla
nokwenyuka kwabantu besuka endaweni ethile beya kwenye,
ukufuduka, ukuvakasha, izenzo eziphathelene nomnotho kanye
nokuhlinzekwa kwezinsizakalo. Izindawo ezithile kungenzeka zikhange
kubantu ngoba phela zihlinzeka ngamathuba omsebenzi (isibonelo,
abantu baseZimbabwe nabaseMalawi abafudukela eNingizimu Afrika
ngoba bethungatha amathuba omsebenzi), noma zihlinzeka ngethuba
lokufinyelela emicimbini nemikhosi yezenkolo esemqoka kakhulu
(isibonelo, uhambo lwe-hajj lwaminyaka yonke oluyingcwele oluya e-
Mecca), amabhishi amahle kakhulu (njengaseThekwini, e-Cape Town
kanye nase-Rio de Janeiro), izimpophoma ezinobuhle obumangalisayo
(njenge-Iguassú Falls phakathi kwe-Brazil ne-Argentina, kanye ne-
Victoria Falls phakathi kwe-Zimbabwe ne-Zambia), noma amagagasi
amakhulu okuntweza kamnandi olwandle (njengase-Hawaii noma e-
Bondi Beach kwelase-Australia). Izizinda ezikhangayo ziholela ekutheni
abantu bafuduke noma behle benyuka, futhi uma kubhekwa lezi
zibonelo ezihlinzekwe lapha ngenhla, kuyacaca ukuthi ukuhamba
nokuvakasha kwabantu kuyenzeka naphakathi kwemingcele yamazwe
ngamazwe. Sekuyisikhathi impela eside amazwe omhlaba enza
izivumelwano zepolitiki ezivumela ukuthi abantu bavakashe
ngokukhululeka phakathi kwemingcele yamazwe ahlukahlukene,
bayobona izindawo ezikhangayo emazweni angaphandle. Bayingcosana
abakuphawulayo ukuthi beqa umngcele ophakathi kwe-Brazil ne-
Argentina ngenkathi besohambweni lokuvakashela impophoma yase-
Iguassú. Olunye uhlobo olusha futhi olukhula ngesivinini esikhulu
lokuvakasha kwabantu phakathi kwemingcele yamazwe ahlukene
lwenziwe ngokwakhiwa nokuthuthukiswa kweziqiwu namapaki
agxamalazele imingcele yamazwe amabili noma ngaphezulu. INingizimu
Afrika inazo iziqiwu ezinjengalezi phakathi kwayo ne-Mozambique,
Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia kanye ne-Lesotho. Kulawa mapaki
neziqiwu, isusiwe imingcele phakathi kwamazwe futhi isivakashi noma
isihambi asikwazi ukubona uma sesiphumile ezweni elithile sesingene
kwelinye. Lokhu kuhamba kwezivakashi ngokukhululeka, zinqamule
imingcele yamazwe ahlukahlukene ziyobona ubuhle bemvelo
obumangalisayo, kuwumphumela wezingxoxo nokubonisana
kwezepolitiki eziholele ekutheni kusayinwe izivumelwano phakathi
kwamazwe ahlukahlukene, kepha-ke umuntu kumele akhumbule ukuthi
izimo ezithile eziphathelene nezepolitiki zihlala zikhona ngaphakathi
 28

kwezinto ezenzekayo eziphathelene nezemvelo, ezenzeka phakathi

kwemingcele yamazwe ahlukene. (Bheka i-“refugee”.)
Attribute data: The particulars and details that describe a person, place, activity
or phenomenon. It is a very difficult term to define since the terms “attribute” and
“data” are often used interchangeably in Geography. In fact, it has more to do with
the capturing of data (electronically or manually) in a database or on maps than
anything else. Geographers deal with spatially distributed data and with the spatial
patterns described by the data (see “spatial distribution”). Every piece of data that is
of interest to geographers has two main characteristics: firstly, it is, or comes from,
somewhere (that is a spatial characteristic), and secondly it is or has some
quality that is of interest to geographers. This quality is a descriptive characteristic
or an attribute. Geographers study spatial patterns, that is, the way in which
attributes are distributed within a specific area, namely the study area. The subject
of the investigation might be the occurrence of flu in a specific area. The study area
is defined and then demarcated on a map (see “demarcation”). Secondly, all the
people who live in the area are plotted on this map by means of their addresses.
Now we have a map covered with dots. The spatial distribution of the people in the
study area has therefore been graphically described (that is, the pattern can be seen
on the map). But some of these people (dots) have the flu and some do not. If the
dots representing the people who have the flu are coloured red and those who do
not have the flu are coloured blue, we can clearly see the spatial distribution pattern
of the flu in the study area. The dots carry the spatial data and the colour (of the
dots) carries the attribute data.

Idatha yesici nobunjalo bento ethile: Imininingwane echaza umuntu,

indawo, isenzo noma isimangaliso esithile. Kunzima kakhulu ukulichaza
leli temu ngoba esikhathini esiningi kuJografi igama elithi “isici” kanye
negama elithi “idatha” avamise ukusetshenziswa njengamagama
anomqondo ofanayo. Empeleni, leli temu lisondelene kakhulu
nokuqoqwa nokugcinwa kwedatha (ngobuxhakaxhaka bekhompyutha
noma ngesandla) kwisizindalwazi noma kumabalazwe ngaphezu
kwakho konke okunye. Izazi zejografi zisebenza ngedatha esabalele
ngokwendawo kanye namaphethini aphathelene nendawo achazwe
yidatha (bheka i-“spatial distribution”). Zonke izingcezwana zedatha
ezinokubaluleka okuthile kwizazi zejografi zinezici ezimbili eziyinhloko:
isici sokuqala, idatha itholakala noma ivela endaweni ethile( lokhu yisici
esiphathelene nendawo), futhi isici sesibili wukuthi inesimo sobunjalo
(quality) esithile esibalulekile kwizazi zejografi. Lesi simo sobunjalo
siyisici esichazayo noma siyisici sobunjalo bento. Izazi zejografi
zicubungula futhi zicwaninge amaphethini endawo atholakala
ngaphakathi endaweni ethile, okusho indawo okwenziwa kuyona
ucwaningo. Isihloko socwaningo kungenzeka ukuthi mhlawumbe nje
kube wucwaningo lokuhlola ukuba khona komkhuhlane endaweni ethile
kanye nokuthi usabalale kangakanani. Indawo okwenziwa kuyona
ucwaningo iyachazwa bese iklanywa kwibalazwe (bheka i-
“demarcation”). Okwesibili, bonke abantu abahlala kuleyo ndawo
 29

bayahlonzwa ukuthi bahlala kuphi ngokwenza amachashazi kuleli

balazwe kusetshenziswa amakheli abo. Manje sesinebalazwe eligcwele
amachashazi. Ngalokhu-ke ukusabalala kwabantu endaweni ethile
okwenziwa kuyona ucwaningo sekuchazwe ngemidwebo (okusho
ukuthi, amaphethini ayabonakala ebalazweni). Kodwa-ke abanye
balaba bantu (amachashazi) banomkhuhlane futhi abanye babo
abanawo umkhuhlane. Uma amachashazi amele abantu
abanomkhuhlane enombala obomvu futhi amachashazi alabo
abangenawo umkhuhlane enombala oluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka (blue),
sikubona ngokucacile ukusabalala ngokwendawo komkhuhlane
endaweni okwenziwa kuyona ucwaningo. Amachashazi aqukethe idatha
yokusabalala kwabantu ngokwendawo, kanti umbala (wamachashazi)
wona uqukethe idatha yesici esibonisa ubunjalo.
Azimuth: The direction of an object or place from any specific point or place as
measured on a map by means of a protractor. The true north-south line (meridian) is
taken as the line of reference (see “geographical coordinate system”) and azimuth is
always measured in a clockwise direction from that line. It is expressed as an
angular distance from true north. Thus a place may be located at N 42° E, or at N
127° E, or at N 193° W, or at N 294° W or any other location east or west of the
north-south line. (See “bearing” and “location”.)

I-azimuth): Inkomba ye-direction yento ethile noma indawo, kusuka

ephoyintini elithile noma endaweni ethile njengoba ikalwe ebalazweni
kusetshenziswa i-protractor. Umugqa woqobo obonisa inyakatho
neningizimu (true north-south line) (i-meridian) uthathwa njengomugqa
oyinkomba (bheka i-“geographical coordinate system”) futhi njalo i-
azimuti ikalwa kusuka kwesobunxele kuya kwesokudla (clockwise)
kusuka kulowo mugqa. Iboniswa njengebanga elinesimo se-engela
(angular distance) kusuka kwinyakatho yoqobo. Ngakho-ke indawo
ethile kungenzeka ibe ku-N 42° E, noma ku-N 127° E, noma ku-N 193°
W, noma ku-N 294° W noma endaweni ethile esempumalanga noma
entshonalanga yomugqa osuka enyakatho uye eningizimu. (Bheka i-
“bearing” kanye ne-“location”.)
B
Bearing: The direction of a place, point of reference or an object as measured
by a compass from the vantage point of the observer. Bearing differs from azimuth in
that bearing can never be more than 90° and can be measured from either north or
south. When the observer must look in a northerly direction to see an object and
measures the angle between the object and the north-south line to be 15° to the east
of the north-south line, its bearing (that is, the direction one should follow to find it) is
N 15° E. When the observer must look in a southerly direction to see the object and
measures the angle between his/her sightline and the north-south line to be 35° to
the west of south, the bearing of the object is located at S 35° W. To complicate
matters, the observer has to take into account that true north (geographic north) and
magnetic north do not coincide. Bearing can be taken from either the magnetic
 30

north-south line, or the geographic (or true) north-south line. If the direction of the
object is measured with a compass, the magnetic north-south line is used and a
correction must be made to find the actual location of the observed object. In order to
do that, one must know what magnetic declination is (see “magnetic declination”).
Twenty years ago one went into the wilderness with a compass and had to know
basic navigation skills to establish exactly where you were; today one grabs a GPS
and off you go – until the GPS’s battery runs down!

I-bearing: Inkomba yendawo, iphoyinti eliyinkomba noma inkomba

yento uma ikalwe kusetshenziswa ikhampasi ngokweso elikahle lomuntu
obukelayo. I-bearing ihlukile kwi-azimuth njengoba phela i-bearing
ngeke neze ibe ngaphezu kuka 90° futhi ikaleka kusuka kukona kokubili,
inyakatho noma iningizimu. Uma umuntu obukelayo kudingeka ukuthi
abheke ngasenyakatho ukuze abone into ethile futhi ekala i-engela
phakathi kwaleyo nto nomugqa osuka enyakatho uye eningizimu ethola
ukuthi ime ku-15°ngasempumalanga komugqa osuka enyakatho uye
eningizimu, i-bearing yalokho (okusho, inkomba yohlangothi okumele
umuntu alulandele ukuze ayithole) isuke ingu-N 15° E. Uma kudingeka
ukuthi umuntu obukelayo abheke ngaseningizimu ukuze abone into
ethile, futhi uma ekala i-engela phakathi kwalokho akubonayo noma
akubhekile kanye nomugqa osuka enyakatho uye eningizimu ethola
ukuthi ime ku-35°ngasentshonalanga yeningizimu, i-bearing yaleyo nto
itholakala ku-S 35° W. Futhi okwenza kube nzima kakhulu ukuqonda
lokhu, umuntu obukelayo kumele akhumbule ukuthi inyakatho yoqobo
(inyakatho ngokwejografi) ayihambelani ne-magnetic north. I-bearing
ingathathwa kusuka ku-magnetic north-south line, noma ku-geographic
north-south line (okuyi-north-south line yoqobo). Uma inkomba yesimo
sento ethile ikalwa ngekhampasi futhi kusetshenziswa i-magnetic north-
south line kumele kwenziwe isilungiso ukuze kutholakale indawo yoqobo
okume kuyona into ebonakele. Ukwenza lokho, umuntu kumele azi
ukuthi yini i-magnetic declination (bheka i-“magnetic declination”).
Eminyakeni engama-20 edlule, uma umuntu ehamba ehlane ephethe
ikhampasi kwakudingeka ukuthi abe namakhono ayisisekelo okuhamba
endaweni eyihlane ukuze athole ngokuphelele futhi ngokuqondile ukuthi
ukuphi; kepha kulezi zinsuku umuntu uthatha i-GPS angene indlela –
kuze kufike isikhathi lapho i-GPS yakhe iphelelwa yi-battery!
Biodiversity (biological diversity): The variety of plants and animals found in
any specific area, habitat, ecosystem or ecozone. The total variety of living
organisms – that is all living things present – in the specified area are included.
Humans are usually not included in a biodiversity survey, but in the true sense of the
term they should be included. Different areas on Earth contain different varieties and
numbers of living organisms. An area of low biodiversity is one where there are only
a few types (species) of living organisms and only a few specimens of each type; an
area with a high biodiversity is the exact opposite. The carrying capacity of an area
to sustain biological life depends on many factors, such as climate, soil type, altitude,
and human activities. Sandy, hot deserts and cold, large ice masses are good
 31

examples of areas with low biodiversity. Such areas are not devoid of any living
organisms, but the number of species as well the numbers of individuals of each
species will be low. The warm, humid tropical forests sustain a rich variety of
vegetation and many different animals and insects, and represent areas of high
biodiversity; these areas are the so-called biodiversity paradises. The island of
Madagascar was once one of the areas of extremely high biodiversity – a true
biodiversity paradise. Unfortunately, human beings have nearly destroyed the
island’s biodiversity through deforestation and hunting. Certain animals, such as the
dodo bird, have been hunted to extinction and deforestation and erosion have
destroyed the habitats of many other animals and plants. (See “extinction”, “natural
selection” and “habitat destruction”.)

Impilokwahlukana (biological diversity): Izitshalo kanye nezilwane

ezihlukahlukene ezitholakala endaweni ethile, indawo okutholakala
kuyona izilwane nezitshalo (habitat), impilondawonye (ecosystem) noma
indawo enkulukazi okutholakala kuyona izilwane nezitshalo (ecozone).
Lokhu kubandakanya zonke zonke izinto eziphilayo ezitholakala
endaweni ethile. Esikhathini esiningi abantu ababandakanywa
ocwaningweni lwe-biodiversity, kodwa-ke kumele ngokwempela
babandakanywe. Izindawo eziningi emhlabeni ziqukethe izinhlobo
ezihlukahlukene zezinto eziningi eziphilayo. Indawo ene-biodiversity
ephansi yileyo ndawo lapho kutholakala izinhlobo zezinto eziphilayo
eziyingcosana kakhulu; indawo ene-biodiversity ephakeme yona ihluke
kakhulu kulokhu okushiwo ngenhla ngoba phela yona inenqwaba
yezinto eziphilayo ezinhlobonhlobo ezitholakala lapho. Amandla endawo
ethile okuthwala nokuphilisa izinto eziphilayo ezihlukahlukene ancike
ezimweni eziningana, njengesimo sezulu, uhlobo lomhlabathi, ibanga
lokuphakama kwaleyo ndawo kusuka olwandle (altitude), kanye
nemisebenzi eyenziwa ngabantu kuleyo ndawo. Izindawo
ezinesihlabathi, ugwadule olushisayo, izindawo ezibandayo kanye
nezindawo ezineqhwa eliningi yizindawo eziyisibonelo esihle sezindawo
ezine-biodiversity ephansi. Lokhu akusho ukuthi izindawo ezinjengalezi
azinazo izitshalo nezilwane eziphila lapho ngoba empeleni zikhona,
kepha-ke ziyingcosana izinhlobo zalokhu ezitholakala lapho. Izindawo
ezinamahlathi afudumele futhi ezinomswakama ziyakwazi ukugcina
nokuphilisa izinhlobonhlobo zezitshalo kanye nezilwane nezinambuzane
eziningi futhi ezinhlobonhlobo futhi lezi yizindawo ezithathwa
njengezindawo ezine-biodiversity ephakeme; lezi zindawo zibizwa
ngokuthi ngamapharadesi ezilwane nezitshalo ezinhlobonhlobo
(biodiversity paradises). Esikhathini esedlule isiqhingi sase-
Madagascar sasithathwa njengendawo ene-biodiversity ephakeme
kakhulu – okuyi-biodiversity paradise yoqobo. Ngelishwa-ke, abantu
sebezicekele phansi izitshalo nezilwane eziningi ebezitholakala kulesi
siqhingi, ngokugawula amahlathi nokuzingela izinyamazane ngokweqile.
Izilwane ezithile, njengenyoni i-dodo bird, sezizingelwe zaze zaphela
 32

nya futhi ukugawulwa kwamahlathi ngokweqile kanye nokuguguleka

komhlabathi sekucekele phansi izindawo obekutholakala kuzona ezinye
izilwane kanye nezitshalo eziningi. (Bheka i-“extinction”, “natural
selection” kanye ne-“habitat destruction”.)
Biome: A large, global ecosystem (see “ecosystem”). Each biome’s name
comes from the dominant type of natural vegetation that typifies it. Thus there are,
inter alia, temperate grassland, tundra, coniferous forest, and warm desert biomes.
The main natural factors which control the nature of any biome are climate and soil
type. A biome can extend across an entire continent or a large part of it. Comparable
biomes occur on a number of continents, for example warm deserts occur in Africa,
Australia, North America, South America, and Asia. Cold deserts and tundras occur
in the northern parts of Europe, Asia, North America and the southern extremities of
South America. Savannas (savannahs), grasslands, equatorial forests and tropical
east coast forests occur on a whole number of continents, notably a strikingly large
region of Africa.

Umphakathi omkhulukazi wezilwane nezitshalo ezitholakala

endaweni ethile (biome): Impilandawonye enkulukazi, yomhlaba
wonke (bheka i-“ecosystem”). Igama le-biome ngayinye livela kulolo
hlobo lwezitshalo olutholakala kakhulu endaweni ethile. Ngakho-ke,
phakathi kokunye, kukhona odedangendlale bezimfunda ezonotshani
(temperate grassland), amathafa angenazo izihlahla (tundra), amahlathi
kaphayini (coniferous forest), kanye nezilwane nezitshalo ezitholakala
ogwadule olufudumele (warm desert biomes). Izimongqangi zemvelo
okuyizona ezilawula imvelo yanoma iyiphi i-biome yisimo sezulu kanye
nohlobo lomhlabathi. I-biome ingatholakala kwizwekazi lonkana noma
engxenyeni enkulu yezwekazi. Ama-biomes anjengalawa atholakala
kumazwekazi amaningi ahlukahlukene, isibonelo, e-Afrika, Australia,
North America, South America, nase-Asia. Ugwadule olubandayo kanye
nama-tundra kutholakala ezingxenyeni ezisenyakatho yezwekazi lase-
Europe, Asia, North America kanye nasezindaweni ezisonqenqemeni
oluseningizimu lwezwekazi lase-South America. Izinkangala
(savannahs), ama-grasslands, ama-equatorial forests kanye nama-
tropical east coast forests kutholakala emazwekazini amaningi impela,
ikakhulukazi engxenyeni enkulukazi yesifunda sase-Afrika.
Biosphere: The region of the Earth and the atmosphere in which life exists. This
region stretches from approximately 7 000 metres above sea-level on the
landmasses to more than 10 000 metres below sea-level in the oceans. Note that it
encompasses the Earth’s surface, the oceans and the lower atmosphere. It could be
called the interface or overlap of land, water and air, in other words the region where
the solid, gaseous and liquid states of matter meet.

Umkhathimpilo (biosphere): Isifunda esisemhlabeni kanye

nasemkhathini lapho kutholakala khona izinto eziphilayo. Lesi sifunda
sisukela cishe ebangeni elingamamitha ayizi-7 000 ukusuka olwandle,
 33

ezindaweni ezingaphakathi emhlabeni kuyofinyelela ngaphezu

kwamamitha ayizi-10 000 emajukujukwini olwandle. Qaphela ukuthi
lokhu kufaka phakathi izindawo ezisemhlabeni, eziphakathi olwandle
kanye nalezo ezisengxenyeni ephansi yomkhathi. Lokhu kungabizwa
ngendawo ehlanganisa noma exhumanisa umhlaba, amanzi kanye
nomoya, ngamanye amazwi, lesi yisifunda lapho kuhlangana khona
izinto eziqinile noma ezijiyile (solid), nezinto eziwumoya kanye nalezo
ezingamanzi.
Biotechnology: The technique of using living organisms, or components (such
as enzymes) derived from living organisms, to produce new materials or to degrade
(exterminate) existing unwanted organic substances. The biological control of micro-
organisms or insects that destroy crops and harvests is a very important branch of
science nowadays. It is often more environmentally friendly and far cheaper to use a
natural organism or organically derived substance to control or destroy insects or
pests that destroy crops. The use of artificial insecticides and herbicides is expensive
and environmentally unsound as many organisms that do no damage to crops might
also – directly or indirectly – be destroyed. Furthermore, organisms develop an
immunity to insecticides, which leaves us with no defence against them. However, all
biotechnology is not aimed at destroying organisms; it is also used extensively in the
development of new, resistant, high-production species of crop plants and in the
development of new beneficial medicinal compounds and preparations.

Ibhayothekhnoloji: Indlela yokusebenzisa izinto eziphilayo, noma

izingxenye (izikhuthaza-lushintsho, noma ama-enzayimu) ezithathwe
ezintweni eziphilayo, ukukhiqiza noma ukuqeda nokususa izinto ezithile
eziphilayo ezingathandeki. Ukulawula ngokwemvelo izilwanyazana
noma izinambuzane eziwuhlupho ezicekela phansi izitshalo nezivuno
wumkhakha wezesayensi osemqoka kakhulu kulezi zinsuku. Esikhathini
esiningi lokhu kwenzeka ngendlela engayicekeli phansi imvelo futhi
kushibhile kakhulu ukusebenzisa izilwanyazana eziphilayo noma
ezakheke ngokwemvelo ukulawula nokubulala izinambuzane noma
izilwanyazana eziwuhlupho ezicekela phansi izitshalo. Ukusetshenziswa
kwezibulali-zinambuzane noma izibulali-zitshalo zokuzenzela kumba
eqolo futhi kucekela phansi imvelo ngoba kuyenzeka kubulale
nezilwanyazana eziningi ezimsulwa, ezingelona neze uhlupho futhi
ezingawenzi umonakalo ezitshalweni. Ngaphezu kwalokho, izibulali-
zinambuzane zigcina zingasazweli kwezinye izinambuzane
eziwuhlupho, okwenza singabi nayo indlela ewusizo yokuvikela izitshalo
zethu kulezo zilwanyazana eziwuhlupho. Kodwa-ke, ibhayothekhnoloji
ayenzelwe nje kuphela ukubulala izilwanyazana eziwuhlupho; ngoba
phela isetshenziswa kakhulu futhi nasekuthuthukisweni kwezinhlobo
zezitshalo ezintsha ezikwaziyo ukumelana nezimo ezinzima, futhi
ezikhiqizeka ngomthamo omkhulu, futhi ibhayothekhnoloji
iyasetshenziswa nasekuthuthukisweni kwemithi namakhambi okwelapha
awusizo olukhulu.
 34

C
Cadastral maps: Maps that show property boundaries and other administrative
boundaries, land registration and tenure information. Private and state properties all
over the surveyed world are registered and deeds offices keep all the records and all
registration details of the property. Any map that shows these boundaries is a
cadastral map. International, district, county, municipal and provincial boundaries are
also indicated on these maps. One needs a relatively large scale map (like 1:50 000)
to indicate farm boundaries, but no small urban properties can be mapped on that
scale. For urban properties, such as those in a certain suburb of a city, a larger scale
(like 1:10 000 or preferably 1:1 000) would be needed. Cadastral maps are
indispensable for urban planning, service provision, property tax collection, property
transactions, solving of boundary and ownership disputes, spatial analyses,
geotechnical investigations, environmental impact assessments, and many other
purposes. In South Africa we are fortunate to have excellent cadastral map series on
different scales. The same cannot be said about most developing countries. Land
tenure systems also vary from region to region on Earth. In tribal regions, land
registration and cadastral mapping do not apply. In the former USSR, all land
belonged to the State, and no cadastral system was even developed until the USSR
dissolved in 1991 and private ownership of land became part of their new reality. In
the Sahara Desert nomadic Bedouins move from oasis to oasis (see “salinisation”)
and they do not even know in which country they are at any specific time! But the
nomads know which oasis “belongs” to whom, which ones may be used and which
should be avoided. So they have no need of cadastral maps to settle these matters.
The same applies to many regions such as the Amazonian forests, the Mongolian
deserts, the tribal savannahs and grazing lands of East Africa, the barren
Patagonian tundra, the high Himalayan ranges, and so forth. In fact, the larger part
of the land on Earth is not cadastrally mapped, since there has never been a need
for it.

Amabalazwe abonisa ubunikazi bomhlaba: Amabalazwe abonisa

imingcele yomhlaba kanye neminye imingcele ephathelene nokuphatha
nokulawula, kanye nokubhaliswa komhlaba kanye nolwazi
oluphathelene nokuhlaliswa kwabantu emhlabeni othile. Umhlaba
wabahlali kanye nabantu abazimele, kanye nomhlaba wombuso kuzo
zonke izindawo ezicwaningiwe uyabhaliswa, futhi amahhovisi
amatayitela agcina wonke amarekhodi kanye nemininingwane
yokubhaliswa komhlaba. Noma yiliphi ibalazwe elibonisa le mingcele
liyibalazwe lobunikazi bomhlaba. Imingcele yamazwe ngamazwe,
izifunda, omasipala kanye nezifundazwe nayo iyaboniswa kulawa
mabalazwe. Umuntu udinga ibalazwe elinobubanzi obukhulu impela
(njengobubanzi obungu-1:50 000) ukubonisa imingcele yamapulazi,
kepha-ke ibalazwe elinobubanzi obukhulu kangako ngeke likwazi
ukubonisa imihlaba emincane. Ukubonisa imihlaba esezindaweni
zasemadolobheni, njengasendaweni ethile okuhlala kuyona abantu
edolobheni elithile, kudingeka ibalazwe elinobubanzi obukhulu impela
(njengobubanzi obungu-1:10 000 futhi kungaba kuhle kakhulu uma
ububanzi bungaba wu-1:1 000). Amabalazwe abonisa ubunikazi
 35

bomhlaba asemqoka kakhulu futhi awusizo ekuhlelweni kwezindawo

ezisemadolobheni, ekuhlinzekweni kwezidingongqangi, ekuqoqweni
kwentela yomhlaba, kwezokuthengiselana ngomhlaba, ekuxazululweni
kwemibango yemingcele kanye nemibango yobunikazi, ekuhlaziyweni
kwezindawo zokuhlaliswa kwabantu nalezo okuzokwakhiwa kuzona
izikhungo ezithile, ucwaningo oluphathelene nesimo sendawo nomhlaba
okuzokwakhiwa kuwona (geotechnical investigations), ukuhlolwa
komthelela kwimvelo, futhi aphinde asetshenziselwe nokunye okuningi.
ENingizimu Afrika, sinenhlanhla ngoba sinochungechunge
lwamabalazwe abonisa ububanzi obuhlukahlukene, okuyinto angenayo
amazwe amaningi asathuthuka. Izinhlelo zokubekwa nokuhlaliswa
kwabantu emhlabeni othile zihlukene ngowezifunda ezihlukahlukene
emhlabeni. Ezifundeni zemiphakathi yendabuko, awubhaliswa umhlaba
futhi asikho isidingo samabalazwe abonisa ubunikazi bomhlaba. Ezweni
elabe libizwa nge-USSR phambilini, wonke umhlaba
kwakungowoMbuso, futhi kwakungekho ngisho nohlelo lobunikazi
bomhlaba imbala, kepha-ke izinto sezaguquka emva kokuhlakazwa
kwe-USSR ngowe-1991 futhi izwe elisha elasungulwa labavumela
abahlali nabantu abazimele ukuthi babe ngabanikazi bomhlaba. E-
Sahara Desert kunohlanga lwabantu abangahlali endaweni eyodwa
ababizwa ngama-Bedouins, okungabantu abazulazulayo behla benyuka
besuka esiqintini sogwadule esivundile, esinamanzi beya kwesinye
(bheka i-“salinisation”) futhi abangazi ngisho nokuthi bakuliphi izwe
ngenkathi behla benyuka! Kepha-ke laba bantu abazulazulayo bayazi
ukuthi umthombo noma isiqinti somhlaba ovundile “ngesikabani”, futhi
bayazi ukuthi yisiphi isiqinti abangasisebenzisa futhi yisiphi isiqinti
okumele basigweme. Ngakho-ke abawadingi amabalazwe abonisa
ubunikazi bomhlaba ukuxazulula izinkinga eziphathelene nodaba
lobunikazi bomhlaba. Kwenzeka into efanayo futhi nakwezinye izifunda
eziningi, nengezifunda zehlathikazi lase-Amazon, ugwadule lwase-
Mongolia, izindawo ezingama-savannah endabuko kanye namadlelo
ase-East Africa, umhlaba ongavundile, i-Patagonian tundra, izintaba
eziphakeme zase-Himalaya, njalo njalo. Empeleni, ingxenye enkulu
yomhlaba, emhlabeni esiphila kuwona, ayihlukanisiwe
ngokwamabalazwe obunikazi bomhlaba njengoba besingakaze sibe
khona isidingo salokho.
Cartesian coordinates: The value of a point on the x-axis and its value on the y-
axis of an ordinary graph are called the Cartesian coordinates of that point. A
Cartesian set of axes are used in mathematics and perhaps all other sciences. It
does, however, only apply to a flat surface (a plane), but not to the Earth’s surface
which is not a flat plane, but a sphere. Geographers use Cartesian grids all the time,
but not to describe the absolute location of a place or a point on the Earth’s surface.
In order to describe absolute location, geographers had to devise a different system
all together. The geographical system of describing the absolute location of a point
 36

on the Earth’s surface is the grid formed by the lines of latitude and lines longitude.
Absolute geographical location is described by its latitudinal and longitudinal
coordinates. (See “absolute location” under “location” and “geographical coordinate
system”.)

Ama-cartesian coordinates: Inani lephoyinti eliku-x-axis kanye

nenani lalokhu kugrafu ejwayelekile ye-y-axis kubizwa ngama-cartesian
coordinates. Kumethamethiki, mhlawumbe nakuwona wonke amanye
amasayensi kusetshenziswa i-Cartesian set of axes. Kepha-ke, lokhu
kusebenza kuphela endaweni eyisicaba, kepha akusebenzi kwingxenye
yomhlaba engaphezulu (Earth’s surface) njengoba yona ingesona
isicaba kodwa iyindingilizi. Izazi zejografi zisebenzisa ama-Cartesian
grids ngaso sonke isikhathi, kepha-ke lokhu abakusebenziseki
ukuchaza isimo soqobo futhi esinembayo sokuthi itholakala kuphi
(absolute location) indawo ethile noma iphoyinti lengxenye yomhlaba
engaphezulu. Ngenhloso yokuchaza isimo esinembayo esibonisa ukuthi
itholakala kuphi indawo ethile, izazi zejografi sezisungule uhlelo oluhluke
kakhulu. Uhlelo lwejografi oluchaza ukuthi itholakala kuphi indawo ethile
engxenyeni engaphezulu yomhlaba yigridi eyakhiwe ngemigqa
yelathithudi (imigqa yebalazwe ebonisa ukuthi indawo ethile isenhla
noma isezansi kwenkabazwe ngokungakanani kanye nemigqa
yelongithudi (imigqa yebalazwe ebonisa ukuthi indawo ethile ime kude
kangakanani ngasentshonalanga noma ngasempumalanga
yenkabazwe. Isimo esinembayo esibonisa ukuthi itholakala kuphi
indawo ethile sichazwa ngokusebezisa ama-latitudinal nama-longitudinal
coordinates aso. (Bheka i-“absolute location” ngaphansi kwe-“location”
kanye ne-“geographical coordinate system”.)
Carrying capacity: A term used in a variety of branches of Goeography and
environmental management; it is not restricted to any one subdiscipline. It is mostly
used in the sense of the number of organisms that can sustainably be supported
within a certain area with a known size (see “sustainability” and “sustainable
development”). This term could be used in connection with the concentration of
humans within a certain area, or in connection with the number of wild animals
(game) or domestic animals (such as cattle, sheep, camels or goats) that could be
kept in a certain area without overexploitation (see “exploitation”) of the natural
resources of the land (especially vegetation and water). If too many animals are
restricted to a certain grazing area, overgrazing, vegetation depletion and land
degradation are caused. It boils down to the over-use of grazing lands which then
has dire consequences for the entire local environment. Carrying capacity is also of
extreme importance in the management of game farms and nature conservation
areas. The populations of game in a nature reserve have to be managed to avoid
exceeding the carrying capacity and causing irreversible environment deterioration.
Several years ago the scientists and management of the Kruger National Park (KNP)
reported that there is more than the sustainable number of elephants in the KNP.
This elephant overpopulation has become a threat to the entire habitat. The number
of elephants in the KNP simply has to be reduced, but how? Many animal rights
organisations and the world-wide anti-culling lobby (see “environmental lobby”) find
 37

culling an unacceptable option and support removal of redundant animals to other

areas. But a large number of elephants could hardly be moved to another area.
Shifting 10 or so elephants to another wildlife reserve is doable, but the KNP has to
get rid of a few thousand elephants. Where does one go with 7 000 elephants? No
solution to the problem has yet been found. The term “carrying capacity” is also
commonly used in connection with the number of tourists that should be allowed at
any specific time or over a specific time period to enter any specific nature park,
reserve or conservation area (see “demarketing”). This is a management problem all
nature and wildlife resorts have to grapple with. It also implies to human-made
heritage sites where human traffic (feet) and too much exhaled CO2 might jeopardise
the very constructions and artefacts which are being preserved for people to visit and
see. The catacombs of Rome are a destination where the exhibits (skeletal remains)
have to be protected from decay caused by the high CO2 concentration in the air
which results from the large numbers of visitors. (See “acid rain”.)

Amandla okumumatha: Leli yitemu elisetshenziswa

emikhakheni ehlukahlukene yeJografi nokuphathwa kwemvelo; kodwa-
ke leli temu aligcini emkhakheni owodwa nje kuphela. Esikhathini
esiningi lisetshenziselwa ukubonisa inani lezitshalo nezilwanyazana
ezingaphila endaweni ethile, okuyindawo enobukhulu obaziwayo (bheka
i-“ukusimama” “sustainability” kanye ne-“sustainable development”). Leli
temu lingasetshenziswa mayelana nokunqwabelana kwabantu endaweni
ethile, noma mayelana nenani lezilwane zasendle (izinyamazane) noma
izilwane zasekhaya ezifuyiwe (njengezinkomo, izimvu, amakameli noma
izimbuzi) ezingagcinwa endaweni ethile ngaphandle kokusetshenziswa
ngokweqile (bheka i-“exploitation”) kwemithombo yemvelo etholakala
lapho (ikakhulukazi izitshalo namanzi). Uma kunezilwane eziningi
ngokweqile edlelweni elithile, zibudla ngokweqile utshani nezitshalo
ezitholakala lapho, okuholela ekutheni lokhu kuphele, futhi kucekeleke
phansi nomhlaba wedlelo. Imbangela yalokhu wukusetshenziswa
ngokweqile kwamadlelo, okuyinto enomthelela ongemuhle neze kuyo
yonke imvelo etholakala lapho. Amandla amadlelo okumumatha
nokuphilisa izilwane ezisebenzisa lawo madlelo, asemqoka kakhulu
ekuphathweni kwamapulazi ezinyamazane kanye neziqiwu. Kumele
silawulwe kahle isibalo sezinyamazane eziseziqiwini ngasinye ukuze
kugwenywe ukusetshenziswa ngokweqile kwamandla esiqiwu
okumumatha nokuphilisa izilwane, okungaholela ekutheni imvelo
ikhahlamezeke kakhulu futhi kudaleke umonakalo ongeke neze
usalungiseka. Eminyakeni embadlwana edlule ososayensi kanye
nabaphathi besiqiwu i-Kruger National Park (KNP) babika ukuthi
seliphakeme ngokweqile inani lezindlovu ezigcinwe e-KNP. Lokhu
kugcwala ngokweqile kwezindlovu kubeka engcupheni yonke imvelo
(izilwane nezitshalo) etholakala kulesi siqiwu. Kumele noma kanjani
liphungulwe inani lezindlovu ezigcinwe e-KNP, kepha umbuzo omkhulu
uthi, kanjani? Izinhlangano eziningi ezilwela ukuvikelwa kwamalungelo
ezilwane kanye nezinhlangano ezilwisana nokubulawa kwezilwane
 38

emhlabeni jikelele (bheka i-“environmental lobby”) zikubona njengento

engamukelekile neze ukubulawa kwezilwane ngenhloso yokunciphisa
amanani azo futhi lezi zinhlangano ziyakweseka ukususwa kwalezo
zilwane eseziningi ngokweqile zithunyelwe kwezinye izindawo. Kodwa-
ke kungaba yinto enzima kakhulu ukuthumela kwenye indawo inani
elikhulu lezindlovu. Ukube bekukhulunywa indaba yokuthi kumele
kugudluzwe izindlovu eziyi-10 noma ngaphezudlwana kwalokho,
bekungaba wumsebenzi ongeke ube nzima kakhulu, kodwa-ke i-KNP
kumele isuse izindlovu ezibalelwa ezinkulungwaneni ezimbadlwana
impela, okungeke neze kube yinto elula. Umuntu angazithwala azise
kuphi nje izindlovu eziyizi-7 000? Njengamanje asikatholakali isixazululo
sale nkinga. Itemu elithi “amandla okumumatha” livamisile futhi
ukusetshenziswa uma kukhulunywa ngenani labavakashi okumele
bavunyelwe ukungena esiqiwini esithile noma okumele bavunyelwe
esikhathini esithile ukungena kuleso siqiwu (bheka i-“demarketing”).
Lena yinkinga ephathelene nokuphathwa kweziqiwu okumele
babhekane nayo futhi bazame ukuyixazulula bonke abaphathi beziqiwu.
Lokhu kuyinkinga efanayo ebhekene nezindawo zamagugu ezakhiwe
ngabantu lapho isibalo sabantu abavakashela lezo zindawo kanye
nomoya oyisikhutha (CO2) okhishwa yilabo bantu kungenzeka kucekele
phansi lezo zindawo kanye nezinto ezingamagugu ezigcinwe lapho,
okuyizona eziheha abavakashi ukuthi beze bazozibona. Amathuna
asemandulo ase-Rome angaphansi komhlaba ayindawo lapho
amathambo nezingebhezi ezigcinwe lapho kumele kuvikelwe ukuze
kungaboliswa yisikhutha esiningi ngokweqile esikhiqizwa yizindimbane
zabavakashi abavakashela le ndawo. (Bheka i-“acid rain”.)
Central business district (CBD): The main “hub of activity” in the city is the
central business district (or CBD). The oldest cities in the world have developed from
people settling around a central area of activity, be it bartering, trading, socialising,
religious practices or even education. The CBD traditionally lies near to the centre of
an urban area and contains the major shops, professional services, and offices. It is
the main centre for commerce and entertainment, and serves as the focus for all
transport routes. All retail businesses (see “retail facilities”), professional practitioners
and offices belonging to major international companies are traditionally located in the
CBD, and the transport network is specifically designed to conveniently take people
to and from that area. According to all the well-known, older urban structure
models (of, among others, Burgess, Hoyt, Mann, and Ullman and Harris) the CBD is
situated somewhere inside or near to the centre of the city. The prices of land in the
CBD are traditionally at a premium, that is, more expensive than anywhere else in
the urban complex. Many cities in a wide variety of countries had (for a variety of
reasons) over the years undergone dramatic changes in their spatial organisation.
Many cities grew so large that people had to travel too far to reach the old CBD (see
“urbanisation” and “transport problems”). The “journey to work” reality and travel-time
concept resulted in the development of secondary up-market retail and business
areas, with high-value real estate, in areas far away from the old CBD (see “retail
facilities”). In many of the older cities, the CBDs have become less attractive to up-
 39

market businesses, professional practices and entertainment, and some former

CBDs have been overrun by homeless people, informal trading, criminal activities
and vice (see “refugee”). Rejuvenation (or gentrification) of derelict CBDs has taken
place in many cities the world over. It requires huge financial input from the public as
well as the private sectors to return a CBD to its former prestigious glory. The CBD
of Johannesburg is currently in a slow and faltering process of gentrification.

Isifunda sebhizinisi esiyinhloko (CBD): Lesi yisizinda esiyinhloko

“esiwumongo womsebenzi webhizinisi” edolobheni, esibizwa futhi
ngesifinyezo esithi “CBD”. Amadolobha amadala kakhulu emhlabeni
athuthukiswa wukuhlala kwabantu endaweni okuqhutshwa kuyona
kakhulu umsebenzi webhizinisi, ngokuthengiselana
ngokushintshisana (bartering), ukuhweba, ukuxhumana nokuxoxisana,
ukubamba imicimbi yezenkolo kanye nemfundo imbala. Kudala, i-CBD
kwakuvamise ukuthi ibe yisizinda esisenkabeni yendawo esedolobheni
futhi okuyisizinda esiqukethe izitolo ezinkulu, izinsizakalo ezihlinzekwa
ngongoti nochwepheshe kanye namahhovisi. Lesi yisizinda esiyinhloko
okuqhutshelwa kusona umsebenzi webhizini kanye nezikaqedisizungu
nokungcebeleka, futhi yilapho kuphelela khona yonke imizila
yezokuthutha. Wonke amabhizinisi athengisa impahla (bheka ama-“retail
facilities”), izazi zemisebenzi yobungcweti (professional practitioners)
kanye namahhovisi ezinkampani ezinkulu zamazwe ngamazwe zivamise
ukutholakala ku-CBD, futhi ezokuthutha zenziwe ngendlela ehambelana
nokuthutha kalula abantu abaya ku-CBD noma abasuka ku-CBD.
Ngokwamamodeli adumile esimo sakudala sezindawo
ezisemadolobheni (phakathi kwezinye okukhona kuzona abakwa-
Burgess, Hoyt, Mann, nabakwa-Ullman and Harris) i-CBD itholakala
endaweni ethile esenkabeni yedolobha noma bude buduze nenkaba
yedolobha. Kuvamise ukuthi kubize imali eshisiwe ukuthenga noma
ukuqasha umhlaba oku-CBD, okusho ukuthi, ubiza kakhulu uma
uqhathaniswa nomhlaba okwenye ingxenye yedolobha. Amadolobha
amaningi emazweni ahlukahlukene (ngenxa yezizathu ezinhlobonhlobo)
aseguquke kakhulu kule minyaka edlule, ngokwesimo sokuhleleka
kwezakhiwo nokuhlaliswa kwabantu. Amadolobha amaningi asekhule
kakhulu kangangokuthi abantu kudingeka bahambe amabanga amade
ngaphambi kokuthi bafinyelele ku-CBD endala (bheka i-“urbanisation”
kanye nama-“transport problems”). Inkinga “yohambo oluya
emsebenzini” kanye nesikhathi eside esichithwa ngabantu emgwaqeni
sekuholele ukuthuthukisweni kwezinye izizinda ezisezingeni eliphezulu
eziqukethe izitolo kanye nezindawo zokwenza ibhizinisi, ezinomhlaba
nezakhiwo ezimba eqolo, kude nama-CBD amadala (bheka ama-“retail
facilities”). Emadolobheni amadala amaningi, amabhizinisi
eseqophelweni eliphezulu, abahlinzeki bezinsizakalo zobungcweti kanye
nabahlinzeki bezikaqedisizungu abasazithandisisi kahIe izizinda
ezingama-CBD, futhi kwezinye izizinda ezabe zingama-CBD phambilini
 40

sekugcwele imihambima nabantu abalala emgwaqeni, abathengisi

bempahla abangahlelekile abathengisela eceleni komgwaqo,
ubugebengu kanye neminye imikhuba emibi ephathelene kokuphulwa
komthetho (bheka i-“refugee”). Emadolobheni amaningi emhlabeni
wonke jikelele sekwenziwe izinhlelo zokuvuselela (noma i-
gentrification) ama-CBD abesecekeleke phansi. Lo msebenzi
wokuvuselelwa kwama-CBD ukuze abuyele esimweni sawo sakudala
udinga izimali ezinkulu ezivela kuhulumeni nakwabomkhakha ozimele.
Njengamanje i-CBD yedolobha laseGoli isohlelweni lokuvuselelwa,
kodwa-ke luhamba kancane futhi luthanda ukuba ntekenteke impela.
Channelisation: Water that flows unchannelled over the slopes on the Earth’s
surface and join at the lowest point to form a stream or river. Rain water that does
not infiltrate the soil and substrate (underlying rocks) flows downslope over the
surface as unchannelled surface flow, or sheet flow (or overlandflow). Surface flow
carries particles of topsoil and weathering debris along. At the base of the slope all
the sheetflow plus its load of soil and weathering debris meet and become a
channelled stream loaded with all the material delivered by the sheetflow. The
volume and momentum of the stream plus its contents act as a very powerful erosion
agent (see “erosion”) and carve a channel in which it can flow with a minimum of
resistance. Channel flow performs erosion by means of a variety of processes such
as abrasion, corrosion, attrition and dissolving (see “weathering”) and over
thousands or millions of years a proper river channel is created. Please note that
channelised flow is a form of overlandflow or surface flow, because the water flows
on the surface, albeit restricted to a specific channel. (See “drainage basin”.)

Amanzi uguduzayo: Lokhu kusho amanzi ehla endaweni eyehlelayo

ngaphandle kokulandela umgudu othile, futhi azihambelayo nje yonke
indawo, ngaphezulu emhlabeni, bese uma efinyelela phansi ehlangana
akhe umfula noma umfudlana. Lawo manzi emvula angangeni ajule
phakathi emhlabathini nasemadwaleni angaphansi komhlaba ayageleza
ehle ehamba ngaphezu komhlabathi (okubizwa nge-surface flow, noma
i-sheet flow (noma ngamanzi ageleza ngaphezu komhlabathi). Amanzi
ageleza ngaphezu komhlabathi ahamba nezinhlayiyana zenhlabathi
ephezulu kanye nezimvuthuluka nezicucwana zamatshe. Uma efinyelela
phansi lawa manzi agelezayo ayahlangana akhe umfudlana oguduzayo
onomhlabathi nezimvuthuluka zetshe obekuthwelwe yilawa manzi
ngenkathi egeleza eya phansi. Umthamo nomfutho walo mfudlana
kanye nazo zonke izimvuthuluka ezithwelwe ngamanzi kwakha isiguguli-
mhlaba (erosion agent) esinamandla kakhulu (bheka i-“erosion”) bese
kuvula umgudu ogeleza kalula. Amanzi aguduzayo enza ukuguguleka
komhlaba ngezindlela ezihlukahlukene ezinjengokugudluzeka,
ukukhumuzeka, ukudleka kanye nokuncibilika (bheka i-“weathering”)
futhi esikhathini esiyizinkulungwane ngezinkulungwane zeminyaka noma
izigidi ngezigidi zeminyaka kwakheka umgudu woqobo ongumfula.
Qaphela ukuthi amanzi aguduzayo awuhlobo lokuguduza nokugeleza
 41

kwamanzi phezu komhlabathi, ngoba phela lawo manzi aguduza phezu

komhlabathi kodwa-ke wona alandela umgudu othile, okwenza
angasabalali yonke indawo. (Bheka i-“drainage basin”.)
Choropleth maps: Thematic maps on which the spatial distribution of certain
variables are quantitatively represented by means of colours or shadings within the
boundaries of geographical units that are actual administrative units such as farms,
districts, suburbs, countries or even continents (see “thematic map”, “cadastral map”
and “topocadastral map”). An explanation (or key) that indicates what each colour
represents is essential to read the map. Choropleth maps are one of the most often
used types of maps in Geography, but they have some disadvantages which
geographers must always bear in mind. The main disadvantage or limitation is that
intra-areal spatial generalisation (a form of spatial generalisation) within
administrative units is used (see “spatial interpolation”, “interpolation” and
“extrapolation”) which could easily convey a spurious spatial image. The National
Geographic Magazine which is the most widely read geographical publication and is
mostly read by non-geographers and lay readers, very often uses choropleth maps.
The lay readers are not able to analyse the generalisation these maps entail and
cannot appreciate the pros and cons of the use of these maps. Fortunately, the
National Geographic Society is scientifically totally sound and geographically highly
respected and will not publish a map that could convey incorrect or misleading
information.

Ama-Choropleth maps: Lawa ngamabalazwe aqondene

nezingqikithi ezithile (thematic maps) lapho izinga nobukhulu
bokusabalala kwabantu nezakhiwo ezithile kubalwa futhi kuboniswe
ngemibala noma imidwebo enemibala ethile ngaphakathi kwemingcele
yezindawo ezithile, okuyizindawo zoqobo zokuphatha nokulawula
(actual administrative units) ezinjengamapulazi, izifunda, izindawo
zokuhlalisa abantu ezisemadolobheni (suburbs), amazwe kanye
amazwekazi imbala (bheka i-“thematic map”, “cadastral map” kanye ne-
“topocadastral map”). Incazelo (noma inkomba) ebonisa ukuthi umele ini
umbala ngamunye iyadingeka futhi isemqoka kakhulu ukuze umuntu
akwazi ukufunda ibalazwe. Ama-Choropleth maps ngamanye
amabalazwe asetshenziswa kakhulu kuJografi, kepha-ke
anezikhinyabezi (disadvantages) ezithile okumele zikhumbuleke kwizazi
zejografi. Isikhinyabezi esikhulu noma isithiyo wukuthi kusetshenziswa
umphumela wohlaziyo oqagulwa ngokubheka uhlaziyo lwangaphakathi
lwendawo ethile (intra-areal spatial generalisation) (okuwuhlobo oluthile
lwemiphumela etholakala ngohlaziyo lwendawo ethile (spatial
generalisation) ngaphakathi kwendawo yokuphatha nokulawula ethile
(bheka i-“spatial interpolation”, “interpolation” kanye ne-“extrapolation”)
okuyinto engaholela ekutheni kuvele umfanekiso-mbumbulu wendawo
ethile noma umfanekiso ophaphalazayo (spurious spatial image).
Iphephabhuku i-National Geographic Magazine, okuyilona
iphephabhuku lejografi elifundwa kakhulu futhi elifundwa ngisho
nangabantu abangazi lutho ngejografi, livamise ukusebenzisa ama-
 42

choropleth maps. Abafundi baleli phephabhuku abangazi lutho

ngejografi abakwazi ukuhlaziya imiphumela yohlaziyo equkethwe kulawa
mabalazwe futhi abakwazi ukubona ubuhle nobubi balawa mabalazwe.
Ngenhlanhla, iNhlangano Kazwelonke YezeJografi (National Geographic
Society) yinhlangano elandela inkambiso elungileyo kwezesayensi futhi
ihlonishwa kakhulu kwezejografi futhi-ke ngeke neze ishicilele ibalazwe
eliqukethe ulwazi olungaqondile, oluphaphalazayo futhi oludukisanayo.
Climate: The average condition of the atmosphere – and therefore the weather
(see “weather”) – in a certain area over a long period of time, that is at least 20
years, but preferably 35 years. By recording the weather in an area daily for at least
20 or more years, generalisations about the weather can be made and we can
predict the type of weather that will prevail in a certain area at any specific time of
the year. The generalised weather of an area, is called the climate of the area, and
from many years of recorded facts, we can describe the prevailing climate in that
area. The climate of an area is determined by its latitudinal location, its altitude, its
location in relation to the ocean, and many other local conditions. Any area may
experience short-term deviations form the expected (“normal”) climate. Dry seasons,
even dry periods as long as a year or more, may occur in an area where the
“normal”, prevailing climate of the area is humid all year round. Cold areas may
experience atypical warm spells, dry areas may experience atypical wet seasons,
and so on, but every area on Earth has a “typical” or “normal” climate which is the
generalized description of what the weather conditions had been like for many
decades. Climates may, however, change because of natural causes, but such
changes happen over very long periods like hundreds or thousands of years. (See
“climate change” and “climate variability”.)

Ubunjalozwe: Isilinganiso sesimo somkhathi – okusho isimo sezulu

(bheka i-“weather”) – esenzeka endaweni ethile esikhathini eside,
okungenani okuyisikhathi esiyiminyaka engama-20, kodwa kungaba
kuhle uma lokhu kuba yisilinganiso seminyaka engama-35. Ngokuqopha
phansi isimo sezulu sendawo ethile nsukuzonke kuze kuphele
okungenani iminyaka engama-20 noma ngaphezulu, singasiqagula
isimo sezulu esijwayelekile esitholakala endaweni ethile ngenkathi
yonyaka ethile. Isilinganiso sesimo sezulu esijwayelekile
esiqaguliwe sendawo ethile sibizwa ngesimo sezulu esijwayelekile
saleyo ndawo, futhi ngokususela emininingwaneni eyiqiniso eqoshwe
phansi esikhathini eside, siyakwazi ukuchaza ubunjalo besimo sezulu
esijwayelekile esitholakala kuleyo ndawo. Ubunjalozwe bendawo ethile
buhlonzwa ngokubheka ukuthi leyo ndawo itholakala kuphi
ngokwelathithudi (latitudinal location), nokuphakama kwayo kusuka
olwandle kanye nezinye izimo eziningi ezenzeka kuleyo ndawo. Noma
iyiphi indawo kuyenzeka ihlangabezane nezimo zesikhashana ezihlukile
kubunjalozwe “obujwayelekile” futhi obulindelekile kuleyo ndawo.
Izinkathi zonyaka ezomisile, okungenzeka zihambisane nesikhathi eside
sokungatholakali kwemvula, esingafinyelela ngisho esikhathini
esingangonyaka noma ngaphezulu imbala, zingenzeka nakulezo
 43

zindawo lapho kuvamise ukuthi kutholakale khona ubunjalozwe

“obujwayelekile”, obunezimvula ezitholakala unyaka wonke. Izindawo
ezibandayo kuyenzeka nazo zihlangabezane nesimo esingajwayelekile
sokushisa, kanti izindawo ezomisile kuyenzeka zithole izinkathi zonyaka
ezingajwayelekile ezihambisana nokuna kwezulu, njalo njalo, kodwa-ke
zonke izindawo ezikhona emhlabeni zinobunjalozwe “obuvamisile” noma
“obujwayelekile” obutholakala kulezo zindawo, okuyincazelo yesimo
esijwayelekile esivamise ukutholakala lapho, futhi esesiqhubeke
iminyaka ngeminyaka kuleyo ndawo. Kuyenzeka buguquke ubunjalozwe
obujwayelekile endawo ethile ngenxa yezizathu eziphathelene nesimo
semvelo, kodwa-ke lezo zinguquko zenzeka esikhathini eside impela,
okungaba ngamakhulu-khulu eminyaka noma izinkulungwane
ngezinkulungwane zeminyaka. (Bheka i-“climate change” kanye ne-
“climate variability”.)
Climate change: A substantial variation in the normal long-term weather
conditions of a certain area or areas. Since the creation of the Earth-atmosphere
system some 4 500 million years ago the compositon of the atmosphere has been
changing continually. Evidence of these ancient atmospheric conditions has been
preserved in the rocks that constitute the Earth’s crust. The rock record indicates that
the composition of the atmosphere changed dramatically after the advent of life
some 2 300 million years ago. The climate as we know it today is a very recent
feature of the global environment; in fact, it is no more than about 3 or 4 million years
old. Yet over that time the global climate has been changing all the while. The
geological (rock), paleontological (fossil) and archaeological (artefact) records clearly
reveal the ever-changing nature of climate. Climate change is a normal, natural
process and it usually happens slowly. With our modern, sophisticated technological
instruments we have been able to detect significant changes in the composition of
the atmosphere, the size and thickness of ice masses on Earth, and in the actual
temperatures registered in different places on Earth over the last 50 years.
According to these measurements the prevailing global climate seems to be
changing dramatically and at an alarming rate. Global climate seems to be getting
warmer than what we have been accustomed to (see “global warming”). It is a
proven fact that some of the trace components in the atmosphere (especially the
carbon dioxide concentration) have been increasing since the 1850s (that is, since
the Industrial Revolution). Nowadays many international initiatives are actively trying
to curb and reduce the amount of carbon dioxide humans release into the
atmosphere, but thus far the success of the efforts is debatable. (See “climate
variability”.)

Ukuguquguquka kobunjalozwe: Lokhu kusho ukuquguka kwesimo

sezulu esijwayelekile, okukhudlwana impela, okwenzeka endaweni
ethile noma ezindaweni ezithile. Kusukela ekudalweni kohlelo lomkhathi
womhlaba (Earth-atmosphere system) eminyakeni eyizigidi eziyizi-4 500
eyadlula kulokhu kuguquke njalo ukwakheka komkhathi. Ubufakazi
bezimo zezulu zasemandulo buyabonakala emadwaleni akhe ungqimba
lomhlaba (Earth’s crust). Amarekhodi amadwala ayabonisa ukuthi
kwaguquka kakhulu ukwakheka komkhathi emva kokuvela kwezinto
 44

eziphilayo eminyakeni eyizigidi eziyizi-2 300 eyadlula. Ubunjalozwe

obujwayelekile esibubonayo kulezi zinsuku buyingxenye yakamuva nje
yemvelo yomhlaba; empeleni, lesi simo sineminyaka yobudala engekho
ngaphezu kwezigidi ezintathu noma ezine. Kepha-ke kuleso sikhathi
isimo sezulu somhlaba besilokhu siguquke njalo. Amarekhodi ejiyoloji
(ukwakheka kwamadwala), isayensi yezitshalo namathambo
asemandulo anamathele emadwaleni (izinsalela zamathambo nezitshalo
zasemandulo) kanye nesayensi ephathelene nemivukubulo
yasemandulo (izinto zobungcweti zasemandulo) abonisa ngokucacile
imithelela yobunjalozwe obulokhu buguquke njalo. Ubunjalozwe
buyinqubo ejwayelekile eyenzeka ngokwemvelo futhi buvamise
ukwenzeka ngesivinini esincane. Ngokusebenzisa amathuluzi
esimanjemanje ezobuchwepheshe sikwazile ukubona nokuhlonza
izinguquko ezinohlonze ezenzeke esimweni sokwakheka komkhathi,
usayizi kanye nogqinsi lwezindunduma zeqhwa emhlabeni, kanye
nezinguquko ezenzekile kwizingakushisa loqobo eliqoshiwe ezindaweni
ezihlukahlukene emhlabeni kule minyaka engama-50 edlule. Ngokwalezi
zilinganiso, ubunjalozwe obukhona njengamanje emhlabeni bubonakala
buguquka kakhulu futhi lokhu kwenzeka ngokwezinga elishaqisayo
impela. Isimo sezulu somhlaba sibonisa ukushisa okungaphezulu
kwezinga esilijwayele (bheka i-“global warming”). Kuyiqiniso
elinobufakazi obuqanda ikhanda ukuthi umthamo wezinye zezinsalela
zamakhemikhali ezithoIakala emkhathini (ikakhulukazi umthamo
ophezulu wesikhutha) ulokhu ukhuphuke njalo kusukela ngeminyaka
yawo-1850 (okusho ukuthi, kusukela ngesikhathi se-Industrial
Revolution). Kulezi zinsuku, ziningi impela izinhlelo zamazwe ngamazwe
eziqhutshwayo njengomzamo wokunqanda nokunciphisa ngenkuthalo
umthamo wesikhutha esikhishwa ngabantu esingena emkhathini,
kodwa-ke kuze kube manje kunongabazane mayelana nempumelelo
yale mizamo. (Bheka i-“climate variability”.)
Climate variability: The average long-term weather patterns are never
unchanging constants. They are continually changing over time, and since they vary
from place to place (see “climate”), the global climatic patterns are perpetually
changing. Therefore, climate is a highly variable component of the earth-
atmosphere system. Spatio-temporal variability is probably climate’s most
important characteristic (see “space-and-time perspective”). Climate change is a
perfectly natural process (see “climate change”). Every single spot on the Earth’s
surface has experienced many climate changes over a period of about three or four
million years. These long-term variations took place over many thousands of years
– that is, in geological time – consequently a record of these changes is captured in
the rock formations on Earth. The rocks reflect the climate that prevailed at the time
of their formation. Consequently, rocks contain the complete history of global
environmental spatio-temporal variation or change over space and time. By studying
rocks, we can prove that environmental change is a fact, but we have not yet been
able to explain all the reasons responsible for this perpetual change. We can explain
 45

spatial climatic variability fairly satisfactorily, but we know very little about its
temporal variability. To describe all the details of the Earth’s long history will be
scientists’ task for many years to come. Currently climate variability in the form of
global warming is studied by scientists, discussed by everybody, written about in
scientific and popular lay publications, the topic of numerous international
conferences, and the driving force of a multi-million dollar industry. The theory of
global warming postulates that human activities are causing, or at the very least
accelerating, global climatic change. Time will tell whether it is true or not. (See
“global warming”, “space-in-time perspective”, “spatial data”, “spatial distribution” and
“temporal change”.)

Ukuhlukahluka kobunjalozwe: Isilinganiso sesikhathi eside

sobunjalo besimo sezulu asiyona neze into ehlala injalo ngaso sonke
isikhathi, futhi engaguquki. Siyaguquguquka ngokuqhubekayo
ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, futhi njengoba izimo zezulu zihlukile
ngokwezindawo ezihlukahlukene (bheka “climate”), ubunjalozwe
emhlabeni buyaguquguquka ngokuqhubekayo. Ngakho-ke, ubunjalozwe
buyingxenye yohlelo lomhlaba nomkhathi oluhlukahlukayo kakhulu.
Ukuhlukahluka ngokwendawo nesikhathi kungenzeka ukube yisona
sici nophawu olusemqoka kakhulu lobunjalozwe (bheka i-“space-and-
time perspective”). Ukuguquguquka kobunjalozwe yinqubo eyenzeka
ngokwemvelo ngokuphelele (bheka “climate change”). Zonke izingxenye
zomhlaba sezike zahlangabezana nezimo eziningi zokuguquguquka
kobunjalozwe esikhathini esingaphezu kweminyaka eyizigidi ezintathu
noma ezine. Lokhu kuhlukahluka kwezimo esikhathini eside
kwenzeke eminyakeni eyizinkulungwane ngezinkulungwane – okusho
ukuthi kwenzeka ngesikhathi sokwakheka nokuthuthuka komhlaba
(geological time) – futhi ngenxa yalokho-ke irekhodi lalezi zinguquko
libonakala kahle kwindlela okwakheke ngayo amadwala emhlabeni.
Amadwala abonisa ubunjalo besimo sezulu esabe sikhona ngenkathi
akheka. Ngenxa yalokho-ke, amadwala aqukethe umlando ophelele
wokuhlukahluka noma wokuguquguquka kwesimo semvelo
ngokwendawo nesikhathi. Ngokucwaninga nokucubungula amadwala,
siyakwazi ukuthola ngempela ukuthi kuyinto ekhona futhi eyenzekayo
ukuguquguquka kwemvelo, kodwa-ke asikakwazi ukuchaza zonke
izizathu ezibangela lokhu kuguquguquka okulokhu kuqhubeke njalo.
Siyakwazi ukuchaza ngokugculisayo ukuhlukahluka kobunjalozwe
ngokwendawo, kepha-ke kuncane kakhulu esikwaziyo mayelana
nokuhlukahluka kobunjalozwe ngokwesikhathi. Kule minyaka eminingi
ezayo, kusazoba ngumsebenzi omkhulu ohlalele ososayensi ukuchaza
yonke imininingwane yomlando omude womhlaba. Njengamanje
ukuhlukahluka kobunjalozwe kuwuhlobo oluthile lwesivuvu sokushisa
komhlaba (global warming) okucwaningwa ngososayensi,
abaxoxisana ngakho bonke abantu, okubhalwa ngakho ezincwadini
namabhuku ezesayensi kanye namabhuku kawonkewonke, okuyisihloko
 46

okuxoxwa ngaso ezingqungqutheleni zamazwe ngamazwe eziningi futhi

okuyinto enamandla eqhuba futhi ikhuthaze imboni okutshalwe kuyona
imali eyizigidi ngezigidi. Ithiyori yesivuvu sokushisa komhlaba ibonisa
ukuthi imisebenzi yabantu nezenzo zabo yikona okubangela, noma
okungenani okusheshisa ukuguquguquka kobunjalozwe emhlabeni.
Sekuyocaca ngokuhamba kwesikhathi ukuthi lokhu kuyiqiniso elimsulwa
noma cha. (Bheka i-“global warming”, “space-in-time perspective”,
“spatial data”, “spatial distribution” kanye ne-“temporal change”.)
Commodification: The conversion of existing natural features or human-
made, socio-cultural events into profitable resources. In Geography this concept is
mainly relevant to existing phenomena being converted into lucrative tourism
attractions. In a joint public-private enterprise the old, more or less deserted and
moribund small town of Pilgrims’ Rest was converted into a profitable tourism
commodity by restoring some buildings, upgrading hospitality facilities, revitalising
existing but derelict gold panning sites where tourists could try their hand at finding
gold, assisting entrepreneurs to establish arts and crafts enterprises, establishing
walking trails in the scenic countryside, and generally publicising the town as an
irresistible tourist destination. Much the same thing was done in the case of the
Cradle of Humankind world heritage site (see “complementarity”). Cultural events
such as the Grahamstown Festival, the Klein Karoo Nasionale Kunstefees, the
Kultuvaria in Paarl and the Oppikoppie pop music festival can also be regarded as
commodification, but officialdom has no involvement in them. Apart from the
opportunities and outlets these events offer all kinds of artists, the local communities
can also make a handsome profit from providing accommodation and/or catering to
the masses of visitors. These events also provide sellers of arts and crafts the
opportunity to do good business; manufacturers of cultural items like ethnic
beadwork and carved wood items also find a lucrative outlet at these events. All in
all, these socio-cultural events become an opportunity for people to make a living,
mostly without any involvement of the government. From an economic as well as a
socio-cultural perspective, these commodified opportunities (events) are highly
desirable since they are grassroots, self-generated developments which are usually
more sustainable than short-term government-driven schemes.

I-commodification: Ukuguqulwa kwezingxenye noma izici

ezithile ezakheke ngokwemvelo noma ezakhiwe ngabantu zemicimbi
yenhlalo-masiko (socio-cultural events) ukuze zibe yimithombo
enenzuzo. KwiJografi lokhu kuphathelene ikakhulu nokuguqulwa
kwezinto ezithile ezikhona njengamanje ukuze zibe yizinto eziheha
abavakashi futhi ezingenisa imali eningi. Emklamweni wokubambisana
phakathi kukahulumeni nabamabhizinisi azimele idolobha elincane
elidala lase-Pilgrims’ Rest, ebelicishe lifane nendawo esilahliwe futhi
obekungenzeka ligcine selishabalele laguqulwa laba yindawo eheha
abavakashi futhi engenisa imali ngokuthi kuvuselelwe izakhiwo ezithile
luleli dolobha, kulungiswe nezikhungo ezihlalisa abavakashi
namahhotela futhi kuvuselelwe nalezo zizinda ebezingasanakiwe kuleli
dolobha, zokuhlwaya igolide ngokulisefa ngamapani nezindishi lapho
abavakashi behlinzekwa khona ngethuba lokuzicingela igolide,
 47

nokulekelelwa kosomabhizinisi ukuthi basungule amabhizinisi ezobuciko

nemisebenzi yezandla, nokusungulwa kwemizila yokuhamba
ngezinyawo yabavakashi abafuna ukuyobuka nokuthokozela ubuhle
bendalo ezindaweni ezingaphandle kwedolobha, kanye nokukhangiswa
kwaleli dolobha njengendawo ehehayo futhi ethandekayo kubavakashi.
Kwenziwa into efanayo futhi mayelana nesizinda samagugu omhlaba i-
Cradle of Humankind (bheka i-“complementarity”). Imicimbi yezamasiko
enjenge-Grahamstown Festival, i-Klein Karoo Nasionale Kunstefees, i-
Kultuvaria e-Paarl kanye nedili lomculo i-Oppikoppie pop music festival
nayo ingathathwa njengokuguqulwa kwemicimbi yezamasiko ukuze
ingenise imali, kodwa-ke alikho iqhaza elibanjwa yiziphathimandla
zikahulumeni kulokhu. Ngaphandle nje kwamathuba ahlinzekwa yile
micimbi kuzo zonke izinhlobo zamaciko (artists), imiphakathi yendawo
nayo ingazenzela inzuzo enkulu ngokuhlinzeka ngezindawo zokulala
kanye/noma okuya ngasethunjini ezindimbaneni zabantu abahambela
leyo micimbi. Le micimbi ihlinzeka futhi nabathengisi bemisebenzi
yezobuciko kanye neyezandla ngethuba lokuthengisa imisebenzi yabo
ukuze bazenzele imali; abakhi bemikhiqizo yendabuko enjengobuhlalu
kanye nezinto ezibazwe ngokhuni nabo bathola ithuba elihle kakhulu
lokuzenzela imali kule micimbi ngokuthengisa imisebenzi yabo. Ngakho-
ke uma sekubhekwa konke lokhu, le micimbi yezenhlalo-masiko
ihlinzeka abantu ngethuba lokuthi baziphilise futhi benze inzuzo, futhi
lokhu kwenzeka ikakhulu ngaphandle kokubandakanywa kukahulumeni.
Ngasohlangothini lwezenhlalo-masiko, lawa mathuba noma imicimbi
yokuguqula izinto ezithile zibe yindlela yokungenisa imali kuyinto
edingeka kakhulu ngoba kwenzeka emazingeni aphansi lapho
kuhlomula khona imiphakathi, futhi le micimbi iyaziqhuba futhi izisekele
ngokwayo ngaphandle kokuthembela kakhulu kuhulumeni, futhi lokhu
kwenza ukuthi isimame, iqhubeke isikhathi eside uma iqhathaniswa
nezinhlelo zesikhathi esifushane eziqhutshwa nguhulumeni.
Community involvement: The partaking of all the members of a community
in the decision-making and execution of the decisions about the environment or
any other aspect of the region in which they live. Popularly put, it means that
whatever is done is in agreement with the wishes of the interested and affected
parties (IAPs) – including the people who live here, that is, the local population.
Community involvement is part and parcel of modern day democratic governance.
The South Afican Constitution (Act number 108 of 1996 [see “environmental
management”]) even makes provision for the involvement of the local community in
environmental decision-making and that is very specifically and unambiguously
described in the environmental legalisation of the country (NEMA, number 107 of
1998). In fact, the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA), number 107 of
1998, makes community participation an imperative in environmental management.
The people have to have a say in whatever development is being planned for their
area. Besides decision-making people have the right to be involved in developments
and should have the opportunity to benefit from the developments by means of
 48

having, for instance, a preferential employment right, a preferential right to establish

guesthouses or the right to sell their wares and handcraft there.

Ukubandakanywa komphakathi: Ukubamba iqhaza kwamalungu

onke omphakathi othile ekuthathweni kwezinqumo kanye nokuqalisa
kokusebenza kwezinqumo eziphathelene nemvelo noma eziphathelene
nanoma iyiphi enye into ephathelene nesifunda abahlala kusona abantu.
Uma lokhu kubekwa ngendlela elula nje futhi ejwayelekile, kuchaza
ukuthi noma yini eyenziwayo iyavumelana nezifiso zabantu
abanetshisekelo noma abathintekile (interested and affected parties)
(IAPs) – kubandakanya nabantu abahlala lapha, okusho, abantu
bendawo. Ukubandakanywa komphakathi kuyingxenye enkulu yenqubo
yokuphatha ngokwentando yabantu esetshenziswa kakhulu kulesi
sikhathi sanamuhla esiphila kusona. UMthethosisekelo waseNingizimu
Afrika (uMthetho ongunombolo 108 we-1996 [bheka i-“environmental
management”]) nawo uyakuhlinzekela ukubandakanywa komphakathi
wendawo ekuthathweni kwezinqumo eziphathelene nemvelo futhi lokhu
kuchazwa ngendlela eqondile futhi ecacile emthethweni wezemvelo
waleli lizwe (umthetho obizwa nge-NEMA, nombolo 107 we-1998).
Empeleni, uMthetho Kazwelonke Wezokuphathwa Nokulawulwa
Kwemvelo (NEMA), nombolo 107 we-1998, wenza kube yinto
ephoqelekile ukubandakanywa komphakathi ekuphathweni
nasekulawulweni kwemvelo. Kumele nakanjani bavunyelwe abantu
ukuzwakalisa izimvo zabo mayelana nanoma yiziphi izinhlelo zentuthuko
ezizoqaliswa endaweni yabo. Ngaphandle nje kokuthathwa
kwezinqumo, abantu banelungelo lokubandakanywa ezintweni
ezenziwayo endaweni yabo futhi kumele bahlinzekwe ngethuba
lokuhlomula kuleyo ntuthuko eyenziwayo, isibonelo, ngokuthi
bacatshangelwe kangcono futhi kube yibona abalithola kuqala ithuba
nelungelo lokuvula ama-guesthouses noma ilungelo lokuthengisa
impahla yabo nemisebenzi yabo yezandla (handcraft) kuleyo ndawo.
Complementarity: The success and popularity of one establishment or
resort or natural phenomenon (such as a shop, a casino or a beach) results in the
development of other economic concerns in its vicinity, and neither the original
attraction nor the “off-shoots” detract from one another’s popularity, but enhance it.
In a way, this is an example of success breeding success. In the geography of
economics, this is a very important factor. A shopping mall is an apposite example.
One well-known chain shop acts as anchor tenant, and a score of other shops,
emporia, boutiques, destination shops, specialisation shops, bank outlets, and so
forth, rent space in the mall, knowing that the anchor tenant will attract large
numbers of people who might become customers of all the other shops. Exactly the
same applies in the tourism industry. One successful tourist attraction results in the
development of other tourist facilities in its vicinity and neither the original attraction
nor the other facilities detract from one another’s success, but increase
(complement) it. Usually there is one main “draw-card” attraction in an area, but its
success provides an opportunity for other tourist facilities to be developed in its
 49

vicinity. As more facilities originate the visitor numbers of all the facilities – including
that of the original draw-card attraction – increase. The Cradle of Humankind world
heritage site serves as an apt example. The popularity and general acquaintance of
the Sterkfontein caves and the exhibition of the Mrs Ples fossil collection, have for
many decades been an attraction for individuals interested in archaeology and
palaeontology. But there are other equally important caves and palaeontological
sites in its near vicinity and the entire area of some square kilometres was regarded
as important enough to grant it world heritage site status. Soon other tourist
attractions were developed in the area, namely the Maropeng museum of evolution,
the Savannah Game Reserve, the Rhino and Lion Nature Reserve, the old
Kromdraai Goldmine, the Cradle Game Reserve, the Cultural Village, hiking routes,
lodges, spas, country escapes, art and craft markets, and the tourist-friendly
developments at the other important caves namely Zwartkrans and Kromdraai, and
many other sites. All of these entities benefit from the nearness of other tourist
attractions, and all of them contribute to the huge tourist numbers now being
attracted to this world heritage site. The Cradle of Humankind world heritage site
represents a successful tourist destination with a whole selection of complementary
developments.

Complementarity: Impumelelo noma udumo lwesikhungo

esithile noma indawo yokungcebeleka eheha abavakashi noma indawo
eyisimangaliso semvelo (njengesitolo, i-casino noma ibhishi) kuholela
ekuthuthukeni kwamanye amabhizinisi aseduzane, futhi lezo zindawo
zokungcebeleka ezidumile eziheha abavakashi kanye namabhizinisi
aseduzane ancikile (“off-shoots”) akuphazamisani futhi akuqhudelani,
kodwa esikhundleni salokho kukhuphula udumo nempumelelo yazo
zonke lezo zikhungo ezakhelene. Ngandlela thize, lokhu kuyisibonelo
sempumelelo edala enye impumelelo. Emkhakheni wezomnotho
ohlobene nejografi, lokhu kuyinto esemqoka kakhulu. Isikhungo
esinenxanxathela yezitolo (shopping mall) siyisibonelo esihle salokhu.
Esikhungweni esinjengalesi kuba khona isitolo esikhulu esidumile esiba
yisiqashi esiyinhloko bese kuthi ezinye izitodlwana eziningi, nezitolo
ezingama-emporia (uhlobo lwezitolo ezithengisa impahla), ama-
boutiques (izitodlwana ezithengisa izingubo zokugqoka), ama-
destination shops, ama-specialisation shops, amabhange, njalo njalo,
nazo ziqashe indawo yokuhweba kuleso sikhungo esinenxanxathela
yezitolo ngoba phela zazi kahle kamhlophe ukuthi isitolo esikhulu
sizoheha izindimbane zabantu okungenzeka bagcine
sebengamakhasimende azo zonke lezi ezinye izitodlwana ezincikene
nesitolo esikhulu. Kwenzeka into efanayo ncamashi nasembonini
yezokuvakasha. Isikhungo esisodwa esichumile esiheha abavakashi
abaningi siholela ekuthuthukeni kwezinye izikhungo zokuvakasha
ezakhelene naso futhi lezi zikhungo aziphazamisani futhi aziqhudelani
kodwa esikhundleni salokho lokhu kukhuphula udumo nempumelelo
yazo zonke lezo zikhungo ezakhelene, (ngamanye amazwi lezi zikhungo
ziyalekelelana futhi ziyafukulana). Esikhathini esiningi, kuvamise ukuthi
 50

endaweni ethile kube khona isikhungo sokuvakasha

esiyisikhondlakhondla okuyisona “esiheha abavakashi abaningi” kuleyo
ndawo, futhi impumelelo yaleso sikhungo ihlinzeka ngethuba lokuthi
kuthuthukiswe nezinye izikhungo zokuvakasha ezakhelene naso.
Ngenkathi kusungulwa futhi kuthuthukiswa ezinye izikhungo
zokuvakasha eduze kwesikhungo esiyisikhondlakhondla esiheha
abavakashi, liyadlondlobala inani labavakashi abavakashela lezo
zikhungo ezakhelene, kanjalo futhi kukhule nenani labavakashi
abavakashela isikhungo esiyisikhondlakhondla endaweni. Isikhungo
esiyigugu lomhlaba i-Cradle of Humankind siyisibonelo esihle salokhu.
Sekuphele amashumi ngamashumi eminyaka udumo nesasasa
lwemigede yase-Sterkfontein kanye nombukiso wezinsalela
zamathambo omzimba ka-Mrs Ples, kuheha izindimbane zabavakashi,
abanentshisekelo yokuthola ulwazi oluphathelene nezinsalela
zasemandulo. Kodwa-ke kukhona neminye imigede nezizinda
zezinsalela zasemandulo ezibaluleke ngendlela efanayo ezakhelene
nemigede yase-Sterkfontein futhi osekwenze ukuthi yonke le ndawo
engamakhilomitha ngamakhilomitha esondelene nale migede ibonakale
njengendawo yamagugu esemqoka kakhulu kangangokuthi yagcina
isimenyezelwe ngokusemthethweni njengesikhungo samagugu
omhlaba. Ngokushesha emva kwaleso simemezelo, kule ndawo
kwathuthukiswa ezinye izindawo eziheha abavakashi, njenge-Maropeng
museum of evolution, Savannah Game Reserve, Rhino kanye ne-Lion
Nature Reserve, old Kromdraai Goldmine, Cradle Game Reserve,
Cultural Village, imizila yokuhamba ngezinyawo nokuqwala izintaba,
ama-lodges (izindawo ezilalisa abavakashi), ama-spas, izindawo
zokushaywa ngumoya nokupholisa amakhanda ezingaphandle
kwedolobha (country escapes), izimakethe okudayiswa kuzona
imisebenzi yobuciko neyezandla, kanye nezinye izikhungo ezibamukela
ngezandla ezifudumele abavakashi ezakhelene neminye imigede,
enjenge-Zwartkrans kanye ne-Kromdraai, kanye nezinye izizinda
eziningi. Zonke lezi zikhungo zokuvakasha ziyahlomula ngenxa
yokusondelana kwazo nezinye izindawo eziheha abavakashi, futhi
zonke lezi zikhungo zifaka isandla ekuheheni izindimbane zabavakashi
abavakashela lesi sikhungo esiyigugu lomhlaba. I-Cradle of Humankind
world heritage site iwuphawu lwesikhungo esichumile futhi
esiphumelelayo esiheha abavakashi ngokulekelelwa ngezinye izikhungo
zabavakashi eziningi ezakhelene naso.
Conservation areas: Natural or human-made areas that have certain qualities
which make them so important or unique that they should be protected on behalf of
the future generations. Natural areas worthy of protection include a wide variety of
mountains, wetlands, coasts, forests, grasslands, rivers, areas containing fossils,
areas teeming with wild animals, areas where certain animals breed, and so on.
Human-made areas worthy of protection include a wide variety of city sectors,
 51

historical settlement sites, areas containing archaeological artefacts, and many

more. Some areas that are not entirely man-made, such as important battlefields and
graveyards, are also included in the list of conservation areas. All countries have
their own conservation legislation, but certain conservation areas are protected by
international laws (such as the International Law of the Sea) under the aegis of
various Agencies of the United Nations (such as UNESCO). Access to and
development in certain conservation areas are strictly forbidden, but in others access
and development are only subject to certain rules and regulations. Antarctica is a
case in point. The entire continent plus the ice shelves surrounding it, is a
conservation area, governed by the United Nations under the International Atlantic
Treaty. Access is strictly controlled. No non-endemic plants or animals are allowed.
Yet certain development is allowed under strict regulations and only genuine
scientific research stations have been permitted. South Africa is one of the few
countries in the world that has a research station (called SANAE and dating from
1958) on Antarctica. However, South Africa’s environmental management
regulations and laws do not apply on Antarctica, where only the International
Antarctic Treaty’s regulations apply. (See “wetlands”.)

Izindawo zokulondoloza imvelo: Kusho izindawo zemvelo noma

ezakhiwe ngabantu ezinobuhle obuthile noma izimangaliso ezithile,
okwenza zibaluleke noma zibe yingqayizivele kangangokuthi kudingeke
ukuba zivikelwe ukuze nezizukulwane zangomuso zikwazi ukuthokozela
ubuhle bazo. Izindawo zemvelo okufanele zivikelwe zibandakanya
izintaba eziningi ezihlukahlukene, amaxhaphozi, izindawo ezisogwini
lolwandle, amahlathi, izimfunda (grasslands), imifula, izindawo
eziqukethe izinsalela zezitshalo namathambo asemandulo, izindawo
ezigcwele izilwane zasendle eziningi, izindawo lapho kuzalaniswa khona
izilwane ezithile, njalo njalo. Izindawo ezakhiwe ngabantu okufanele
zivikelwe zibandakanya imikhakha nezingxenye zamadolobha
ezihlukahlukene, izindawo okwakuhlala kuzona abantu emandulo,
izindawo eziqukethe izinsalela zezinto zasemandulo kanye nokunye
okuningi. Ezinye izindawo ezingakhiwanga ngabantu ngokuphelele,
njengezinkundla zempi kanye nezindawo zamathuna, nazo zifakiwe
ohlwini lwezindawo zokulondoloza imvelo. Wonke amazwe anemithetho
yawo yokulondolozwa kwemvelo, kodwa-ke zikhona ezinye izindawo
zokulondoloza imvelo ezithile ezivikelwe yimithetho yamazwe
ngamazwe (njengoMthetho Wamazwe Ngamazwe Wolwandle)
ngokusekelwa ngama-Agencies e-United Nations (anjenge-UNESCO).
Kunezindawo ezithile zokulondoloza imvelo okungavumelekile ukuthi
abantu bangene kuzona noma bazithuthukise, kepha futhi kwezinye
izindawo lokhu kuvumelekile kodwa kuphela ngaphansi kwemithetho
nemithethonqubo ethile. I-Antarctica iyisibonelo esihle salokhu. Izwekazi
lase-Antarctica lonkana kanye nezingqimba zeqhwa (ice shelves)
ezilizungezile kulawulwa yiNhlangano Yezizwe (United Nations)
ngaphansi kwesivumelwano samazwe ngamazwe i-International Atlantic
Treaty. Ukungena kuleli zwekazi kulawulwa yimithetho eqinile futhi
 52

akungenwa noma kanjani nje. Kepha-ke nakuba kunjalo kuvumelekile

ukuthuthukiswa kwale ndawo ngaphansi kwemithethonqubo eqinile futhi
kuvumeleke kuphela iziteshi zocwaningo zoqobo futhi ezenza
umsebenzi wocwaningo woqobo kule ndawo. INingizimu Afrika ingelinye
lamazwe ambalwa emhlabeni anesiteshi socwaningo e-Antarctica
(esibizwa nge-SANAE, esasungulwa ngowe-1958). Kepha-ke imithetho
nemithethonqubo yezemvelo yaseNingizimu Afrika ayisebenzi e-
Antarctica, lapho kusebenza khona imithethonqubo ye-International
Antarctic Treaty. (Bheka ama-“wetlands”.)
Countries in transition (CITs): Less developed states that are in the
process of becoming more developed. It is purely an economic classification. In
1977, the World Bank classified 133 countries into four categories based on annual
per capita income: the low income economies, the lower middle income economies,
the upper middle income economies, and the high income economies. The countries
in the first three categories of this classification are regarded as countries in
transition, that is, countries that are on their way to become high income economies.
The underlying economic assumption of this classification is that all economies will
grow and the per capita income of all countries will increase (see “developing
countries”). This economic theory was never universally accepted and since 1977 it
has been proven incorrect as certain economies have declined. The 2008
international economic crisis demonstrated that even the economies of the high
income economies (highly developed countries) might sometimes decline. The 1977
World Bank classification is far too old to use in 2013, and even the term “countries
in transition” has fallen into disuse. Today we would regard the BRICS countries (see
“economic growth”) as “countries in transition” because their economies are growing
while even some of the traditionally high-income countries experience negative
economic growth. Some of the lowest income economies of the 1977 classification,
have become even poorer and have been joined by a number of the lower middle
income countries. (See “development”, “developing countries”, “economic
development” and “economic growth”.)

Amazwe aguqukayo (CITs): Kushiwo lawo mazwe angakathuthuki

kakhulu, njengamanje asendleleni yokuthuthuka nokuguquka ukuze abe
ngamazwe asethuthukile. Lokhu kuqondene kuphela nokuhlukanisa
amazwe ngokomnotho. Ngowe-1977, iBhange Lomhlaba lahlukanisa
amazwe ayi-133 ngokwezigaba ezine, ngokubheka imali engenayo
ezweni ngalinye ngonyaka (annual per capita income): amazwe
anengeniso yomnotho ephansi (low income economies), amazwe
enengeniso yomnotho emaphakathi ngokuphansana (lower middle
income economies), amazwe anengeniso yomnotho emaphakathi
ngokuphakeme (upper middle income economies), kanye namazwe
anengeniso yomnotho ephakeme (high income economies). Lawo
mazwe asezigabeni ezintathu zokuqala athathwa njengamazwe
aguqukayo, okusho ukuthi, ngamazwe asendleleni yokuba ngamazwe
anengeniso yomnotho ephakeme. Ukucabangela kwezomnotho
(economic assumption) okuyisisekelo salokhu kuhlukaniswa kwamazwe
 53

kuhambisana nomcabango wokuthi yonke iminotho yamazwe izokhula

futhi ikhuphuke nengeniso yawo wonke amazwe (bheka ama-
“developing countries”). Le thiyori yezomnotho ayikaze yamukeleke
ngokuphelele ezinhlakeni zonke futhi kusukela ngowe-1977
sekubonakale ubufakazi bokuthi le thiyori iyaphaphalaza njengoba
yehlile iminotho yamazwe athile. Inkinga yowezi-2008 yokufadalala
komnotho emhlabeni yabonisa ukuthi ngisho neminotho yamazwe
anengeniso ephakeme imbala (amazwe asethuthuke kakhulu)
kuyenzeka yehle noma iphelelwe ngamandla. Uhlelo lokuhlukaniswa
kweminotho yamazwe olwenziwa yiBhange Lomhlaba ngowe-1977
seluludala kakhulu ukuthi lungasetshenziswa ngowezi-2013, futhi ngisho
netemu elithi “amazwe aguqukayo” imbala alisasetshenziswa. Namuhla
amazwe esingawathatha “njengamazwe aguqukayo” ngamazwe
anjenge-BRICS (bheka i-“economic growth”) ngoba iminotho yawo
iyakhula nakuba amanye amazwe athathwa njengemazwe anengeniso
ephakeme ebhekene nezinkinga eziphathelene nokufadalala komnotho.
Amanye amazwe athathwa njengamazwe anengeniso ephansi,
ngokwezigaba zokuhlukaniswa kwamazwe zowe-1977), asehlwempu
kakhulu kunakuqala futhi asejoyinwe kulesi sigaba ngamazwe
abenengeniso emaphakathi ngokuphansana imbala. (Bheka i-
“development”, “developing countries”, “economic development” kanye
ne-“economic growth”.)
D
Deforestation: The human-induced removal of the vegetation that naturally
grows in a certain area. The term does not refer to forested areas only, but to any
natural area where any type of vegetation grows. An area could be stripped of its
vegetation by human actions such as overgrazing, overexploitation, incorrect
agricultural methods, the use of fire to clear areas for cultivation (slash-and-burn
cultivation), inadvertent or deliberate veld fires, military operations, and many more.
These actions leave the ground surface uncovered and therefore unprotected
against the forces of soil erosion (see “erosion”). Rainwater will simply run off over
the devegetated area because there is no vegetation to prevent runoff. Owing to this
increased runoff, the topsoil will be washed away. Without vegetation to protect the
topsoil from wind, it is simply blown away. Devegetation (or deforestation) leads to
accelerated soil erosion and ultimately to denudation which is the total loss of the
fertile topsoil that is indispensible to support the growth of vegetation. Denuded
areas have lost their production capacity (production potential). Vast tracts of
land on all continents (except Antarctica) have been reduced to this state. These
regions include tropical forests, grasslands, semi-deserts, fynbos regions, high
rainfall mountainous regions, and even certain areas in very fertile regions such as
the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. (See “environmental
degradation”.)

Ukugawulwa nokucekelwa phansi kwamahlathi nezitshalo zemvelo:

Isenzo sabantu sokugawula nokucekela phansi izitshalo
 54

ezizimilela ngokwemvelo endaweni ethile. Leli temu aliphathelene nje

kuphela nezindawo ezingamahlathi, kodwa liphathelene nanoma iyiphi
indawo yemvelo lapho kumila khona izitshalo ngokwemvelo. Indawo
ethile ingacekeleka phansi futhi kuqothuke uhlaza lwayo ngenxa
yezenzo zabantu, njengokuklabisa imfuyo ngokweqile, ukusetshenziswa
kwaleyo ndawo ngokweqile noma ngendlela engafanele,
ukusetshenziswa kwezindlela zokulima ezingalungile, ukusebenzisa
umlilo ukushisa ukususa izitshalo endaweni okuzolinywa kuyona
(okubizwa nge-slash-and-burn cultivation), imililo yequbula eyokheleke
kungahlosiwe noma imililo yequbula eyokhelwe ngabomu, imikhankaso
yezempi, kanye nokunye okuningi. Lezi zenzo zishiya umhlabathi
ungambozekile futhi ngenxa yalokho-ke usala ungavikelekile ezinkingeni
ezinjengokuguguleka kwenhlabathi (bheka i-“erosion”). Amanzi emvula
avele azigelezele nje, adlule, phezu kwaleyo ndawo ecekelwe phansi
ngoba phela zisuke sezisusiwe izitshalo ezingavimbela ukugeleza
kwamanzi kalula. Ngenxa yokugeleza kwamanzi okuphakeme
kuguguleka nomhlabathi ovundile. Uma zingasekho izihlahla notshani,
umhlabathi upheshethwa kalula ngumoya. Ukugawulwa nokucekelwa
phansi kwamahlathi nezitshalo zemvelo kuholela futhi ekutheni
usheshe uguguleke umhlabathi futhi ekugcineni lokhu kubangela
ukuqothuka okukhulu okwenza ulahleke wonke umhlabathi ovundile
odingeka kakhulu ngoba phela yiwona olekelela amahlathi nezitshalo
ukuthi kumile futhi kukhule. Izindawo eziqothukile yizindawo
esezilahlekelwe ngamandla azo okukhiqiza izitshalo. Kuwo wonke
amazwekazi (ngaphandle kwe-Antarctica) kunodedangendlale bomhlaba
osuqothuke waze wafinyelela esimweni okukhulunywa ngaso lapha
ngenhla. Lezi zifunda zibandakanya ama-tropical forests (amahlathi
asezindaweni ezishisayo lapho kutholakala khona imvula eningi),
izimfunda (grasslands), izindawo ezicishe zibe wugwadule (semi-
deserts), izifunda zama-fynbos, izifunda ezinezintaba eziningi, lapho
kutholakala khona imvula eningi, njengaseMpumalanga Koloni kanye
naKwaZulu-Natali, eNingizimu Afrika. (Bheka i-“environmental
degradation”.)
Demarcation: The establishment and description of the borders or limits of an
area. It literally means “marking off”. It entails the determining of the horizontal
and/or vertical extent of an area in which a particular variable (feature, condition,
characteristic, phenomenon) occurs, and the description of the limits of its
occurrence (or distribution) on a map. The variable could be anything from a
population who speak a certain dialect of a language, to a rare plant species or a
certain mineral resource. It is an extremely important concept in Geography.
Geographers study the spatial distribution patterns of variables and conditions. The
limits of the area in which something occurs are established and indicated on a map.
In this way, the spatial distribution of a phenomenon is described and the localities
or areas of occurrence are demarcated. Innumerable examples can be named, but
only a few are given: countries are demarcated by international boundaries; dry
 55

regions are demarcated by rainfall isohyets; rich regions are demarcated by per
capita income or gross domestic product (GDP); biomes are demarcated on grounds
of the types of plants and animals that occur in them; crime-prone areas in a city are
demarcated by the number of criminal incidents reported over a specific period. Note
that all the spatial distributions mentioned above, can be described by means of
maps. Thus geographers demarcate areas which describe spatial distributions.
Nowadays, such data is often stored in geographic information systems (GISs). (See
“regions”.)

Ukuklanywa kwemingcele: Ukuhlonzwa nokuchazwa kwemingcele

noma kwemikhawulo yendawo ethile. Ngamafuphi nje lokhu kusho
“ukuphawulwa” kwendawo ethile. Kufaka phakathi ukuhlonza
ukwendlaleka kwendawo ngokobubanzi kanye/noma ukuphakama
kwendawo ethile, lapho kutholakala khona into ethile (isici, isimo,
isimangaliso semvelo) kanye nokuchazwa nokuboniswa ebalazweni
kwemikhawulo yokutholakala (noma yokusabalala) kwaleyonto. Lokhu
kungaba yizinto ezihlukahlukene, njengabantu abakhuluma ulimi
lwesigodi oluthile, noma izinhlobo ezithile zesitshalo esingavamile noma
esiyivelakancane noma uhlobo oluthile lwesimbiwa. Lokhu kuyinto
ebaluleke kakhulu kuJografi. Izazi zeJografi zihlaziya futhi zicubungule
ukutholakala nokusabalala kwezinto ezithile noma kwezimo ezithile
endaweni ethile. Imikhawulo yendawo okwenzeka kuyona into ethile
iyahlonzwa bese iboniswa ebalazweni. Ngaleyo ndlela, kuchazwa
ukutholakala nokusabalala kwesimangaliso semvelo esithile
ezindaweni ezithile bese kuklanywa izindawo lapho sitholakala khona
isimangaliso semvelo. Ziningi kakhulu izibonelo esingazibala lapha
kodwa-ke sizohlinzeka ezimbalwa nje kuphela: amazwe ahlukaniswa
yimingcele yamazwe ngamazwe; izifunda ezomisile zihlukaniswa
ngemigqa yebalazwe ehlukanisa izindawo ezithola imvula efanayo
(rainfall isohyets); izifunda ezicebile zihlukaniswa ngokubheka imali
engenayo esifundeni noma umkhiqizo ophelele wezwe (GDP); izindawo
eziqukethe indathane yezitshalo zemvelo nezilwane zihlukaniswa
ngokubheka izinhlobo zezitshalo kanye nezilwane ezitholakala lapho;
izindawo lapho kudlange khona ubugebengu edolobheni elithile
zihlukaniswa ngokubheka inani lezigameko zobugebengu ezibikiwe
kuleyo ndawo esikhathini esithile. Qaphela ukuthi zonke lezi zimo
ezibalwe ngenhla zokusabalala kwento noma kwesimo esithile
ziyachazwa futhi ziboniswe ngokusebenzisa amabalazwe. Ngakho-ke
izazi zejografi ziyazihlukanisa izindawo ezichaza ukutholakala noma
ukusabalala kwento ethile noma kwesimo esithile endaweni ethile.
Kulezi zinsuku, idatha enjengalena ivamise ukugcinwa ezinhlelweni
zolwazi lwejografi (GISs). (Bheka ama-“regions”.)
Demarketing: A management strategy to limit and control the numbers of
visitors to fragile or sensitive tourism destinations. Certain tourist facilities, like
Disneyland and Sun City, have been created to be robust and they can withstand a
 56

never ending deluge of masses of visitors. Unlike these, certain tourism destinations
such as limestone caves, catacombs, salt mines, coral reefs, nature reserves, game
parks, sacred sites and places of meditation and rememberance are fragile and/or
not suited to cope with masses of tourists all the time (see “carrying capacity”). Of
course, the public can never be told not to visit a tourist site, because visitors are the
life blood of any tourist site. However, if the destination is damaged by too many
visitors, management measures have to be taken or the site will be destroyed, and
management could be accused of “killing the goose that lays the golden eggs”.
There is justifiable concern that the carrying capacity of the Kruger National Park is
being exceeded by too many day visitors and the development of a number of new
small camps. Nature reserves like Yellow Stone and Yosemite in the USA have had
to limit visitor numbers years ago – if for no other reason than to relieve the traffic
jams in the reserves! There are various ways of limiting the visitors, namely
increasing the entrance fees, prohibiting children, requiring advance booking,
disallowing visitors to move around without a guide, allowing a limited number of
visitors per day, prohibiting food and beverages on the site, prohibiting photography,
barring visitors access to the most fragile areas or precious artefacts, and so forth.
Tourism management is not as easy as it often seems, and with tourism being the
one of the fastest growing industries in the world, these problems are going to
increase rather than decrease.

Ukuncishiswa kwenani labavakashi: Isu lokuphatha nokulawula

ngendlela ezobeka umkhawulo noma inciphise noma ilawule inani
labavakashi abavakashela izizinda zokuvakasha ezibucayi. Izikhungo
zokuvakasha ezithile, njenge-Disneyland kanye ne-Sun City, ziqinile
futhi zakhiwe ngendlela ezokwenza zikwazi ukwamukela nokumelana
nezindimbane zabavakashi abavakashela lezi zindawo nsukuzonke.
Kepha-ke kukhona ezinye izindawo zabavakashi, njengemigede ye-
limestone, imigede yamathuna, izimayini zikasawoti, izixhobo zekhorali
(izixhobo zamatshe asolwandle ezinezinsalela zamathambo ezilwane
zasolwandle), izindawo zokulondoloza imvelo, iziqiwu, izizinda
eziyingcwele, izindawo zokuzindla kanye nezindawo zesikhumbuzo,
yizindawo ezibucayi futhi/noma ezingeke zikwazi ukumelana
nezindimbane zabavakashi ngaso sonke isikhathi (bheka i-“carrying
capacity”). Ngokuqinisekileyo, siyavuma ukuthi ngeke neze kulunge
ukutshela umphakathi ukuthi awuvumelekile ukuvakashela isizinda
sabavakashi esithile, ngoba phela abavakashi bawumgogodla
nomthombo wempilo wanoma yisiphi isizinda sabavakashi. Kodwa-ke,
uma isizinda sabavakashi sesiqala ukulimala nokucekeleka phansi
ngenxa yokuhanjelwa ngabavakashi abaningi ngokweqile, kumele
abaphathi bathathe izinyathelo zokulawula isimo, kungenjalo isizinda
sizolimala kakhulu futhi sicekeleke phansi, futhi kungenzeka abaphathi
bakhonjwe ngenjumbane “kuthiwe basonge izandla bangenza lutho
ekubeni bebona ukuthi siyalimala isizinda sabavakashi esiyigugu
lomphakathi”. Kukhona ukukhathazeka, kube kufanelekile, mayelana
nokuthi i-Kruger National Park ivakashelwa ngabantu abaningi
ngokweqile emini, futhi kukhona ukukhathazeka nangokuqubuka
 57

kwezinkambu ezincanyana zabavakashi eziningi ezintsha kulesi siqiwu.

Iziqiwu ezinjenge-Yellow Stone kanye ne-Yosemite kwelase-USA
zaphoqeleka ukuthi zinciphise inani labavakashi eminyakeni eminingi
edlule – futhi lokhu kwakwenzelwa nokunciphisa isiminyaminya
sezimoto ezingena kulezi ziqiwu! Ziningi izindlela ezingasetshenziswa
ukunciphisa inani labavakashi, njengokukhuphula inani lemali
yokungena, ukwenqabela izingane, ukubeka umbandela wokuthi
abavakashi babekise indawo ngaphambi kokuthi bafike esiqiwini,
ukwenqabela abavakashi abahamba bodwa bengaphelezelwa wungoti
onolwazi olunzulu mayelana nesiqiwu (guide), ukuvumela inani elithile
labavakashi abangena esiqiwini ngosuku, ukwenqabela ukuthwetshulwa
kwezithombe, ukuvimbela abavakashi bangafinyeleli ezindaweni
ezibucayi noma ezindaweni ezinezinsalela zempahla eyigugu.
Ukuphathwa nokulawulwa kwezokuvakasha akuyona neze into elula
nakuba esikhathini esiningi kubukeka kanjalo, futhi njengoba
ezokuvakasha zingenye yezimboni ezikhula ngesivinini esikhulu
emhlabeni, ziyakhula futhi nezinkinga ezinjengalezi esikhundleni sokuba
zinciphe.
Demographic data: Statistics that describe the characteristics of a population.
A variety of statistics could be used for this purpose, namely absolute numbers,
means or averages, percentages, quartiles, percentiles, and so forth. Examples of
these statistics are: the total number of people living in a country, region, city or
town; the percentage of females in the population; the average age of the men in a
population; the percentage of children younger than 15 years in a certain group of
people (a population); the infant mortality rate; and many more. These figures
convey useful information about that particular population. Geographers use
various visual representation techniques to describe the demographics of
populations, for example bar charts, population pyramids, pie diagrams, and
choropleth maps. (See “choropleth map” and “thematic map”.)

Idatha ephathelene nabantu abahlukahlukene nezimo abaphila

ngaphansi kwazo: Lokhu kusho izibalo ezichaza ubunjalo bezimo
zabantu. Kukhona izibalo ezinhlobonhlobo ezingasetshenziselwa lokhu,
njengezinombolo zoqobo (absolute numbers), izilinganiso ezimaphakathi
(means) noma ama-avareji, amaphesenti, ama-quartiles, ama-
percentiles, njalo njalo. Izibonelo zalezi zibalo yilezi: inani eliphelele
labantu abahlala ezweni, esifundeni noma edolobheni elithile; iphesenti
labantu besifazane ezweni elithile, i-avareji yeminyaka yobudala
yamadoda ezweni elithile; iphesenti lezingane ezinemiyaka yobudala
engaphansi kwe-15 eqenjini labantu elithile abahlala ezweni elithile;
izinga lokushona kwezinsana; kanye nokunye okuningi. Lezi zibalo
zihlinzeka ngolwazi oluwusizo mayelana nabantu abahlala ezweni
elithile. Izazi zeJografi zisebenzisa imifanekiso nemidwebo
enhlobonhlobo ukuchaza izimo kanye nezinhlobo zabantu abahlala
ezweni elithile, isibonelo, ama-bar charts, ama-population pyramids,
 58

ama-pie diagrams, kanye nama-choropleth maps. (Bheka i-“choropleth

map” kanye ne-“thematic map”.)
Demonstration effect: The mutual influence of the traditions, cultural practices,
lifestyles, values and norms of different peoples on those of other communities or
groups of people. It is a term closely related to acculturation (see “acculturation”),
but it usually involves smaller groups and less encompassing behaviour patterns
than in acculturation. While acculturation is mostly a one-way process,
demonstration effect is mostly a two-way process (that is, a mutual process); this is,
however, not a hard and fast rule. The presence of visitors or officials in a group of
people with different traditional and cultural practices and value systems might affect
both groups simply because they start to copy one another. Tourism provides the
ideal conditions for this copy-cat behaviour. It might be a completely involuntary
action, but when one group of people sees how other groups of people live, they
start to copy certain practices of those people. Tourists, travellers and diplomatic
staff from Western countries learnt to eat sushi in the Far East and introduced it to
their friends, guests and associates in their home countries. It caught on, and today
sushi is a delicacy enjoyed in Western Europe, the USA and even South Africa.
Tourists who enjoyed eating mopani worms while visiting South Africa, might
introduce it as a delicacy in their home countries. This will, of course, not change the
entire culture of the tourists’ home countries. Similarly, the wearing of sunglasses by
people who have seen tourists wearing sunglasses will not cause acculturation.
Demonstration effect is essentially copy-catting of superficial cultural and social
behaviour, and it applies to less encompassing customs and practices than
acculturation does. The latter applies to entire lifestyles, cultures, belief systems and
world views, while the former applies to copying simple behaviour patterns, food,
fads and single phenomena. A typical example of demonstration effect is the
wedding ceremonies of modern black South Africans. While they have not at all
abandoned their traditional marital rites and ceremonies, they now have two
separate wedding ceremonies, one of which is a formal “white-dress” ceremony
typical of the white South Africans’ wedding ceremony. However, white South
Africans have not incorporated any elements of the traditional black Africans’
wedding practices into their own wedding ceremonies.

Umthelela wokubonela (Demonstration effect): Umthelela ofanayo

wamasiko, imikhuba yendabuko, izindlela zokuphila, izimompilo kanye
nezinkambiso zabantu abahlukahlukene odluliselwa kweminye
imiphakathi noma amaqembu abantu. Leli yitemu elihlobene kakhulu
nenqubo yokwamukela kwabantu abathile usikompilo olusha
okungelona olwabo, emva kokuhlangana nabantu abangabanikazi
bosikompilo lolo (acculturation) (bheka i-“acculturation”), kodwa-ke
umthelela wokubonela uvamise ukubonakala emaqenjini amancane futhi
ububanzi kanye namandla alokhu kuncane kakhulu uma kuqhathaniswa
ne-acculturation. Omunye umehluko phakathi kwalokhu okubili wukuthi i-
acculturation iyinqubo yomthelela osuka ohlangothini olulodwa lwabantu
uye kolunye uhlangothi lwabantu, kepha i-demonstration effect yona
iyinqubo ebandakanya ukwabelana kwezinhlangothi zombili (two-
way process); kodwa-ke, lokho akusho ukuthi lokhu kuwumgomo omile
futhi ongaguquki. Ukuba khona kwabavakashi noma izikhulu eqenjini
 59

labantu abanamasiko nezinkambiso zendabuko kanye nezimompilo

ezingafani kungaba nomthelela emaqenjini womabili ngenxa yokuthi
kuyenzeka elinye iqembu liqale ukubonela kwelinye bese lilandela
indlela yokuphila yalelo qembu abahlangane nalo, naleli elinye iqembu
nalo liphinde lenze into efanayo. Ezokuvakasha zihlinzeka ngezimo
ezikahle kakhulu zale mpilo yokubonela. Kungenzeka lokhu
kuzenzekele, kodwa-ke esikhathini esiningi uma iqembu labantu elithile
libona indlela abaphila ngayo abantu abakwamanye amaqembu,
liyabonela bese liqala ukulingisa nokulandela ezinye zezinto ezenziwa
yilabo bantu bamanye amaqembu. Abavakashi, izihambi, izisebenzi
zamanxusa ezivela emazweni aseNtshonalanga zafunda ukudla u-sushi
e-Far East futhi zafundisa nabangani bazo, izimenywa kanye nabantu
ezazana nabo noma ezisebenzisana nabo emazweni azo ngalokhu
kudla. Kwasabalala kanjalo-ke ukudliwa kwe-sushi, futhi namuhla u-
sushi wukudla okuyintandokazi e-Western Europe, e-USA kanye
naseNingizimu Afrika imbala. Abavakashi abathokozele ama-mopani
worms ngenkathi bevakashele eNingizimu Afrika, kungenzeka bafike
emazweni abo bafundise abantu bakubo ngalokhu kudla, mhlawumbe
lokhu kugcine sekuyintandokazi nakulawo mazwe angaphandle. Nakuba
kunokwenzeka lokho, ngeke neze kuliguqule ngokuphelele lonke
usikompilo lwamazwe alabo bavakashi. Ngokufanayo, ukugqoka
kwabantu abathile izibuko zelanga emva kokubona abavakashi
bezigqokile ngeke neze kuholele ekutheni kube ne-acculturation ezweni.
I-demonstration effect iyisenzo sokubonela nokulingisa, indlela
yokuphila engajulile kakhulu, futhi ayinawo umthelela omkhulu
emasikweni oqobo nasezinkambisweni ezinohlonze, njengoba
kwenzeka ku-acculturation. I-acculturation inomthelela ophelele
kwindlela yokuphila, amasikompilo, izinkolelo kanye nemibono
yomhlaba, kanti i-demonstration effect yona iwukubonela nje nokulingisa
izindlela zokuziphatha nokuphila ezilula, njengokudla, imfashini kanye
nezinto ezithile empilweni. Isibonelo esihle se-demonstration effect
yimicimbi yemishado yabantu abamnyama baseNingizimu Afrika,
asebephila impilo yesimanjemanje. Nakuba bengakaziyeki izinkambiso
nemigidi yomshado wesintu, manje sebevamise ukuba nemicimbi
yomshado emibili, futhi komunye wale micimbi umakoti ugqoka “ingubo
yomshado emhlophe” okwenza lo mcimbi ufane nomshado wabantu
abamhlophe baseNingizimu Afrika. Kepha-ke nakuba kunjalo, abantu
abamhlophe baseNingizimu Afrika bona abayifaki ingxenye yomshado
wesintu emishadweni yabo.
Dependency paradigm: The general conception that the economically
active people in the population have to care for those who are not economically
active. The elderly and the children in a population cannot work to produce food or
earn money, therefore they depend on their children or parents or other people for
their livelihood. It is normally accepted that the individuals aged between 15 and 65
 60

years constitute the economically active group of the population who contribute to
the economic productivity. Those younger than 15 years and those older than 65
years usually constitute the non-economically active group. A dependency ratio is
calculated to express the number of people (individuals) who are dependent on
every 100 economically active people. Theoretically, a low dependency ratio is
desirable since it means that a large proportion of the population is contributing to
the economy. A high dependency ratio is economically undesirable, since it means
that a small group of working people must provide for a large group of dependents.
Dependency ratios for the richer, more developed countries are much lower than
those for poor, developing states. In the developed countries the dependency ratios
typically vary from 50 to 70 per cent, but in the developing countries it often exceeds
100 per cent which indicates that there are more dependents than producers in the
population. The dependency ratio has one important shortcoming in that it uses age
as the only variable to identify the productive and unproductive groups of the
population. It does not take into account those people who can work, but cannot find
employment (that is, the unemployed). The general conception of dependency
cannot – and does not – rely solely on the dependency ratio to express the state of
production and dependency in a country or region.

Ukuthembela kwabantu kwabanye: Umbono ojwayelekile

wokuthi abantu abanegalelo emnothweni, okusho, abantu
abasebenzayo kanye nalabo abaqhuba amabhizinisi ezweni kumele
banakekele nalabo abangasebenzi. Abantu asebekhulile kanye
nezingane ezweni elithile abakwazi ukuzisebenzela ngokwabo ukuze
bakwazi ukukhiqiza ukudla nokungenisa imali, ngakho-ke bathembele
ezinganeni zabo noma kubazali ukuze baphile. Kuyinto eyamukelekile
futhi ejwayelekile ukuthi abantu abaneminyaka yobudala ephakathi
kweyi-15 kuya kwengama-65 kube yibona abayingxenye enkulu yabantu
abasebenzayo futhi abaqhuba amabhizinisi ezweni, futhi bafaka isandla
esikhulu emkhiqizweni wezomnotho wezwe. Labo abaneminyaka
yobudala engaphansi kweyi-15 kanye nalabo abaneminyaka yobudala
engaphezu kwama-65 bavamise ukuba yingxeye enkulu yabantu
abangasebenzi. Izingasilinganiso lokuthembela kwabanye libalwa
ngenhloso yokubonisa inani labantu abathembele ekhulwini ngalinye
labantu abasebenzayo noma abanamabhizinisi. Kucatshangelwa
ekutheni kungaba kuhle ukuthi kube nezingasilinganiso eliphansi
lokuthembela kwabantu kwabanye njengoba lokho kusho ukuthi
ingxenye enkulu yabantu ifaka isandla futhi inegalelo emnothweni.
Izingasilinganiso eliphakeme lokuthembela kwabanye liyinto
engathandeki neze njengoba lokho kusho ukuthi abantu abayingcosana
abasebenzayo kumele banakekele abantu abaningi abathembele kubo.
Emazweni acebile futhi athuthukile, amazingasilinganiso okuthembela
kwabantu kwabanye aphansi kakhulu uma kuqhathaniswa namazwe
ampofu, okungamazwe asathuthuka. Emazweni asethuthukile,
amazingasilinganiso okuthembela kwabanye avamise ukuba phakathi
kwamaphesenti angama-50 kanye namaphesenti angama-70, kodwa
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emazweni asathuthuka lokhu kuvamise ukuba ngaphezulu

kwamaphesenti ayi-100, okuyinto ebonisayo ukuthi baningi abantu
abathembele kwabanye uma beqhathaniswa nabantu abakhiqizayo futhi
abayingxenye yomnotho ezweni. Izingasilinganiso lokuthembela
kwabantu kwabanye linesikhinyabezi (shortcoming) esisodwa
esibalulekile, okungukuthi lisebenzisa iminyaka yobudala kuphela
njengendlela yokuhlonza abantu abakhiqizayo futhi abanyingxenye
yomnotho kanye nabantu abangeyona ingxenye yomnotho ezweni.
Lokhu kubashiya ngaphandle labo bantu abanamandla namakhono
okusebenza futhi abafisayo ukusebenza, kodwa abangawutholi
umsebenzi (okusho, abantu abangasebenzi). Umbono ojwayelekile
wokuthembela kwabantu kwabanye awukwazi ukuthembela kuphela
kwizingasilinganiso lokuthembela kwabantu kwabanye njengendlela
yokubonisa nokuveza isimo segalelo nokudlala indima ebonakalayo
emnothweni kanye nokuthembela kwabantu kwabanye ezweni noma
esifundeni esithile.
Destination: A place where people (tourists) go to spend a short period such
as a day or a week or two on vacation, or attend a sport tournament or a conference,
receive medical treatment or execute work and study responsibilities. Certain places
in the world are particularly attractive to, and popular with, short-term visitors, and
they can be regarded as prime tourism destinations. Examples of such places
include Cape Town and the Kruger National Park in South Africa; the beaches of
Hawaii and Rio de Janeiro (especially during the annual Rio carnival season!);
Disneyland and Las Vegas in the United States of America; Bundi Beach in
Australia; the beaches of Bali and Phuket; Yosemite National Park in the USA;
Serengeti in Tanzania; the Okavango Delta in Botswana; London and Paris with their
historical buildings; Elvis Presley’s home “Graceland” in Memphis, Tennessee (in the
USA); the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site in Gauteng; even Antarctica has
lately become an extremely popular destination for wealthy tourists. Religious
pilgrims visit certain holy places, such as Mecca and Jerusalemand the Vatican in
Rome, and these places also count as short-term destinations. But there is another
type of destination, namely places where migrants go in order to find employment
(see “refugees”). These people spend longer periods at the places where they find
work. An example of this is the many migrants – both legal and illegal – from more
northerly African countries such as Malawi, Zimbabwe and the DRC who are
attracted to Gauteng and Limpopo Provinces in order to find employment and earn a
living. (See “attraction”).

Indawo eheha abavakashi: Indawo lapho abantu (abavakashi)

bethanda ukuchitha khona isikhashana esincane, njengosuku noma
isonto, bengcebeleka noma bezipholele, noma behambele
umqhudelwano wezemidlalo noma ingqungquthela, noma beyothola
usizo lokwelashwa noma behambe ngomsebenzi noma beyofunda.
Kunezindawo ezithile emhlabeni ezithandwa ikakhulukazi ngabavakashi
besikhathi esifushane futhi lezi zindawo zithathwa njengezindawo
zabavakashi eziphuma phambili. Isibonelo sezindawo ezinjengalezi yi-
 62

Cape Town kanye ne-Kruger National Park eNingizimu Afrika;

amabhishi ase-Hawaii nase-Rio de Janeiro (ikakhulu ngesikhathi
somkhosi obanjwa minyaka yonke i-Rio carnival!); i-Disneyland kanye
ne-Las Vegas e-United States of America; i-Bundi Beach kwelase-
Australia; amabhishi ase-Bali nawase-Phuket; i-Yosemite National Park
e-USA; i-Serengeti e-Tanzania; i-Okavango Delta e-Botswana; idolobha
lase-London kanye ne-Paris ikakhulu ngenxa yamabhilidi asemandulo
anomlando onohlonze; ikhaya lika-Elvis Presley i-“Graceland”
edolobheni lase-Memphis, e-Tennessee (kwelase-USA); i-Cradle of
Humankind World Heritage Site e-Gauteng; ngisho ne-Antarctica imbala
njengoba isiyintandokazi kamuva nje kulabo bavakashi
abangomacaphuna kusale. Abavakashi bezenkolo bavakashela
izindawo ezithile eziyingcwele, njenge-Mecca, i-Jerusalem kanye ne-
Vatican e-Rome, futhi lezi zindawo zithathwa njengezindawo eziheha
abavakashi besikhathi esifushane. Kodwa-ke kukhona nolunye uhlobo
lwezindawo eziheha abafuduki abavela kwamanye amazwe, abangena
kulawo mazwe ngenhloso yokuzitholela amatoho (bheka ama-
“refugees”). Laba bantu bachitha isikhathi eside kulezo zindawo
abathole kuzona umsebenzi. Isibonelo salokhu yizindimbane zabafuduki
– abasemthethweni kanye nalabo abangekho emthethweni – abavela
emazweni asenyakatho yeNingizimu Afrika njenge-Malawi, Zimbabwe
kanye ne-DRC abafudukela esifundazweni sase-Gauteng nase-Limpopo
ngethemba lokuzitholela amatoho ukuze bakwazi ukuziphilisa
nokuzondla. (Bheka i-“attraction”).
Destination image: The characteristic which typifies a place in the
imagination of the public. When people think of the Kruger National Park, they
immediately think of the “Big Five”, namely lions, leopards, rhinos, buffaloes and
elephants. That is the image the broad public has of this destination and that is the
reason why most visitors go there. On return, everybody asks whether you have
seen lions and then the rest of the Big Five. Every famous or well-known destination
has an image. The image of New York City is Manhattan and the Statue of Liberty,
Paris is associated with the Eiffel Tower, Rome with roman ruins, Hong Kong with
densely packed high buildings, Las Vegas equates to gambling, the image of
Arizona is desert and the Grand Canyon, that of Egypt is pyramids, Russia means
flat snowy plains, and Africa as a whole means vast, empty plains with endless herds
of antelope, the odd lion pride catching a zebra and crocodiles devouring wildebeest.
Marketers would be short-sighted if they did not use these destination images to their
greatest effect, and their challenge is to convince the visitors that there is more to all
these destinations than these well-known “image” sights. A tourist destination that
has no well-known image has to turn its most unique or most striking feature into an
irresistible, “must-see image” to entice visitors and then use this image in the best
interest of the destination. UNESCO’s outstanding promotion of all the different world
heritage sites serve as a good example of how destination image could be used
effectively.
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Umfanekiso wendawo eheha abavakashi: Umfanekiso ofikayo

ezingqondweni zabantu uma becabanga ngendawo ethile. Uma abantu
becabanga nge-Kruger National Park, umfanekiso ofika ngokushesha
ezingqondweni zabo yi-“Big Five”, okuyizinhlobo zezilwane zasendle
ezinhlanu ezinkulu, amabhubesi, izingwe, obhejane, izinyathi kanye
nezindlovu. Lowo ngumfanekiso onawo umphakathi wonkana mayelana
nale ndawo eheha abavakashi futhi yileso isizathu esenza abavakashi
abaningi bavakashele lesi siqiwu. Uma sebebuyile esiqiwini, wonke
umuntu uyababuza ukuthi bawabonile yini amabhubesi futhi emva
kwalokho babuze nokuthi bazibonile yini ezinye izilwane eziyingxenye
ye-Big Five. Zonke izindawo eziheha abavakashi ezidumile
zinomfanekiso wazo. Umfanekiso we-New York City yi-Manhattan kanye
ne-Statue of Liberty, i-Paris iyamaniswa ne-Eiffel Tower, i-Rome
iyamaniswa nezinsalela zezakhiwo zombuso wamaRoma, i-Hong Kong
iyamaniswa namabhilidi amade anesiminyaminya sabantu, i-Las Vegas
iyamaniswa nokugembula, umfanekiso we-Arizona wugwadule kanye
ne-Grand Canyon, umfanekiso we-Egypt ngama-pyramids, umfanekiso
we-Russia ngamathafa ambozwe yiqhwa, futhi i-Afrika yonkana idume
ngamathafa angodedangendlale agcwele imihlambi yezinyamazane
ezinhlobonhlobo, futhi lapho kuvamise ukubonakala khona nemihlambi
yamabhubesi ebamba idube (zebra) kanye nezingwenya zidephuna
inkonkoni. Kungasho ukuthi abacabangi kahle abakhangisi bezindawo
zabavakashi uma bengayisebenzisi le mifanekiso ukuheha izindimbane
zabavakashi, futhi inselele yabo wukwenza abavakashi babone ukuthi
kuningi abangakuthokozela kulezi zindawo ngaphezu “kwemifanekiso”
eyaziwayo yezinto ezidumile ezitholakala lapho. Indawo eheha
abavakashi engenaso isithombe esaziwayo noma esidumile kumele
isebenzise lokho okuyinto egqamile ethokozelwa kakhulu ngabavakashi
ukwenza “umfanekiso okhangayo” ozoheha abavakashi, futhi kumele
leyo ndawo iwusebenzise ngendlela efanele lowo mfanekiso
ukukhangisa ubuhle nobumnandi obutholakala kuleyo ndawo eheha
abavakashi. Isibonelo esihle sendlela ekahle yokusebenzisa umfanekiso
wendawo eheha abavakashi yindlela enhle kakhulu esetshenziswa yi-
UNESCO ukukhangisa zonke izizinda ezingamagugu omhlaba
ezihlukahlukene.
Desertification: The loss of an area’s production capacity and ability to support
life. Literally, the term means “the making of a desert”. This term became part of
everyday vocabulary during the early 1970s when the vast, semi-desert region of
Africa directly south of the Sahara Desert (known as the Sahel) experienced a
number of severely dry years. Although this region normally has a semi-arid
character, it had always supported a rural population who cultivated the land or lived
a nomadic lifestyle and moved around from one grazing area to another with their
small livestock herds. After a few years of abnormally low rainfall, or no rain at all,
the entire region was totally stripped of all vegetation (see “deforestation”),
 64

completely barren and unable to support the people living there. International aid
organisations had to supply food to the people, yet many thousands died of
starvation. This tragic event grabbed the attention of people all over the world and
the idea of the Sahara Desert slowly “creeping” or spreading southwards was born.
The misconception that most of the deserts in the world are slowly spreading into the
adjacent regions as a result of natural conditions and climate change became
commonly accepted. After an extensive international research effort, it was
established that desertification is an environmental degradation process created as
the result of excessive human activities which cause the decline of the productivity of
semi-arid regions and converted them into desert-like landscapes (see
“environmental degradation”). In fact, deforestation (see “deforestation”) ultimately
results in desertification. It should be mentioned that large tracts of the Sahel have
regained their productivity after a number of normal rainfall years and more
appropriate grazing and cultivation practices.

Ukugwaduleka kwezindawo: Ukulahleka kwamandla endawo ethile

okukhiqiza nokusekela impilo. Uma lithathwa njengoba linjalo, leli temu
lichaza “ukwenza indawo ibe wugwadule”. Leli temu laba yingxenye
yamagama ayesetshenziswa nsukuzonke ngasekuqaleni kweminyaka
yawo-1970 ngenkathi ingxenye enkulukazi yesifunda sase-Afrika
esicishe sifane nogwadule esiseningizimu ye-Sahara Desert (esibizwa
nge-Sahel) ikhahlanyezwa yiminyaka eminingi yesomiso esibi kakhulu.
Nakuba lesi sifunda siyifunda esicishe sibe yindawo eyomisile, besilokhu
sikwazi ukuphilisa abantu abahlala ezindaweni zasemakhaya ababelima
noma ababephila impilo yokwehla benyuka besuka edlelweni elithile
beya kwelinye behamba nemihlambi emincane yemfuyo yabo. Emva
kweminyaka eminingi yokutholakala kwezimvula ezincane kakhulu,
noma-ke yokungatholi ngisho neconsi elilodwa nje lemvula, isifunda
sonkana sahlangabezana nenkinga yokuphela nya kotshani nezihlahla
(bheka i-“deforestation”), futhi kwakungasamili lutho emhlabathini,
okwenza ukuthi le ndawo ingakwazi ukuphilisa abantu ababehlala lapho.
Izinhlangano zamazwe ngamazwe kwadingeka ukuthi zihlinzeke abantu
ngokudla, kodwa noma kunjalo kwafa izinkulungwane
ngezinkulungwane zabantu ngenxa yendlala. Lesi sigameko
esibuhlungu futhi esidabukisayo saheha amehlo abantu emhlabeni
wonke jikelele futhi kwafika nomcabango wokuthi kungenzeka i-Sahara
Desert “inwebeke” futhi isabalale kancane kancane ibheke
ngaseningizimu. Waqala ukwamukeleka kubantu abaningi nomcabango
ongelona neze iqiniso wokuthi iningi lezindawo eziwugwadule emhlabeni
ziyanwebeka kancane kancane futhi ziyasabalala zingene ezifundeni
ezakhelene nazo ngenxa yezimo zemvelo kanye nokuguquguquka
kwesimo sezulu. Emva kocwaningo lwamazwe ngamazwe olubanzi,
kwatholakala ukuthi ukugwaduleka kwezindawo kubangelwa yinqubo
yemvelo yokuwohloka nokucekeleka phansi okubangelwa yizenzo
nemisebenzi yabantu ephakeme ngokweqile eholela ekuncipheni
kwamandla okukhiqiza ezifunda ezicishe zibe wugwadule, okwenza lezi
 65

zindawo ziguquke zifane nogwadule (bheka i-“environmental

degradation”). Empeleni, ukugawulwa nokucekelwa phansi
kwamahlathi nezitshalo zemvelo (bheka i-“deforestation”) ekugcineni
kuholela ekutheni izindawo zigwaduleke. Kumele sikuveze ukuthi
izingxenye ezinkulu zesifunda sase-Sahel seziyakwazi futhi ukukhiqiza
emva kweminyaka embadlwana kutholakala izimvula ezijwayelekile,
futhi kusetshenziswa izindlela ezilungile zokuklabisa imfuyo kanye
nokulima ngendlela efanele.
Development: The level of economical, cultural and social well-being of a
certain population or region or country. Initially, the economic well-being (that is, the
wealth) of the population was regarded as the sole measure of its level of
development. Economic development is the process of using resources to improve
human well-being and this purely economic measure was seen as the actual level of
development of a society (see “developed countries” and “economic growth).
However, it was realised that wealth and poverty are relative concepts, not absolute
ones, since the equivalent amount of money would not be able to buy the same
amount or quality of goods and services in different countries. Consequently, per
capita income should not be regarded as the ultimate measure of the development of
any group of people. It became clear that cultural and social variables also have to
be taken into account. The United Nations (UN) then developed a commonly
accepted measure of development based on economic, cultural and social variables.
The human development index (HDI) takes a variety of variables into account,
namely per capita gross domestic product (GDP) which is a measure of the wealth of
the population, mean education level of the population which is a cultural variable,
and longevity (life expectancy) which is a social variable. Note that even the HDI is to
an extent a relative measure because it includes per capita income of the population.
The HDI is commonly used to express the level of development of a population or a
country. The most important criticism of the UN’s HDI is that it does not take human
rights and personal freedom into account. Therefore, the HDI alone should not be
used to describe the level of development of a population or country. (See
“developing countries” and “countries in transition”.)

Intuthuko: Izinga lenhlalakahle yezomnotho, amasiko kanye nenhlalo

yomphakathi noma yesifunda noma yezwe elithile. Ekuqaleni,
inhlalakahle yezomnotho (okusho umcebo) yomphakathi wabantu
abahlala ezweni elithile yayithathwa njengendlela okuyiyona kuphela
yokukala izinga lentuthuko lalowo mphakathi. Intuthuko yezomnotho
yinqubo yokusebenzisa umcebo nemali ukwenza ngcono inhlalakahle
yabantu futhi le ndlela yokukala ephathelene nezomnotho kuphela
yayibonwa njengezinga loqobo lokukala intuthuko yomphakathi (bheka
ama-“developed countries” kanye ne-“economic growth). Kodwa-ke,
kwabonakala ukuthi umcebo nobubha yizinto ezincike ezimweni ezithile,
ezingeke zithathwe njengezinto ezibonisa isimo esiphelele, njengoba
emazweni ahlukahlukene isamba esithile semali efanayo singeke
sikwazi ukuthenga inani elilinganayo lezimpahla nezinsizakalo futhi
ngokunjalo singeke sithenge izimpahla nezinsizakalo ezinekhwalithi
efanayo. Ngenxa yalokhu-ke, imali engenayo ezweni ngalinye akumele
 66

ithathwe njengesikali okuyisona sodwa esingasetshenziswa ukukala

intuthuko yanoma iliphi iqembu labantu. Lokhu kwabonisa kahle
kamhlophe ukuthi izimo ezihlukile eziphathelene namasiko kanye
nenhlalo nazo kumele zibhekwe futhi zifakelwe izibuko kulokhu.
INhlangano Yezizwe (UN) yabe seyithuthukisa isikali sentuthuko
esamukelekile esisekelwe phezu kwezimo eziphathelene nezomnotho,
amasiko kanye nenhlalo. Inkomba yentuthuko yabantu (HDI) ibhekisisa
izimo ezihlukahlukene, okusho isamba somkhiqizo wasekhaya (GDP)
okuyindlela yokukala umcebo wabantu ezweni, isilinganiso
esimaphakathi sezinga lemfundo yabantu abahlala ezweni elithile,
okuyisimo esiphathelene namasiko, kanye nobude besikhathi esiphilwa
ngabantu emhlabeni (life expectancy) okuyisimo esiphathelene nenhlalo
yabantu. Qaphela kodwa ukuthi ngisho ne-HDI imbala iyisikali esithi
masincike kancane kwezinye izimo ngoba phela ibandakanya nemali
engenayo ebantwini bezwe elithile. I-HDI ivamise ukusetshenziswa
ukubonisa izinga lentuthuko yabantu noma yezwe. Isizathu esibalulekile
esenza ukuthi igxekwe i-HDI ye-UN wukuthi ayiwabandakanyi futhi
ayiwabhekisisi amalungelo esintu kanye nenkululeko yomuntu
ngamunye. Ngakho-ke, akufanele isetshenziswe yodwa i-HDI ukuchaza
izinga lentuthuko lomphakathi othile noma izwe. (Bheka ama-
“developing countries” kanye nama-“countries in transition”.)
Developing countries: Countries (states) that have not yet reached the same
levels of wealth, industrialisation and human well-being which typify the developed
countries (states) of Western Europe, North America, Japan, Australia and a
number of states in other regions. The term stems from the late 1970s and early
1980s when it was used only in an economic sense to describe the level of
industrialisation of a country. The per capita gross national product (GNP) and per
capita gross domestic product (GDP) were initially used to distinguish between
developed (“rich”) and developing (“poor”) states. Nowadays measures of human
well-being are also taken into account to define a country’s level of development.
Measures such as the human development index (see “development”), are now used
to describe a country’s level of development of a country. African states and a
number of states in Asia and Southern America are typical developing countries.
These countries have low HDIs, large numbers of malnourished citizens, high infant
mortality rates, low average levels of education, large numbers of illiterate
individuals, and a low average per capita income. The level of development of a
country is a relative concept (see “development”) and South Africa is an apposite
example of that. When compared to most African states, South Africa would
probably appear to be “developed” since it has the largest economy in Africa, a
higher average per capita income, literacy level, and life expectancy than most
African states, while it also has a lower infant mortality and starvation rate than many
African states. However, when South Africa is compared to the developed countries
such as the West European states, Japan, Canada and the United States of
America, it is plain to see that South Africa is a developing country with certain
characteristics of a country which is in transition to become a developed state (see
“countries in transition”).
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Amazwe asathuthuka: Amazwe angakafinyeleli ezingeni lokuceba,

nokusungulwa kwezimboni nenhlalakahle yabantu elilingana
nelamazwe asethuthukile ase-Western Europe, North America, Japan,
Australia kanye namanye amazwe ambadlwana akwezinye izifunda. Leli
temu lavela ngasekupheleni kweminyaka yawo-1970 kuya
ngasekuqaleni kweminyaka yawo-1980 lapho lalisetshenziswa khona
kuphela ezimweni eziphathelene nomnotho ukuchaza izinga
lokusungulwa kwezimboni ezithile kanye nokusabalala kwazo ezweni
elithile. Ekuqaleni, kwakusetshenziswa isamba somkhiqizo wezwe
(GNP) kanye nesamba somkhiqizo wasekhaya (GDP) ukuhlukanisa
phakathi kwamazwe asethuthukile (“acebile”) kanye namazwe
asathuthuka “ampofu”. Namuhla sekubhekisiswa nenhlalakahle yabantu
uma kuchazwa izinga lentuthuko. Izindlela zokukala intuthuko
ezinjengenkomba yentuthuko yabantu (bheka i-“development”),
seziyasetshenziswa manje ukuchaza izinga lentuthuko yezwe elithile.
Amazwe ase-Afrika kanye namazwe amaningana ase-Asia nawase-
South America ayizibonelo ezikahle zamazwe asathuthuka. Lawa
mazwe anama-HDIs aphansi, anezindimbane zabantu abangondlekile
kahle emzimbeni, izinga eliphezulu lokushona kwezinsana, amazinga
aphansi abantu abafundile, inani eliphezulu labantu abangakwazi
ukufunda nokubhala, kanye nesilinganiso esiphansi semali engenayo
ezweni. Izinga lentuthuko yezwe liyinto encike ezimweni ezithile (bheka
i-“development”) futhi iNingizimu Afrika iyisibonelo esihle salokhu. Uma
iqhathaniswa namazwe amaningi ase-Afrika, iNingizimu Afrika ibukeka
njengezwe “eselithuthukile” njengoba inomnotho omkhulu kunayo yonke
iminotho yamazwe ase-Afrika, inesilinganiso esiphakeme semali
engenayo ezweni, nezinga eliphakeme lokufunda nokubhala, futhi
abantu baphila isikhathi eside uma kuqhathaniswa namanye amazwe
amaningi ase-Afrika, futhi kusenjalo inezinga eliphansi lokufa
kwenzinsana kanye nezinga eliphansi labantu ababhuqabhuqwa
yindlala. Kodwa-ke, uma iNingizimu Afrika iqhathaniswa namazwe
asethuthukile njengamazwe ase-Western Europe, Japan, Canada kanye
ne-United States of America, kuyacaca ukuthi iNingizimu Afrika iyizwe
elisathuthuka, elinezimo nezici ezithile zelizwe eliguqukayo elisendleleni
yokuba yizwe eselithuthukile (bheka ama-“countries in transition”).
Disaggregation: See “aggregation”.

Ukuhlukaniswa kwemininingo: Bheka i-“aggregation”.

Drainage basin: An area of land drained by one river and its tributaries. It is
separated from the adjacent drainage basins by ridges of higher land. The boundary
of a drainage basin is a watershed (see “watershed”). A drainage basin can be
regarded as an open system with inputs (such as precipitation and the melting of
snow or ice) that supply water to the drainage basin, and outputs (such as
evapotranspiration and river run-off) that remove water from the system. Various
 68

processes take place in a drainage basin, namely interception, surface storage,

infiltration, percolation, groundwater storage, groundwater flow, surface run-off
(overland flow), channel storage and channel flow. Drainage basins have different
shapes (morphometry), sizes and vastly different characteristics. The study of
drainage basins is a specialisation field in a number of sciences, including
Geography. (See “channelization”.)

Isiziba: Ingxenye yomhlaba lapho kungena khona umfula othile

kanye nemingenela yawo. Le ndawo ihlukaniswa ezizibeni ezakhelene
nayo wunqenqema lomhlaba ophakeme. Umngcele wesiziba
ngumdladlathi noma imfunda yomfula (bheka i-“watershed”). Isiziba
singathathwa njengohlelo oluvulekile lwezinto ezingenayo (inputs)
(njengemvula kanye neqhwa elincibilikayo) ezithumela futhi zifake
amanzi esizibeni kanye nezinto eziphumayo (outputs)
(njengomhwamuko okhuphukayo namanzi aphumayo ayongena
olwandle) ezikhipha amanzi kulolu hlelo. Kwenzeka izinqubo
ezihlukahlukene esizibeni, okusho, ukuvimbeleka kwemvula ingafinyeleli
emhlabathini (interception), ukugcinwa kwamanzi ngaphezu komhlaba
(surface storage), ukungena kwamanzi emhlabathini (infiltration),
ukumunceka kwamanzi emhlabathini (percolation), ukugcinwa kwamanzi
ngaphansi komhlaba (groundwater storage), ukugeleza kwamanzi
ngaphansi komhlaba (groundwater flow), ukugeleza kwamanzi
ngaphezu komhlaba (overland flow), ukugcinwa komthamo othile
wamanzi emgudwini wamanzi (channel storage) kanye nokugeleza
kwamanzi emgudwini wamanzi (channel flow). Iziziba zakheke
ngokwezimo ezihlukahlukene (morphometry) kanye nosayizi abahlukene
futhi zinezici zobunjalo ezihlukene kakhulu. Ukufundwa nokucwaningwa
kweziziba wumkhakha othile okhethekile ongaphansi kwamasayensi
ahlukahlukene, kubandakanya neJografi. (Bheka i-“channelization”.)
Dual economy: An economical system that consists of two equally, or nearly so,
important types of economic activity. The economic development of every country
will – theoretically – pass through a number of stages. These stages are typified by
four distinct types of economic activity, namely: primary activities (farming, fishing,
mining and forestry), secondary activities (manufacturing and construction), tertiary
activities (back-up services such as administration, retailing, and transport), and
quaternary activities (which are high-level technology and information and
knowledge services) (see “quaternary activities”). At times more than one of these
types of activities might be approximately equally important in a country’s economy.
If such a condition exists, the country has a dual economy. It is not a rare condition
at all; in fact, most of the developed states (see “development” and “developing
countries”) have been in this situation at one time or another. The best-known
example is the military-industrial economy of the USA in the 1950s and early 1960s.
A dual economic system can last for a long time, but in most cases one type of
economic activity will eventually become the most important, with all others being
subsidiary. Examples are rife, but currently the most apposite examples are the
Western European states. For many decades these states have been manufacturing
and industrial economies where transport and retailing were equally important and
 69

indispensible for the aforementioned industrial and manufacturing activities.

However, quaternary economic activities have now overtaken these economies to
such an extent that their manufacturing and industrial sectors have been completely
superseded by information technology and knowledge services. Germany is the
striking exception where manufacturing is still an extremely important part of the
economy. The outcome of this state of affairs is still in the balance. (See “quaternary
activities”.)

Umnotho ombaxambili: Uhlelo lomnotho owakhiwe yimikhakha

esemqoka yezomnotho emibili elinganayo noma ecishe ilingane.
Ngokwethiyori, intuthuko yezomnotho yawo wonke amazwe idlula
ezigabeni eziningana impela. Lezi zigaba zibonisa imikhakha
yezomnotho emine ehlukene, okusho: imisebenzi yezomnotho
eyisisekelo (primary activities) (ukulima, ukudoba, izimayini kanye
namahlathi), imisebenzi esekelayo ephathelene nokukhiqiza (secondary
activities) (ukukhiqizwa kwempahla kanye nokwakha), imisebenzi
yokuhlinzekwa kwezinsizakalo (tertiary activities) okuyimisebenzi
yokulekelela njengokuphatha nokulawula, ukuthengisa kanye
nezokuthutha, kanye nama-quaternary activities (okuyimisebenzi
ephathelene nezinsizakalo zobuchwepheshe kanye nolwazi esezingeni
eliphakeme (bheka ama-“quaternary activities”). Kwesinye isikhathi
kuyenzeka kube nezinhlobo zemisebenzi ezingaphezu kolulodwa
ezicishe zithathwe njengezibaluleke ngokulinganayo emnothweni
wezwe. Uma kunezimo ezinjalo, lokho kusho ukuthi izwe linomnotho
ombaxambili. Lokhu akuyona neze into engavamile; empeleni, amazwe
amaningi asethuthukile (bheka i-“development” kanye nama-“developing
countries”) ezikhathini ezithile ake azithole ekulesi simo. Isibonelo
esaziwayo wumnotho wezempi nowezimboni (military-industrial
economy) wase-USA ngeminyaka yawo-1950 kuya ngasekuqaleni
kweminyaka yawo-1960. Uhlelo lomnotho ombaxambili lungaqhubeka
isikhathi eside, kodwa-ke esikhathini esiningi umkhakha wezomnotho
owodwa ugcina sekuyiwona obaluleke kakhulu, bese kuthi yonke
eminye ibe yimikhakha esekelayo. Ziningi izibonelo zalokho, kodwa
isibonelo esihle kakhulu ngamazwe ase-Western Europe. Sekuphele
iminyaka ngeminyaka lawa mazwe egxile emnothweni wezokukhiqiza
kanye nowezimboni, lapho ezokuthutha kanye nezokuthengisa nazo
zithathwa njengemikhakha ebaluleke ngokulinganayo uma
kuqhathaniswa nomkhakha wezokukhiqiza kanye nowezimboni. Kodwa-
ke manje, imikhakha yezomnotho ephathelene nobuchwepheshe
bolwazi nocwaningo (quaternary economic activities) seyiyificile futhi
yaze yayidlula ngokuphelele le mikhakha eshiwo ngenhla,
kangangokuthi ezobuchwepheshe bolwazi sezingaphezulu kakhulu futhi
zezibonakala njengemikhakha ebaluleke ngaphezu kwezokukhiqiza
nezezimboni kulawa mazwe. Kepha-ke izwe lase-Germany lihlukile lona
ngoba ezokukhiqiza ziseyingxenye esemqoka kakhulu emnothweni
 70

wezwe. Umphumela walesi simo sezinto awukacaci kahle. (Bheka ama-

“quaternary activities”.)
E
Ecocentrism: A philosophy, or way of thinking, that puts the environment at its
centre, while human interests such as technological and economic development are
relegated to a position of far lesser importance. It is a rather extremist viewpoint and
is often politicised. It is a philosophy adhered to by a wide variety of
environmentalists and environmental organisations. These vary from the slightly left-
of-centre groups (such as Earthlife Africa), to the more radical activists of
Greenpeace and the highly politicised, rather shadowy, groups of environmental
extremists (such as Earth First! and the Environmental Liberation Front of the
1980s), to secret societies of violent environmental terrorists. The philosophy of
ecocentrism finds its ultimate expression in the Deep Ecology school of thought,
which strives to enshrine green rights and promotes a simple, non-technological,
non-materialistic, non-consumerist lifestyle.

Ukugxila kwimvelo nokuyenza ibe ngumgogodla wakho konke:

Inzululwazi, noma indlela yokucabanga, ebeka imvelo
njengomgogodla wakho konke, futhi kusenjalo izidingo zabantu
njengentuthuko yezobuchwepheshe neyezomnotho kubekwa emuva,
endaweni engabalulekile kakhulu. Lona ngumbono oxakile,
ongahambisani nendlela ejwayelekile yokucabanga nokubheka izinto.
Lena yindlela yokucabanga elandelwa yizishoshovu zokuvikelwa
kwemvelo kanye nezinhlangano eziphishekela ukulondolozwa
kwemvelo. Lezi zinhlangano ziyahlukahluka kusuka ezinhlanganweni
ezicishe zibe ngama-left-of-centre groups (njenge-Earthlife Africa), kuya
ezinhlanganweni ezinobushoshovu obuthanda ukuqina impela,
njengezishoshovu ze-Greenpeace kanye namaqembu ezidlamlilo
ezilwela ukuvikelwa kwemvelo ezisebenzisa izindlela ezingaqondile
kahle futhi okungamaqembu angene kakhulu kwezombangazwe
(njenge-Earth First! kanye ne-Environmental Liberation Front yawo-
1980), kuyofika ezinhlanganweni zomshoshaphansi zabashokobezi
bezemvelo abanodlame. Inzululwazi ebeka imvelo eqhulwini
izibonakalisa ngaphansi kwendlela yokucabanga eyaziwa nge-Ekholoji
Ejulile (Deep Ecology), elwela ukuvikela amalungelo emvelo futhi
egqugquzela indlela yokuphila elula, engasebenzisi ubuchwepheshe,
engagxilile ekuqoqeni ingcebo nobukhazikhazi balo mhlaba kanye
nezinye izimpahla ezithengwayo.
Eco-lodges: Places where eco-tourists can visit and find accommodation and
sustenance while enjoying nature (see “destination”). In the strictest sense of eco-
tourism, such places should have no impact at all on the environment. This implies
no electricity, no vehicular travel, no permanent built structures, no noise and
definitely no creature comforts such as air conditioning, and a strict ban on personal
items such as deodorants and cigarettes. Hiking trips in natural areas with no
modern conveniences come closest to the true eco-tourism ideal, while highly
 71

controlled, exclusive, small-group, extremely expensive day-tours to the Galapagos

Islands do in fact attain the ideal. However, most eco-tourists are people from high
income brackets and do not really wish to “rough it” when they enjoy nature. They
expect top-class hospitality and luxury accommodation. The so-called eco-lodges, of
which there are hundreds all around the world, offer the well-heeled tourist with very
deep pockets five-star accommodation, all modern conveniences and every
luxurious creature comfort imaginable, and it all comes at a very steep price. By
means of game drives, specially appointed look-out points, and luxurious hides the
guests can observe nature and wildlife without foregoing any of their customary
comforts. To the credit of the eco-tourism industry as a whole, there are some eco-
lodges who make a commendable attempt at having as little as possible impact on
the environment. Some of the eco-lodges in the Okavango Delta of Botswana, and
some of the top-rate South African establishments are examples of note.

Izindawo zokuhlalisa abavakashi bezemvelo: Izindawo

ezivakashelwa ngabavakashi bezemvelo futhi bathole lapho nendawo
yokulala kanye nokudla ngenkathi bethokozela ubuhle bemvelo (bheka i-
“destination”). Ngaphansi kovakashelomvelo loqobo, izindawo
ezinjengalezo ngeke zibe nomthelela ongemuhle kwimvelo. Lokhu
kusho ukuthi kulezo zindawo akufanele kube nogesi, akufanele
kuhanjwe ngezimoto, akufanele kube nezakhiwo ezakhiwe unomphela,
akufanele kube nomsindo, futhi ngokuqinisekileyo akumele neze kube
nezinsizakalo zokunethezeka, ezinjenge-air conditioning, futhi kumele
zingavunyelwa nangephutha izinto ezithile ezisetshenziswa ngabantu,
ezinjengeziqholo zamakha kanye nogwayi. Izinkambo zokuqwala
izintaba nokuhamba ngezinyawo ezigangeni nasemaqeleni emvelo
ngaphandle kokulekelelwa yizinsizakalo zesimanjemanje ziwumuzwa
osondele kakhulu kulowo muzwa woqobo wobumnandi
bovakashelomvelo, futhi kusenjalo ziletha umuzwa ongafinyelela
kowezinkambo zasemini ezenzeka ngaphansi kwesimo solawulo
oluphakeme kakhulu, ezibandakanya amaqembu amancane abantu
abakhethekile, futhi ezibiza imali eshisiwe eziya kuma-Galapagos
Islands. Kodwa-ke, iningi labavakashi bezemvelo ngabantu abathola
imiholo ephakeme futhi kabathandisisi kahle ukuhlangabezana nezimo
ezinzima kakhulu ngenkathi bethokozela imvelo. Bafuna impatho
eseqophelweni eliphezulu kakhulu ngenkathi bevakashile futhi bafuna
izindawo zokulala zikanokusho lapho bezohlala khona ngokunethezeka.
Lezi zindawo zokuhlalisa abavakashi bezemvelo ezibizwa ngama-eco-
lodges, ezithe chithi saka emhlabeni wonke jikelele, zihlinzeka
abavakashi abadla izambane likapondo ngendawo yokulala
eseqophelweni eliphezulu, enazo zonke izinsiza zesimanjemanje
ezenza impilo ibe lula futhi ezihlinzeka ngokunethezeka okuphuma
phambili, kodwa-ke konke lokhu kumba eqolo. Ngokusebenzisa
izinkambo zokutetemuka kwabavakashi ngezithuthi ezibahambisa
ezindaweni ezikhethekile lapho bezobona khona izilwane zasendle,
ikakhulu ezindaweni ezaziwayo lapho kuvamise ukubonakala khona
 72

izilwane, abavakashi bayakwazi ukubukela izilwane zasendle

ngaphandle kokulahlekelwa wukunethezeka kwabo okujwayelekile.
Zikhona izindawo zokuhlalisa abavakashi ezithile eziyimele kahle
kakhulu imboni yezovakashelomvelo yonkana, ngoba phela zenza
imizamo encomekayo impela yokunciphisa ukukhahlamezeka kwemvelo
okubangelwa ezokuvakasha. Ezinye zalezi zikhungo zitholakala e-
Okavango Delta e-Botswana, futhi zikhona naseNingizimu Afrika
izikhungo zikanokusho eziyisibonelo esihle salokhu.
Ecological citizenship: The quality of peoples’ attitude and views of the
environment. Everybody on Earth is a citizen of the environment in the broadest
sense of the word. Some of us are “good” ecological citizens who try our best to live
an environmentally friendly life and have as small as possible an ecological footprint
(see “ecological footprint”). Others do not concern themselves with their ecological
footprint and do not deliberately try to limit their impact on the environment. In this
current age of high technology, materialism and consumerism, good ecological
citizenship is hardly an asset. A few hundred years ago, people lived a simple, non-
technologically driven, subsistence type of existence. They lived in harmony with the
seasons, the vagaries of the weather, the natural recovery time of the soil fertility,
and the natural resilience of all forms of life in the ecosystem. During the Industrial
Revolution, all of this changed (see “industrial revolution”). Today, very few people
can actually be described as “good” ecological citizens. The Environmental
Movement started in the 1960s (see “ecological niche”) when scientists started to
realise that the environment is being destroyed by human activities. Environmental
legislation was introduced, first in the United States of America, then in Canada and
later in almost all countries in the world, including South Africa to regulate
humankind’s impact on the environment (see “environmental management”). In a
way, this “forces” all people to be good ecological citizens. Till now, the failures of
environmental legislation far outnumber the successes. In short, the current
generations are not really good ecological citizens. In spite of all the international
and national environmental legislation, the environment is being impacted negatively
to such a concerning degree that we can categorically state that the generations that
follow will inherit an environment that is completely different from the one we
inherited.

Ukuba yisakhamuzi semvelo: Ikhwalithi yemibono yabantu

mayelana nemvelo kanye nendlela abaphatha ngayo imvelo.
Ngokujwayelekile, wonke umuntu emhlabeni uthathwa njengesakhamuzi
semvelo. Abanye bethu bayizakhamuzi zemvelo “ezinhle” ezizama
ngakho konke okusemandleni azo ukuphila impilo ebonisa
ukukhathalela imvelo futhi enomthelela omncane kakhulu kwimvelo
(bheka i-“ecological footprint”). Abanye abazikhathazi nakancane
ngomthelela wabo kwimvelo futhi awukho umzamo abawenzayo
ukunciphisa umthelela wabo kwimvelo. Kulesi sikhathi samanje
okusetshenziswa kusona ezobuchwepheshe kakhulu, nothando olukhulu
lwengcebo nezinto zomhlaba, ukuba yisakhamuzi semvelo esihle
akuthathwa neze njengento ebonisa ukuziphatha ngendlela eyisibonelo
kwabanye abantu. Eminyakeni engamakhulu ambalwa edlule, abantu
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babephila impilo elula futhi engathembele neze kwezobuchwepheshe.

Babephilisana kahle nezinkathi zonyaka (seasons), nesimo sezulu
esiguquguqukayo, nobude besikhathi sokubuyela komhlabathi esimweni
sawo saphambilini somhlabathi ovundile ngokwemvelo futhi zonke
izinhlobo zezinto eziphila ngaphansi komthunzi welanga zazikwazi
ukumelana nezimo zemvelo. Ngesikhathi se-Industrial Revolution,
kwaguquka konke lokhu (bheka i-“industrial revolution”). Namuhla,
bayingcosana kakhulu abantu abangachazwa ngokuthi bayizakhamuzi
zemvelo “ezinhle”. Umbutho Wokulondolozwa Nokuvikelwa Kwemvelo
waqala ngeminyaka yawo-1960 (bheka i-“ecological niche”) ngenkathi
ososayensi sebebona ukuthi imvelo icekeleka phansi ngenxa yezenzo
zabantu. Kwethulwa imithetho yokuvikela imvelo, futhi ukwethulwa kwale
mithetho kwaqala e-United States of America, emva kwalokho
kwalandela i-Canada, ngokuhamba kwesikhathi kwalandela cishe wonke
amanye amazwe emhlabeni, kufaka phakathi neNingizimu Afrika,
ngenhloso yokulawula umthelela wabantu kwimvelo (bheka i-
“environmental management”). Ngandlela thize, lokhu “kuphoqelela”
bonke abantu ukuthi babe yizakhamuzi zemvelo ezinhle. Kuze kube
manje, ukwahluleka kwemithetho yokuvikelwa kwemvelo kungaphezulu
kakhulu kwezimpumelelo ezizuziwe. Ngamafuphi, izizukulwane ezikhona
njengamanje azizona neze izakhamuzi zemvelo ezinhle. Nakuba
kukhona yonke le mithetho yamazwe ngamazwe kanye nekazwelonke
yokuvikelwa kwemvelo, imvelo isakhahlamezeka kakhulu,
kangangokuthi singakusho kugcwale umlomo ukuthi izizukulwane
eziyolandela ziyothola imvelo ehluke kakhulu kulena esayishiyelwa
yizizukulwane ezadlula.
Ecological footprint: The impact of human development, such as settlements,
a mine, a road, a single building, construction or enterprise of any size or complexity
has on the environment into which it is introduced. An ecological footprint has two
components, namely the intensity of the impact and the areal extent of the impact.
Theoretically, an ecological footprint can be “heavy’’ but spatially restricted, or it
mght be “light” but spatially extensive. All human constructions have fuel, transport,
food and waste disposal needs. These usually extend beyond the development itself
and an ecological space is thus delineated or demarcated (see “demarcation”).
Cities, towns, airports and industrial installations have a heavy impact on the
environment and their ecological footprints are extensive. Single homesteads in a
rural area also have significant ecological footprints. All eco-tourism facilities and
enterprises have some impact on the environment (see “eco-lodges”). Even the most
minimalistic hiking trails have a certain ecological footprint. The top notch eco-lodges
that pride themselves in being environmentally friendly, have surprisingly large and
heavy ecological footprints, especially when they have private landing strips and a
large staff to accommodate. A university like Unisa has an enormous ecological
footprint. Think of all the buildings, the staff parking, the student facilities, the postal
services, the facilities for telephonic and internet communication which are involved
in non-residential education. Even the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site has
a significant ecological footprint that extends over a semi-rural area of several
 74

square kilometres. By their very nature, military operations and warfare have an
enormous ecological footprint. Recreation for the rich such as golf courses, ski
resorts, racing tracts, human-made 4x4 routes, and many others – ironically – have
enormous ecological footprints which are seldom considered. (See “ecology” and
“environmental degradation”).

Umthelela kwimvelo: Umthelela wentutuko yabantu kwimvelo,

obangelwa yizinto ezinjengendawo yokuhlalisa abantu, imayini,
umgwaqo, isakhiwo esisodwa, umsebenzi wokwakha noma ibhizinisi,
kungakhathalekile ukuthi lokhu kukhulu kangakanani. Umthelela
kwimvelo unezingxenye ezimbili, okungukuthi, amandla nokujula
komthelela kanye nobubanzi bendawo yomthelela. Ngokwethiyori,
umthelela kwimvelo kungaba “ngojulile futhi osindayo” kepha
onobubanzi obuncane, noma kube “ngolula noma ongajulile kakhulu”
kepha onobubanzi obude ngokwendawo owenzeka kuyona. Zonke
izakhiwo ezakhiwe ngabantu zidinga ukuthi kusetshenziswe izibaseli,
ezokuthutha, ukudla kanye nokuthuthwa kwemfucuza. Lokhu kuvamise
ukuthi kungagcini nje kuleyo ntuthuko eyenziwayo, kepha kudlulele
ngaphezulu kwalokho, ngakho-ke kudingeka ukuthi kuklanywe isikhala
semvelo (bheka i-“demarcation”). Amadolobha, amadolobhana,
izikhumulo zezindiza kanye nezakhiwo zezimboni zinomthelela omkhulu
futhi obanzi kwimvelo. Izikhungo namabhizinisi ovakashelomvelo
anomthelela othile kwimvelo (bheka ama-“eco-lodges”). Ngisho nemizila
emincane kakhulu yokuqwala izintaba nokuhamba ngezinyawo
emaqeleni inawo umthelela kwimvelo. Kuyinto emangalisayo impela
ukuthi ngisho nalezo zindawo zokuhlalisa abavakashi bemvelo
ezisezingeni eliphezulu ezizishaya isifuba ngokuthi zona ziyayinakekela
imvelo, nazo zinomthelela omkhulu impela kwimvelo, ikakhulu lezo
zikhungo ezinemizila okungeyazo lapho kufikela khona amabhanoyi
ngaphakathi esikhugweni leso futhi ezinabasebenzi abaningi okumele
bahlinzekwe ngendawo yokufihla ikhanda ngaphakathi emagcekeni
esikhungo. Inyuvesi enjenge-Unisa inomthelela omkhulukazi kwimvelo.
Cabanga nje ngazo zonke izakhiwo, izindawo okupaka kuzona izimoto
zabasebenzi, izakhiwo zabafundi, izakhiwo okuhlinzekelwa kuzona
izinsizakalo zeposi, izakhiwo zokuxhumana nabafundi abafundela
emakhaya ngocingo kanye nezokuxhumana nabo nge-inthanethi.
Ngisho ne-Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site imbala, nayo
inomthelela omkhulu kwimvelo onobubanzi obungama-square
kilometres amaningana impela endaweni lapho yakhiwe khona
engaphandle kwedolobha. Ngenxa yendlela eqhutshwa ngayo,
imikhankaso yezempi nayo inomthelela omkhulu kwimvelo. Izindawo
zokungcebeleka zabantu abadla izambane likapondo ezinjengamabala
okudlalelwa kuwona igalofu, izikhungo zokuntweza ngezikebhe
emanzini, imizila yomjaho wezimoto, imizila eyakhiwe ngabantu
okuhamba kuyona izimoto zohlobo lwe-4x4 kanye nokunye okuningi,
 75

nakho kunomthelela omkhulukazi kwimvelo kepha into exakayo wukuthi

lezi zikhungo azivamisile ukufakwa ohlwini lwezinto ezikhahlameza
imvelo. (Bheka i-“ecology” kanye ne-“environmental degradation”).
Ecological niche: Each organism in an ecosystem has a specific role to fulfil (see
“ecology”). This task is called its ecological niche. Two or more organisms cannot
occupy the same niche for long since competition will ensue and one or more
organisms will be driven out of the niche or will change to adapt (evolve) to fit the
niche, or simply die out. Dung beetles are a good example of organisms that fulfil an
indispensible ecological task in nature and that task cannot be executed by any other
organisms. Recycling dung is their ecological niche. Bees are not often regarded as
ecologically important, but their ecological niche (their ecological task) is pollination
and without bees all life on Earth would be in jeopardy, as pointed out in Rachel
Carson’s book Silent Spring in 1962 at the birth of the Environmental Movement.
Her prophetic words are now (in 2013) becoming alarmingly true as a mass die-off of
bees is evident in many regions of the world. Since approximately 2006, commercial
bee-keepers in the US have been reporting a decline of bees in their hives. This so-
called “colony-collapse disorder (CCD)” is currently the focus of an urgent research
effort in the US. Bee-keepers blame it on the accumulation of pesticides, insecticides
and herbicides in the environment, but scientists do not all agree that this is the sole
cause of CCD. Certain results of research done by reputable scientists point to the
micro-waves emitted by all the cellular phones (mobile phones) in the world as being
the culprit of bee-hive decline. Apparently, the micro-waves interfere with the bees’
navigation instincts and cause them to die in search of their ever-shrinking colonies.
Whatever the reason, bee numbers are declining at an alarming rate all over the
world. One cannot help but remember the slogan – often ascribed to Albert Einstein
– that “if the bees disappear from the surface of the globe, man [sic] would have no
more than four years to live”.

Indima yezinto eziphila kwimvelo (Ecological niche): Into ngayinye

ephila kwimvelo inendima ethile okumele iyidlale (bheka i-“ecology”). Le
ndima ibizwa nge-ecological niche yaleyonto ephila kwimvelo. Izinto
eziphila kwimvelo ezimbili noma ngaphezulu azikwazi ukudlala indima
efanayo kuze kuphele isikhathi eside ngoba lokho kuyodala
ukuncintisana bese eyodwa noma ngaphezulu iphoqeleka ukuthi iphume
kuleyo ndima, noma iguquke ngandlelathize ukuze isimo sayo sikwazi
ukufanelana nendima leyo, noma-ke uma kungenjalo ivele ife.
Izinkumabulongwe ziyisibonelo esihle sezinto eziphila kwimvelo
ezinomsebenzi wemvelo osemqoka kakhulu futhi ayikho enye into ephila
kwimvelo engawenza lowo msebenzi. Ukusebenzisa kabusha
ubulongwe ngumsebenzi wemvelo wezinkumabulongwe. Esikhathini
esiningi izinyosi azivamile ukuthathwa njengezinto eziphilayo
ezibalulekile kwimvelo, kodwa umsebenzi wazo wemvelo wukuthutha
nokusabalalisa impova phakathi kwezitshalo futhi ngaphandle
kwezinyosi yonke impilo emhlabeni beyizoba sengcupheni enkulu,
njengoba kusho incwadi ka-Rachel Carson esihloko sithi Silent Spring
yowe-1962 eyakhishwa ngenkathi kuqala uMbutho Wokuvikelwa
Nokulondolozwa Kwemvelo. Manje, (ngowezi-2013) amazwi esiprofetho
 76

sakhe aseqala ukufezeka ngendlela ethusayo njengoba sekubonakala

ukufa kwezindimbane ngezindimbane zezinyosi ezifundeni eziningi
emhlabeni wonkana. Cishe kusukela ngowezi-2006, abafuyi bezinyosi
abathengisayo baseMelika babika ukwehla kwenani lezinyosi ezidlekeni
zazo. Njengamanje kwelaseMelika kwenziwa ucwaningo oluphuthumayo
ngalesi simo sokushabalala nokufa kwezinyosi, esibizwa nge-“colony-
collapse disorder (CCD)”. Abafuyi bezinyosi bagxeka ukukhula
komthamo wezibulali-zinambuzane kanye nezibulali-zitshalo kwimvelo,
kodwa-ke ososayensi abavumelani nakancane nokuthi lokhu yisona
sodwa isizathu esiyimbangela ye-CCD. Imiphumela ethile yocwaningo
eyenziwe ngososayensi abahlonishwayo ikhombisa ukuthi ngamagagasi
amancane ahamba ngomoya (microwaves) akhishwa yizo zonke
izingcingo ezingomakhalekhukhwini (amaselula) ezikhona emhlabeni
wonke jikelele ayimbangela yokwehla kwenani lezidleke zezinyosi.
Ngokusobala amagagasi akhishwa ngamaselula aphazamisa ukuhamba
kwezinyosi futhi ayazibulala ngenkathi zihambahamba zithungatha
amaqulu ezinyosi, alokhu enciphe njalo. Kungakhathalekile ukuthi yisiphi
isizathu esibangela ukuncipha kwezinyosi, amanani ezinyosi ehla
ngesivinini esithuyaso emhlabeni wonke jikelele, okwenza umuntu
azithole esekhumbula iqubulo, okuthiwa sasisetshenziswa ngu-Albert
Einstein – esithi “uma zishabalala izinyosi ebusweni bomhlaba, abantu
ngeke baphile isikhathi esingaphezu kweminyaka emine emhlabeni”.
Ecology: The interrelationship between organisms and their habitats, or the local
environments in which they live. The term comes from the Greek word “oikos” which
means “home”. Ecology is the study (or the science) of the interrelationship
between a living organism and its immediate environment which includes the
atmospheric, aquatic, surface and soil (edaphic) conditions. Thus it includes the
physical (not living) as well as the organic (living) components that constitute the
environment in a certain area. The size of the habitat of a species or certain form of
life, varies in size from small, localised areas (called micro-habitats) which can be as
small as the underside of a single leave, to large biomes which cover enormous
areas on Earth (see “biome”). However, the term “ecology” is far more loosely used.
We often talk about the “ecology” of an area or region, when actually referring to the
characteristics of an area or region, and not really to the study of the interrelationship
between the organic and inorganic components of the area or region.

I-ekholoji: Ubudlelwano phakathi kwezinto eziphilayo kanye nendawo

yemvelo ezihlala kuyona. Leli temu lisuselwe egameni lesi-Griki elithi
“oikos” elisho “ikhaya”. I-ekholoji yisifundo (noma isayensi)
sobudlelwano phakathi kwezinto eziphilayo kanye nemvelo eziphila
kuyona, okubandakanya izimo zasemoyeni, zasemanzini kanye
nezasemhlabathini. Ngalokho-ke lesi sifundo sibandakanya izinto
ezingaphili kanye nezinto eziphilayo ezakha imvelo yendawo ethile.
Usayizi wendawo okuphila kuyona izinto eziphilayo ezithile
uyahlukahluka kusukela ezindaweni ezincane (ezibizwa ngama-micro-
 77

habitats), ezinye zazo okuyizindawo zokuhlala ezincane impela

ezilingana nengxenye engaphansi yeqabunga, noma kube yizindawo
ezinkulukazi futhi ezibanzi kakhulu emhlabeni okutholakala kuzona
izilwane nezitshalo ezinhlobonhlobo (bheka i-“biome”). Kodwa-ke, itemu
elithi “ekholoji” liyasetshenziswa nakwezinye izimo eziningi. Sivamise
ukukhuluma “nge-ekholoji” yendawo ethile noma yesifunda esithile,
kodwa empeleni sisuke siqonde ukukhuluma ngezici zendawo ethile
noma zesifunda esithile, futhi kahle-kahle singakhulumi ngesifundo
sobudlelwano phakathi kwezinto eziphilayo kanye nalezo ezingaphili
ezitholakala endaweni ethile noma esifundeni esithile.
Economic development: The level of financial welfare of the population of a
country or a specific group of people in a certain region or a place; the former is a
national measure and the latter is a local measure. The economic development of
either a country or a group of people, theoretically passes through a number of
stages, namely a stage of primary economic activities (such as subsistence farming,
fishing and forestry), followed by a stage of secondary economic activities (such as
manufacturing and industrialised production of consumer goods), to tertiary activities
(such as services and hospitality activities), and finally a quaternary stage of
economic development, where the main economic activities are knowledge and
information activities (see “development”, “developing countries” and “dual
economy”). Various models have been put forward to describe the stages of
economic development. The most well-known models are that of Rostow which
applies to the wealthy, developed nations like the West European countries and the
states of North America, the model of Barke and O’Hare which applies to the
poorer, developing countries of Africa and Asia, and the core-periphery model of
Friedman which describes the spatial patterns of economic development and
explains the local geographical distribution of different levels of wealth in an area,
such as a city or a country. Human welfare such as the availability of medical
services, average levels of literacy and education, and the availability of social
services are not taken into account when the level of economic development is
described.

Intuthuko yomnotho: Izinga lenhlalakahle yezezimali kubantu bezwe

noma iqembu labantu elithile esifundeni esithile noma endaweni ethile;
futhi izinga lenhlalakahle yezezimali kubantu bezwe yisikali esiqondene
nezwe lonkana kanti izinga eliqondene neqembu labantu elithile yisikali
sesimo sezimali sabantu basendaweni. Intuthuko yomnotho wezwe
noma yeqembu labantu, ngokwethiyori, idlula ezigabeni eziningana,
okuyisigaba semisebenzi yezomnotho eyisisekelo (njengokulima
ngenhloso yokuzitholela okuya ngasethunjini, ukudoba kanye
nezamahlathi), kulandele imisebenzi yezomnotho esekelayo
(njengokukhiqiza izimpahla ezidingwa ngabathengi) kuyofinyelela
emisebenzini yokuhlinzekwa kwezinsizakalo nokuhlinzekelwa
kwezidingo zabavakashi (tertiary activities) bese kugcina isigaba
sentuthuko yezomnotho esibizwa nge-quaternary stage, lapho
imisebenzi eyinhloko kuyimisebenzi ephathelene nolwazi (bheka i-
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“development”, “developing countries” kanye ne-“dual economy”).

Sekuqhanyukwe namamodeli ahlukahlukene okuchaza izigaba
zentuthuko yomnotho. Amamodeli adume kakhulu yimodeli ka-Rostow
eqondene nabantu abadla izambane likapondo, kanye namazwe
asethuthukile, njengamazwe ase-Western Europe nawase-North
America, imodeli ka-Barke no-O’Hare eqondene nabantu abadla
imbuya ngothi, kanye namazwe asathuthuka njengemazwe ase-Africa
nawase-Asia, kanye nemodeli emaphakathi kwalawa amabili angenhla,
okuyimodeli ka-Friedman echaza izimo zentuthuko yomnotho
eziphathelene nendawo futhi echaza ukusabalala kwamazinga
ahlukahlukene omcebo endaweni ethile, njengedolobha noma izwe.
Inhlalakahle yabantu enjengokutholakala kwezinsizakalo zokwelashwa,
isilinganiso esimaphakathi samazinga okufunda nokubhala kanye
nawemfundo, kanye nokutholakala kwezinsizakalo zomphakathi
akubhekwa futhi akufakwa uma kuchazwa izinga lentuthuko yomnotho.
Economic growth: The financial progress of a country or a region. Positive
growth entails the increase of the output of goods and services produced by an
economy, and the simultaneous improvement of the average financial status and
overall well-being of the people in that country or region. Unfortunately, that does not
always happen. After the international stock market collapse of 2008, a number of
developed states (see “development” and “developing countries”) showed no
economic growth, and their financial status diminished (or shrank). That is negative
economic growth. Many people lost their jobs, the states themselves could not repay
their debts, and their economies went into a state of near-stagnation. However,
certain developing states were far less affected by the collapse, and a number of
developing states (such as Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) emerged
as fast growing economies. Economic growth can be measured in a number of ways,
namely the per capita GNP (see “development” and “developing countries”), the per
capita income of the people in the community, the employment rate, the annual
number of newly unemployed people who have to receive some kind of social
provision, and so forth. However, one also has to bear in mind that the size of the
economy is extremely important. A drop of one per cent in the growth of the
economy of the United States of America has far wider and more serious impacts
than a drop of one per cent in the economic growth of South Africa. Currently the
fastest growing economies are in the so-called BRICS countries, consisting of Brazil,
Russia, India, China and South Africa.

Ukukhula komnotho: Inqubekelaphambili yezwe noma yesifunda

esithile kwezezimali. Ukukhula okuhle kwezomnotho kubandakaya
ukukhula kwempahla nezinsizakalo ezikhiqizwe wumnotho, futhi
kusenjalo lokhu kubandakanya nokuba ngcono kwesilinganiso
esimaphakathi sesimo sezomnotho kanye nenhlalakahle yabantu
bonkana ezweni elithile noma esifundeni esithile. Kodwa ngelishwa-ke,
lokhu akuyona into eyenzeka ngaso sonke isikhathi. Emva kokufadalala
kwezimakethe zamasheya zomhlaba wonkana ngowezi-2008, amazwe
amaningi asethuthukile (bheka i-“development” kanye nama-“developing
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countries”) awabonisanga ukukhula komnotho, futhi sancipha nesimo

sawo sezimali. Lokhu kubizwa nge-negative economic growth (okusho
ukuhlehlela emuva komnotho esikhundleni sokuba ukhule). Abantu
abaningi balahlelekelwa yimisebenzi yabo, futhi namazwe ngokwawo
ahluleka ukukhokhela izikweletu zawo futhi iminotho yawo yangena
esimweni esicishe sifane nokuma ndawonye, nokungathuthuki. Kodwa-
ke kunamazwe athile asethuthukile angakhahlamezekanga kakhulu
ngenxa yalokhu kufadalala komnotho, futhi kunamazwe athile
asathuthuka (njenge-Brazil, Russia, India, China kanye neNingizimu
Afrika) abonisa ukuba ngamazwe aneminotho ekhula ngesivinini
esikhulu. Ukukhula komnotho kukalwa ngezindlela eziningana, okuyi-
GNP (bheka i-“development” kanye nama-“developing countries”), imali
engenayo kubantu emphakathini, izinga lokuqashwa kwabantu
nokutholakala kwamathuba omsebenzi, inani laminyaka yonke labantu
abasanda kuphelelwa wumsebenzi okumele bathole isibonelelo esithile
sikahulumeni, njalo njalo. Kodwa-ke, umuntu kumele akhumbule futhi
ukuthi usemqoka kakhulu nosayizi womnotho. Ukwehla ngephesenti
elilodwa komnotho wase-United States of America kunomthelela
omkhulu futhi ongemuhle neze uma kuqhathaniswa nokwehla
ngephesenti elilodwa komnotho waseNingizimu Afrika. Njengamanje,
amazwe aneminotho ekhula ngesivinini esikhulu ngamazwe ombimbi
olubizwa nge-BRICS abandakanya i-Brazil, Russia, India, China kanye
neNingizimu Afrika.
Economic valuation: The determination of the economical or fiscal value of a
non-economical, natural entity such as a rhinoceros or a national park, or even a
non-tactile item such as a wilderness experience. A certain value is ascribed to the
entity, and that value is determined by the normal market forces of supply and
demand. In the case of elephant tusks, rhino horns, and a number of other wildlife
products the normal market forces do not apply, because the sale of these items is
illegal. The value that is ascribed to these illegal items is determined by the supply
and demand in the illegal sector of the global economy. A live rhinoceros or an
elephant can be sold and its price will depend on how much the buyer is prepared to
pay (the willingness to pay principle [WTP]) and the seller is willing to accept (the
principle of willingness to accept [WTA]). The actual value of the rhino is much
higher because it includes its ability to breed, the value it adds to the destination
image of the reserve (see “destination image”) and all the money made from the
visitors who are attracted to the reserve by the rhino. Valuations are usually made on
the basis of the profit that the buyer, the seller, or the landlord can make, and the
satisfaction the tenant or paying guest can get. In the environmental field, economic
valuation is an extremely difficult process. How is one to determine what the value of
the Kruger National Park, the Okavango Delta, or the Cradle of Humankind World
Heritage Site really is? In short, it cannot be done. Consequently, economic
valuation in the environmental field, applies to small items and services, tourist
accommodation, cuisine, and hospitality and services offered in a natural
environment. However, the environment itself is not assigned a fiscal value (unless
the land is sold and a short-term selling price – not a value – is temporarily assigned
 80

to a demarcated area [see “demarcation”]). To determine the “cost” of environmental

damage is even more difficult, but it has to be done because our environmental laws
provide for rehabilitation costs and punitive fines to be assigned to the guilty party.
We know how much it would cost to get a professional service provider to remove
illegally dumped rubbish or hazardous waste, but we cannot put a price on the actual
environmental degradation caused by the illegal action. Punitive fines are allocated
in an attempt to compensate for the environmental damage, but thus far fines in
South Africa have been far too low to be to effective deterrents. In Canada, the USA,
Australia and Western Europe the punitive fines are so high that they serve their
purpose and developers try to avoid environmental damage. But accidents do
happen. To cover them, developers and construction companies take out expensive
insurance coverage. When we think of all the damage done over the ages by all the
wars (including the two nuclear bombs dropped on Japan in 1945), the Three Mile
Island nuclear plant accident, the Exxon Valdez oil spillage in Alaska, the Deep
Water oilrig spillage in the Gulf of Mexico, the Chernobyl nuclear disaster, the
devastation of the Niger Delta by powerful oil companies, the Bhopal poison gas
leakage, and so forth ad infinitum, we realize that all fines paid now are far too little
and far too late. Could we ever quantify all the damage in financial terms? Of course
not.

Ukuhlonzwa kwesilinganisonani somnotho: Ukuhlonzwa

kwenanibungako lomnotho noma inanibungako lesimo sezimali
lesikhungo esingaphathelene nezimali, okuyisikhungo semvelo
esinjengesikhungo esigcina obhejane noma isiqiwu, noma inanibungako
lento engathinteki ngesandla, njengomuzwa omnandi wokuvakashela
ehlane. Kunenanibungako elithile eliqondene nesikhungo, futhi lelo nani
lihlonzwa ngokwesimo esijwayelekile sezimakethe sobuningi
bempahla etholakalayo kanye nemfunekosidingo yaleyo mpahla.
Izimo ezijwayelekile zezimakethe azisebenzi ezintweni
ezinjengamazinyo endlovu, izimpondo zobhejane kanye neminye
imikhiqizo yezilwane zasendle eminingana, ngoba akuvumelekile futhi
akukho emthethweni ukuthengiswa kwemikhiqizo enjalo. Inanibungako
eliqondene nale mikhiqizo engekho emthethweni lihlonzwa ngokubheka
isimo sobuningi bemikhiqizo nemfunekosidingo emkhakheni womnotho
womhlaba ongekho emthethweni. Ubhejane ophilayo noma indlovu
ingathengiswa, futhi inani lentengo yayo lincike ekutheni uzimisele
ukukhokha malini umthengi (umgomo wokuzimisela ukukhokha
[WTP]) futhi nomthengisi uzimisele ukwamukela malini (umgomo
wokuzimisela ukwamukela [WTA]). Inanibungako loqobo likabhejane
lingaphezudlwana kakhulu ngoba libandakanya namandla okuzalanisa,
nobuhle nobugugu obungalethwa yilowo bhejane emfanekisweni
wesiqiwu njengendawo eheha abavakashi (bheka i-“destination image”)
kanye nayo yonke imali eyenziwe ngokukhokhisa abavakashi abahehwe
wubhejane abavakashela isiqiwu. Izilinganisonani zivamise ukwenziwa
ngokubheka inzuzo engenziwa ngumthengi, umthengisi kanye
nomnikazi wendawo kanye nokugculiseka okungatholwa yisiqashi noma
isivakashi esikhokha imali yokusebenzisa leyo ndawo. Emkhakheni
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wezemvelo, ukwenziwa kwesilinganisonani sezomnotho kuyinqubo

enzima kakhulu. Umuntu angasihlonza kanjani nje isilinganisonani se-
Kruger National Park, Okavango Delta, noma i-Cradle of Humankind
World Heritage Site? Ngamafuphi, lokho kuyinto engenakwenzeka.
Ngenxa yalokho-ke, ukuhlonzwa kwesilinganisonani sezomnotho
emkhakheni wezemvelo, kwenzeka kuphela ezintweni ezincane kanye
nezinsizakalo, nendawo yokuhlalisa abavakashi, ukudla kanye
nezinsizakalo zokunakekela abavakashi ezihlinzekwa esimweni
semvelo. Kodwa-ke, imvelo ngokwayo ayinikezwa inanibungako
lezezimali (ngaphandle uma kuthengiswa umhlaba, futhi-ke uma kunjalo
indawo eklanyiwe (bheka i-“demarcation”) inikezwa inani lentengiso
lesikhashana (selling price), hhayi inanisilinganiso (value). Futhi kunzima
kakhulu impela nokuhlonza “izindleko” zomonakalo owenzeka kwimvelo,
kepha-ke lokhu kumele kwenziwe ngoba phela imithetho yezemvelo
iyakuhlinzekela ukukhokhwa kwezindleko zokulungisa umonakalo kanye
nenhlawulo kulabo abatholwe benecala lokucekela phansi imvelo. Siyazi
ukuthi kungabiza malini ukuthola ungoti ozosusa udoti noma imfucuza
enobungozi elahlwe ngendlela engekho emthethweni, kodwa ngeke
sikwazi ukubeka inani lemali okumele ikhokhwe njengenhlawulo
yomonakalo woqobo owenzeke kwimvelo owumphumela waleso senzo
esingekho emthethweni. Izinhlawulo zibekwe njengomzamo
wokunxephezela umonakalo owenzeke kwimvelo, kodwa-ke kuze kube
manje eNingizimu Afrika izinhlawulo ziphansi kakhulu, okwenza zingabi
nomthelela obonakalayo impela ekuvimbeleni ukucekelwa phansi
kwemvelo. E-Canada, USA, Australia kanye nase-Western Europe
izinhlawulo ziphezulu kakhulu, kangangokuthi ziyayifezekisa inhloso
yazo futhi abathuthukisi bezindawo bayazama ukugwema ukucekeleka
phansi kwemvelo. Kodwa-ke izingozi ziyenzeka. Njengomzamo
wokuzivikela ezingozini, abathuthukisi bezindawo kanye nezinkampani
zokwakha bazithathela umshwalense omba eqolo impela. Uma
sicabanga ngawo wonke umonakalo owenziwe yizo zonke izimpi
ezenzeke eminyakeni eyadlula (kubandakanya namabhomu enuzi
amabili aqhunyiswa phezu kwe-Japan ngowe-1945), ingozi yesikhungo
senuzi e-Three Mile Island, isigameko sokuchitheka kukawoyela
emkhunjini i-Exxon Valdez kwelase-Alaska, isigameko sokuchitheka
kukawoyela esikhungweni esisemajukujukwini olwandle esimpompa
uwoyela ongahluziwe e-Gulf of Mexico, inhlekelele yenuzi yase-
Chernobyl, ukucekeleka phansi kwemvelo okwenziwa yizinkampani
zikawoyela ezinkulu esifundeni sase-Niger Delta, inhlekelele yokuvuza
kwegesi ewushevu edolobheni lase-Bhopal, kanye nomonakalo oyohlala
ukhona njalo kuze kube ngunaphakade obangelwe yikho konke lokhu,
kuyacaca impela ukuthi zonke izinhlawulo ezikhokhiwe kuze kube manje
zincane kakhulu futhi zifike emva kwesikhathi (okungukuthi sezidlulelwe
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yisikhathi). Umbuzo omkhulu wukuthi ingabe siyoke sikwazi nje ukwenza

isilinganiso semali sawo wonke lo monakalo osuwenzekile? Uma
sikhuluma iqiniso, lokho kuyinto engeke neze yenzeke.
Ecosystem: The plants, animals and microorganisms together with the
physical and chemical components of the environment in, and on, which they live
constitute an ecosystem. Therefore, ecosystems consist of living organisms, soil,
water, air, rocks and any other natural or human-made entity that happens to occur
in that specific area at that specific time. In Geography an ecosystem is a spatial
concept, that is, it consists of all the above-mentioned, but occupies or exists in a
specific, defined space that can be demarcated and mapped (see “demarcation”).
This does not mean that ecosystems are closed systems effectively sealed-off from
all other ecosystems adjacent to or near them. Individual organisms inhabiting an
ecosystem move around and interact with inhabitants and components of other
ecosystems. Moreover, all ecosystems receive solar energy, water and air and other
physical and organic inputs from the surrounding environment, and both energy and
matter leave the system as outputs. Consequently, energy and matter constantly
flow into, through and out of all ecosystems. Since ecosystems consist of a variety of
organisms that form a food-chain, and inorganic (non-living) components are
continually cycled through the system, ecosystems have a high capacity to sustain
themselves. Without the variety of organic components and the constant flow of
organic and inorganic substances, any ecosystem will eventually collapse and
cease to exist. It is a common misconception that ecosystems are completely natural
systems somewhere in the rural areas, or in nature reserves, or far away from those
of us who live in urbanised regions like Gauteng. This is not at all true, since all cities
consist of thousands of small ecosystems (micro-ecosystems). Every single built
structure and human-made artefact is part of an ecosystem.

Impilandawonye (i-ekhosistimu): I-ekhosistimu yakhiwe yizitshalo,

izilwane kanye nezilwanyazane namagciwane, kanye nezinto ezingaphili
kanye nalezo ezingamakhemikhali, eziyingxenye yemvelo eziphila
kuyona futhi eziphila ngayo. Ngakho-ke, ama-ekhosistimu afaka
phakathi izinto eziphilayo, umhlabathi, amanzi, umoya, amadwala kanye
nanoma iyiphi enye into yemvelo noma into eyakhiwe ngabantu
etholakala kuleyo ndawo ethile ngaleso sikhathi esithile. KuJografi i-
ekhosistimu yinto ephathelene nendawo, okusho ukuthi, ifaka phakathi
konke lokhu okushiwo ngenhla, kodwa-ke yenzeka noma itholakala
esikhaleni esithile esichaziwe esiklamekayo futhi siboniswe kwibalazwe
(bheka i-“demarcation”). Lokhu akusho neze ukuthi ama-ekhosisitimu
ayizinto ezivalekile, okwenza ukuthi izinto eziphila kwamanye ama-
ekhosisitimu akhelene nawo azikwazi ukufinyelela kuwona. Izinto
eziphilayo ezihlala kwi-ekhosistimu ziyahambahamba futhi ziyaxhumana
nezinto eziphilayo kanye nezingxenye zamanye ama-ekhosistimu.
Ngaphezu kwalokhu, wonke ama-ekhosisitimu ayawathola amandla
elanga, amanzi kanye nomoya kanye nezinye izinto ezingenayo (inputs)
ezingaphili ezivela kwimvelo eseduzane eyakhelene nawo, futhi kokubili
amandla (energy) kanye nezinto ezingaphili (matter) kuyaphuma
ohlelweni, njengezinto eziphumayo noma ezikhiqizwayo (outputs).
 83

Ngenxa yalokho-ke, amandla kanye nezinto ezingaphili kuyangena njalo

ngokuqhubekayo kudlule kuwo wonke ama-ekhosisitimu futhi kuphinde
kuphume. Njengoba ama-ekhosistimu equkethe izinto eziphilayo
ezinhlobonhlobo ezakha uchungechunge lwezinto eziphilayo
ezithembele kwezinye izinto eziphilayo njengomthombo wokudla
(food-chain), futhi njengoba izinto ezingaphili zilokhu zidlule njalo
ohlelweni ngendlela ezungelezayo, ama-ekhosistimu ayakwazi
ukuziphilisa ngokwawo. Ngaphandle nje kwezinto eziphilayo
ezinhlobonhlobo kanye nokungena nokuphuma okulokhu kuqhubeke
njalo kwezinto eziphilayo kanye nezingaphili noma iyiphi i-
ekhosistimu ingagcina isibhidlikile futhi ishabalale. Kunomcabango
ojwayelekile oyiphutha othi ama-ekhosistimu yizonhlelo zemvelo
ngokuphelele ezitholakala ezindaweni ezithile ezisemakhaya, noma
eziqiwini noma kude kakhulu nabanye bethu abahlala ezifundeni
ezisemadolobheni njengaseGauteng. Lokhu akulona neze iqiniso, ngoba
wonke amadolobha equkethe ama-ekhosistimu amancane
ayizinkulungwane ngezinkulungwane (ama-micro-ecosystems). Zonke
izakhiwo kanye nezinto ezakhiwe ngabantu ziyingxenye ye-ekhosistimu.
Electromagnetic spectrum: All matter with a temperature higher than
absolute zero (-273° Kelvin or -495,4° Fahrenheit) radiate electromagnetic energy in
the form of waves with different wavelengths. The light from the sun consists of a
wide spectrum of frequencies. Some of these fall in the spectrum which our eyes can
detect, namely the visible spectrum. All other frequencies of light cannot be
detected by the human eye. All wavelengths ranging from 0,4 micron to 0,7 micron
fall within the visible spectrum. Shorter wavelengths are invisible ultra-violet and X-
rays, and those longer than 0,7 microns are invisible infrared rays, microwaves and
radiowaves. Although our eyes cannot see wavelengths that fall outside of the visible
spectrum, certain types of films and other light sensitive remote sensing devices can
detect some of those frequencies. Although the human eye that is looking through
the camera to take a photograph can only detect the visible spectrum of light
frequencies, the film in the camera can detect more than the eye that is looking
through the camera. One common example of light frequencies that the human eye
cannot see is short wave X-rays which are part of standard medical diagnostic
technology and healthcare without X-rays is hardly imaginable anymore. Likewise,
spatial research without the aid of the long wavelengths of infrared rays have
revolutionised the use of photography in geographical investigation. Remote sensing
images of the Earth’s surface from a very great distance by infrared sensitive remote
sensing devices mounted in satellites has become an extremely important standard
geographical tool and it even forms a specialisation field within the science of
geography. Spatial research without the aid of such imagery is as unimaginable as
medical science without X-ray photography.

Iqoqozinhlobo lezinto eziphathelene nozibuthegesi

(electromagnetic spectrum): Zonke izinto ezinezingakushisa
(temperature) elevile kwizingakushisa eliphansi kunawo wonke (absolute
zero), okusho izingakushisa elingu -273° Kelvin noma -495,4°
Fahrenheit, zikhiqiza amandla kazibuthegesi angamagagasi anobude
 84

obuhlukahlukene futhi obungalingani. Ukukhanya okuvela elangeni

kuqukethe izinhlobo eziningi zamazingampindwa (frequencies). Amanye
alawa mazingampindwa awela ngaphansi kweqoqozinhlobo elibonakala
ngamehlo, okungukuthi visible spectrum kanti-ke wonke amanye
amazingampindwa okukhaya asele awabonakali ngamehlo. Ubude
bamagagasi asukela ku-0,4 micron kuya ku-0,7 micron awela ngaphansi
kweqoqozinhlobo elibonakala ngamehlo. Amagagasi amafushane
yimisetshana esabukhwebezana (ultra-violet) kanye nama eksireyi
angabonakali ngamehlo, futhi lawo amade ngaphezu kuka-0,7 microns
yimisebe ebomvana engabonakali ngamehlo (infrared rays),
namagagasi amancanyana (microwaves) kanye namagagasi omsakazo
(radiowaves). Nakuba amehlo ethu engakwazi ukubona amagagasi
anobude obuwela ngaphandle kweqoqozinhlobo elibonakala ngamehlo,
amafilimu athile kanye namanye amadivayisi azwela ukukhanya,
akwaziyo ukuzwa izinto ekude, ayakwazi ukuzwa amanye alawo
mazingampindwa. Nakuba iso lomuntu elibuka kwikhamera ngenhloso
yokuthwebula isithombe libona kuphela amazingampindwa okukhanya
kwamaqoqozinhlobo abonakala ngamehlo, ifilimu engaphakathi kwi-
khamera iyakwazi ukubona okungaphezulu kwalokho okubonwa yiso
elibuka kwikhamera. Isizathu esisodwa esijwayelekile
samazingampindwa okukhanya angabonakali ngamehlo ngamagagasi
amafushane ama-eksireyi (X-rays) ayingxenye yobuchwepheshe
obujwayelekile bokuhlonza izifo, futhi namuhla sekuyinto engacabangeki
nakancane nje ukuthi usizo nokunakekelwa kwezempilo kungahlinzekwa
ngaphandle kama-eksireyi. Ngokufanayo, ucwaningo lwendawo (spatial
research) olwenziwa ngaphandle kosizo lwamagagasi amade abomvu
selukushintshe kakhulu ukusetshenziswa kwezithombe
(ezithwetshuliwe) ocwaningweni lwejografi. Imifanekiso yobuso
bomhlaba ethathwe ngamadivayisi asebenzisa imisebe ebomvana,
ananyathiselwe kumasathelayithi emkhathini, isiyithuluzi lejografi
elijwayelekile elibaluleke kakhulu futhi lokhu sekuwumkhakha
okhethekile impela ongena ngaphansi kwesayensi yejografi. Kuyinto
engacabangeki neze ukuthi lungenzeka ucwaningo lwendawo
ngaphandle kwemifanekiso enjalo njengoba nesayensi yezokwelapha
ingacabangeki nakancane ngaphandle kwezithombe ze-eksireyi.
Environment: Despite the fact that the word “environment” is commonly used
by everybody every day, it is a very difficult term to define. Depending on the context
in which the term is used, it could have a whole array of different meanings. The
word “environment” is in fact too restricted to explain the concept it endeavours to
convey. “Environment” is actually a relational concept, which is an extremely
important fact. From an environmental management and a geographic perspective,
“environment” means the interrelationships among the human beings
themselves, and with the natural as well as human-made components of the
environment within which all the components live or exist within a certain,
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definable area. The area occupied by the ecosystem can be demarcated and
mapped (see “demarcation”). From a purely natural scientific perspective
“environment” refers to the natural components and the relationships between them
within a system, and human beings do not form a natural, integral part of that
environment. From a purely social science perspective, “environment” refers to the
social environment and interactions of humans within families, groups or societies
and nature does not form an integral part of those systems. Other components of the
extensive, broadly viewed environment, have been identified as constituting specific
“subsystems” and relational conditions of focussed scientific investigation. These
include the economic, the cultural-historic, the built, the political, the labour or work,
the industrial, the retail, the entertainment and recreational environments, and many
more. The Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site could be regarded and studied
as a natural environment important from both a geological and a paleontological
viewpoint. It is also an archaeological important environment, a cultural-historic site
or environment, an area of importance to environmental management and
geographical investigation, a recreational and tourist environment, an economical
environment, and even a socio-political important environment. Thus, the term
“environment” has a multitude of meanings, and it means different things to different
people. Therefore, the context in which the term is used is extremely important.

Imvelo: Nakuba igama elithi “imvelo” livamise ukusetshenziswa

ngumuntu wonke nsukuzonke, yigama okunzima kakhulu ukulichaza
kahle. Leli gama lingaba nezincazelo eziningi futhi ezihlukahlukene, futhi
lokho kuncike esimweni ngasinye elisetshenziswa ngaphansi kwaso.
Futhi empeleni igama elithi “imvelo” linemingcele nemikhawulo
elivimbelayo kakhulu, eyenza lingakwazi ukuchaza nokuveza kahle
umqondo elizama ukuwuveza. “Imvelo” yigama elinomqondo oncike
ezimweni ezithile, futhi lokhu kuyiqiniso elibaluleke kakhulu okumele
likhumbuleke. Mayelana nezokuphathwa kwemvelo, nangokwejografi,
“imvelo” ichaza ubudlelwano phakathi kwabantu ngokwabo, kanye
nobudlelwano babo nezinto zemvelo kanye nezinto ezakhiwe
yibona abantu eziyingxenye yemvelo okuphila kuyona zonke lezi
zingxenye endaweni ethile, echazekayo. Indawo okutholakala kuyona
i-ekhosistimu iyaklameka futhi iboniswe ebalazweni (bheka i-
“demarcation”). Ngokwesayensi yemvelo yoqobo igama elithi “imvelo”
lisho izingxenye zemvelo nobudlelwano phakathi kwazo, ngaphakathi
kohlelo oluthile, futhi abantu abayona ingxenye esemqoka yemvelo leyo.
Ngokwesayensi yenhlalo yabantu yoqobo igama elithi “imvelo” likhuluma
ngendawo abahlala kuyona abantu kanye nokuxhumana kwemindeni,
amaqembu kanye nemiphakathi yabantu futhi imvelo ayiyona ingxenye
ebalulekile yalokho. Ezinye izingxenye zemvelo ezibonwa ngeso
elibanzi, zihlonzwe njengezingxenye ezakhe “ama-subsystems”
(“izinhlelo ezincane ezingaphansi kwezinhlelo ezinkulu) athile kanye
nezimo eziphathelene nobudlelwano obuthile, okwenziwa kuzona
ucwaningo lwezesayensi olugxilile. Lokhu kubandakanya izimo
zomnotho, amasiko nomlando, ukwakha, abasebenzi noma umsebenzi,
izimboni, ukuthengisa, ezokuqeda isizungu nokungcebeleka, kanye
 86

nokunye okuningi. I-Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site

ingathathwa, futhi icwaningwe, njengendawo yemvelo ebalulekile,
kukhona kokubili, umkhakha wesayensi yokwakheka komhlaba
(geological) kanye nesayensi yezinsalela zasemandulo
(paleontological). Ibalulekile futhi njengendawo enemivukubulo
yasemandulo (archaeological), indawo yamasiko nomlando noma
yemvelo, iyindawo ebalulekile ekuphathweni kwemvelo kanye
nasocwaningweni lwejografi, indawo yokungcebeleka nokwamukela
abavakashi, indawo yezomnotho futhi iyindawo ebalulekile
nakwezenhlalo yabantu, ngisho nezepolitiki imbala. Ngakho-ke, itemu
elithi “imvelo” linezincazelo eziningi futhi ezihlukahlukene, futhi lichaza
izinto ezihlukahlukene kubantu abahlukahlukene futhi ngalokho-ke
ibaluleke kakhulu ingqikithi nesimo elisetshenziswa ngaphansi kwaso leli
temu.
Environmental auditing: The management tool to assess the environmental
performance of a company, organization, development or any entity or activity. It is
the evaluation of the efficacy of the efforts to minimise the environmental impact of a
development or human activity. According to the environmental legislation in most
developed and many developing countries, official permission (often called
“permitting”) has to be obtained before any development project or activity that might
have a significant impact on the environment is embarked on. When permission for
the proposed project or activity has been secured, the environmental management
plan (EMP) contained in the application documentation becomes a legal contract
that binds the proposer or developer to a set of stipulated conditions and mitigating
measures under which the activity may be performed. Environmental auditing is the
process of assessing how true the development or activity adheres to the conditions
of the environmental management plan. It entails regular monitoring (see
“environmental monitoring”) by the competent environmental authority of the
environmental performance of the permitted activity, be it a mine, a road, a nature
reserve, an industrial plant, a golf estate or any other activity covered by the
environmental legislation of the specific country. Note that environmental auditing is
not an investigation, assessment or evaluation of the environment as such. It is an
assessment of the environmental performance of the activity or development, that is,
of how well the owner or developer executes the environmental management plan
for the development and minimises or mitigates its impact on the environment. A
development such as the Cradle of Humankind world heritage site is likely to have a
large and severe impact in the form of human traffic, sewerage, roads, litter and
waste, hospitality facilities, the disruption of all natural processes and the complete
destruction of the habitats of some animals and plants (see “ecological footprint”).
Consequently, an expansive environmental management plan (EMP) for establishing
and running the entire development has to be agreed upon prior to the establishment
of the development. The authorising body (in the case of the Cradle of Humankind
world heritage site, the South African National Department of the Environment would
be the authorising body) is then obliged to inspect the site and assess how well the
development is performing environmentally, and how strictly the stipulations and
conditions of the EMP are executed. However, world heritage sites are ultimately
under the jurisdiction of UNESCO who does from time to time inspect the sites and if
 87

the sites are not satisfactorily managed the world heritage site status could be
withdrawn.

Ukuhlolwa komthelela kwimvelo: Ithuluzi lokuphatha nokulawula

elenzelwe ukuhlola ukusebenza kwenkampani, inhlangano noma
umsebenzi wokwakha othile ophathelene nezemvelo. Lokhu
kuwukuhlola ukuthi ihamba kahle yini imizamo yokunciphisa umthelela
womsebenzi wokwakha noma wezenzo zabantu. Ngokomthetho
wemvelo wamazwe amaningi asethuthukile kanye nalawo asathuthuka,
kumele kutholakale imvume esemthethweni (esikhathini esiningi ebizwa
“ngokuvumela”) ngaphambi kokuba kuqaliswe noma yimuphi umklamo
wentuthuko noma umsebenzi othile okungenzeka ube nomthelela
omkhulu kwimvelo. Uma isitholakele imvume yokwenza umklamo noma
umsebenzi ohlongozwayo, uhlelo lokuphathwa kwemvelo (EMP)
oluqukethwe emibhalweni yesicelo somklamo luba yinkontileka
esemthethweni eyisibopho kumhlongozi womklamo noma umthuthukisi
wendawo, sokuthobela imibandela ebekiwe kanye nezinyathelo
zokunciphisa umthelela kwimvelo okumele kuqhutshwe ngaphansi
kwazo umsebenzi ohlongozwayo. Ukuhlolwa komthelela kwimvelo
yinqubo yokuhlola ukuthi umklamo noma umsebenzi wokuthuthukisa
indawo ethile uyithobela ngokweqiniso kangakanani imibandela yohlelo
lokuphathwa kwemvelo. Lokhu kubadakanya ukuqapha nokuhlola
ngokuqhubekayo (bheka i-“environmental monitoring”) okwenziwa
yisiphathimandla esinegunya nolwazi lomsebenzi olunzulu ngenhloso
yokubheka ukuthi kuqhutshwa ngendlela efanele yini mayelana
nokunakekelwa kwemvelo kulowo mklamo onikezwe imvume
yokusebenza, okungaba yimayini, umgwaqo, isiqiwu, imboni, indawo
kanokusho yabantu abadla izambane likapondo enamakhaya abantu
akhelene nenkundla yegalofu (golf estate) kanye nanoma yimuphi
umsebenzi ongaphansi komthetho wemvelo walelo lizwe elithile
okukhulunywa ngalo. Qaphela ukuthi empeleni ukuhlolwa komthelela
kwimvelo akulona uphenyo noma ukuhlolwa kwemvelo. Ukuhlolwa
komthelela kwimvelo kuchaza inqubo yokuhlola ukuthi uqhutshwa
ngendlela ebhekelela imvelo yini umsebenzi wokuthuthukisa indawo
ethile, okungukuthi, ingabe umnikazi noma umthuthukisi womklamo
ululandela ngendlela efanele yini uhlelo lokuphathwa kwemvelo
oluqondene nomklamo wokuthuthukiswa kwendawo ethile futhi
uyayenza yini imizamo yokunciphisa umthelela walo mklamo kwimvelo.
Umklamo onjenge-Cradle of Humankind world heritage site kungenzeka
ube nomthelela omkhulu futhi ongayikhahlameza kakhulu imvelo
obangelwa wukugcwala kwabantu, indle, imigwaqo, udoti nemfucuza,
izikhungo zokuhlinzekela abavakashi, ukuphazamiseka kwazo zonke
izinqubo zemvelo kanye nokucekeleka phansi ngokuphelele kwendawo
yezilwane nezitshalo ezithile (bheka i-“ecological footprint”). Ngenxa
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yalokho-ke, ngaphambi kokuba kuqaliswe umsebenzi wokusungulwa

noma wokuthuthukiswa kwendawo ethile kumele kuvunyelwane
ngohlelo olubanzi lokuphathwa kwemvelo (EMP) oluzolawula
ukusungulwa nokuqhutshwa komsebenzi wonkana wokuthuthukiswa
kwendawo. Umnyango okhiphe imvume (maqondana ne-Cradle of
Humankind world heritage site, umnyango okhiphe imvume wuMnyango
Kazwelonke Wezemvelo waseNingizimu Afrika) uyobe usuba nesibopho
sokuthi uhlole isizinda esithuthukiswayo futhi uhlole ukuthi umsebenzi
wokuthuthukisa leyo ndawo uyibhekelela kahle kangakanani imvelo,
nokuthi ithotshelwa ngokuphelele yini imigomo nemibandela ye-EMP.
Kodwa-ke, ekugcineni izizinda zamagugu omhlaba zingaphansi
kwegunya le-UNESCO, futhi le nhlangano iyazihlola ngezikhathi ezithile
izizinda ezingaphansi kwayo futhi uma isizinda esithile singaphathwa
ngendlela efanele kungenzeka lihloxiswe igunya laso lokuhlonishwa
nokwamukelwa ngokusemthethweni njengesizinda samagugu omhlaba.
Environmental business: Any gainful private enterprise involving any aspect
of the environmental industry. In its broadest sense the term includes any business
from a firm of landscape architects or environmental impact analysts, to explorers
searching for historical (cultural) artefacts in a certain natural area, to garden
services, running of an eco-lodge or a bed-and-breakfast where nature hikers could
spend a night, guides who lead visitors on game-drives, a small ice cream booth at a
world heritage site, and even event organisers who specialise in organising large
international environmental conferences. The important thing is that these
businesses are aimed at making money from some environmentally related activity
or other.

Ibhizinisi lezemvelo: Noma yiliphi ibhizinisi elenza inzuzo

elibandakanya noma yimuphi umkhakha wemboni yezemvelo.
Ngokubanzi, leli temu libandakanya noma yiliphi ibhizinisi kusukela
efemini yabadwebizakhiwo zomhlaba (landscape architects) noma
abahlaziyi bomthelela kwimvelo, kuya kubathungathi bezinsalela
nemivukubulo yasemandulo endaweni ethile yemvelo, kuya
emabhizinisini okulungisa izingadi, ibhizinisi eliyi-eco-lodge noma i-bed-
and-breakfast lapho abaqwali bezintaba bemvelo bengachitha khona
ubusuku, abaphelezeli abahola abavakashi ezinkambweni zokuyobona
izilwane zasendle, igunjana elincane elithengisa u-ice cream esizindeni
esiyigugu lomhlaba, kanye nabahleli abagxile emsebenzini wokuhlela
izingqungquthela zamazwe ngamazwe ezinkulu eziphathelene
nezemvelo. Into esemqoka kakhulu wukuthi lawa mabhizinisi
asungulelwe ukwenza imali emsebenzini othile ophathelene nemvelo
noma okunye okuhlobene nalokho.
Environmental degradation: The human-induced, progressive loss of an
area’s ability to sustain life. Air pollution, water pollution, overgrazing, overcultivation,
soil erosion, injudicious mining practices, warfare, vegetation destruction (see
“deforestation”) and any other human-induced (anthropogenic) deterioration of the
 89

natural production potential and carrying capacity of an area could be the cause
of environmental degradation (see “carrying capacity”). Any one or more of the
abovementioned causes, could degrade a certain portion (area) of the environment
to such an extent that no living organisms (including microbial life) could survive
there. All forms of life existing today are to a greater or lesser degree adapted to the
environment they live in. Should that environment change faster than the organisms
(including humans) can evolve, mass extinction of life on Earth will ensue. Humans
have been changing the environment for a few million years, but as a result of the
vast increase in the human population and its staggering technological advancement
during the past 150 years, enormous change is currently being wrought upon the
environment. In the final analysis environmental management is aimed at preventing
irreversible environmental degradation. Should our recent attempts at environmental
management fail, we would probably degrade our environment to a point where it
cannot sustain life anymore and life as we know it would cease to exist. It is
important to note that this environmental degradation is a human-induced process,
not a natural one. Natural processes of environmental change do not degrade the
environment, it slowly changes the environment and the evolution of most forms of
life can change or evolve to adapt to the altered environment. This has been
happening for at least 3 500 million years, but human activities are responsible for an
accelerated rate of environmental change, and we are not at all sure what such fast
alteration is going to cause. (See “extinction” and “natural selections”.)

Ukucekeleka phansi kwemvelo: Ulahleka ngokuqhubekayo

kwamandla endawo ethile okusekela impilo, ngenxa yezenzo zabantu.
Ukungcoliseka komoya, ukungcoliseka kwamanzi, ukuklabisa imvuyo
ngokweqile, ukulinywa komhlaba othile ngokweqile, ukuguguleka
kwenhlabathi, ukusetshenziswa kwezindlela ezingenangqondo
zokumba izimbiwa, impi, ukucekelwa phansi kwezimila zemvelo (bheka
i-“deforestation”) kanye nanoma yikuphi okunye ukucekelwa phansi
kwekhono lemvelo lokukhiqiza kanye namandla okumumatha
(carrying capacity endawo ethile ngenxa yezenzo zabantu
kungenzeka kube yimbangela yokucekeleka phansi kwemvelo (bheka i-
“carrying capacity”). Eyodwa noma ngaphezulu yalezi zimbangela
ezishiwo ngenhla ingacekela phansi isiqeshana esithile sendawo
yemvelo kangangokuthi zingabi khona izinto eziphilayo (kubandakanya
namagciwane) ezingaphila kuleyo ndawo. Zonke izinhlobo zezinto
eziphilayo ezikhona namuhla ziyahambelana ngandlelathize nemvelo
eziphila kuyona. Uma kwenzeka leyo mvelo iguquka ngokushesha,
okungaphezu kokuguquka kwezinto eziphila lapho (kubandakanya
nabantu) ukuze isimo sazo sihambelane noguquko lwemvelo
olwenzekile, kungaba nokushabalala okukhulu kwezinto eziphilayo
emhlabeni. Sekuphele iminyaka eyizigidi ezimbadlwana impela abantu
beguqula isimo semvelo, kodwa ngenxa yokukhula kakhulu kwesibalo
sabantu emhlabeni kanye nenqubekelaphambili enkulukazi
ekusetshenzisweni kwezobuchwepheshe kule minyaka eyi-150 edlule,
njengamanje sekwenzeka uguquko olukhulu ngendlela exakile
olunomthelela omkhulukazi kwimvelo. Ekuhlaziyweni kokugcina,
 90

ukuphathwa kwemvelo kuhlose ukuvimbela ukuthi ukucekeleka phansi

kwemvelo kungafinyeleli ezingeni lapho kungeke kusalungiseka noma
kubuyiseleke emuva esimweni sayo sangaphambilini. Uma
ingaphumeleli imizamo yethu yakamuva yokuphathwa kwemvelo, imvelo
kungenzeka icekeleke phansi kakhulu kuze kufinyelele eqophelweni
lapho ingeke isakwazi ukusekela izinto eziphilayo, futhi zonke izinto
eziphilayo ezikhona emhlabeni njengamanje ziyoshabalala uma
kwenzeka lokho. Kusemqoka ukuthi siqaphele ukuthi lokhu kucekeleka
phansi kwemvelo kuyinqubo ewumphumela wezenzo zabantu, akuyona
into ezenzekela ngokwemvelo. Uguquko lwemvelo oluzenzekela
ngokwemvelo aluyicekeli phansi imvelo, kepha luyiguqula kancane
kancane futhi lwenza izinto eziphilayo nazo zikwazi ukuguquka kahle
ukuze isimo sazo sihambelane noguquko lwemvelo oluzenzekele lona
ngokwemvelo. Lokhu bekuyinto ebilokhu yenzeke njalo okungenani
kusukela eminyakeni eyizigidi eziyi-3 500 edlule, kodwa manje izenzo
zabantu zibangela ukukhuphuka kakhulu kwesivinini soguquko
lwemvelo, futhi asinaso nesincane isiqiniseko sokuthi kuyoba yini
umphumela walolu guquko lwemvelo olwenzeka ngesivinini esikhulu
kangaka. (Bheka i-“extinction” kanye nama-“natural selections”.)
Environmental impact assessment (EIA): The administrative or regulatory
process by which the environmental impact of a proposed human project or activity
is determined. It is essentially a predictive process. In South Africa, as in many
other countries, it forms part of the Integrated Environmental Management
Procedure (IEMP). Based on the environmental data collected in the environmental
evaluation (EE) phase of the IEMP, and all the information about the proposed
project or activity supplied by the proposer, a scientific prediction of the impact on
the environment is made. This predictive process is environmental impact analysis
which is an integral part of environmental impact assessment. Various techniques
are employed to make such predictions, some are highly scientific measurements
and modelling, while others are based on expert opinions and also on the opinions of
the lay people who might have an interest in or be affected by the proposed project
or activity. The latter are called the interested and affected parties (IAPs) and
according to South Africa’s environmental legislation, their opinions must be taken
into account. It should be noted that the terms “environmental impact assessment”
and “environmental impact analysis” are often erroneously used as synonyms. Even
worse is the erroneous interchangeable use of environmental impact assessment
and environmental evaluation. The correct usage of all these terms are clearly
defined in the literature that describe South Africa’s IEMP procedure and in the
South African National Environmental Management Act, number 107 of 1998.
Consequently, no-one should use the terminology incorrectly.

Ukuhlolwa komthelela kwimvelo (EIA): Inqubo yokuphatha noma

yokulawula esetshenziselwa ukuhlonza umthelela womklamo noma
umsebenzi ohlongozwayo kwimvelo. Eqinisweni lokhu kuyinqubo
yokubikezela isimo. ENingizimu Afrika, njengakwamanye amazwe
amaningi, lokhu kuyingxenye yeNqubo Edidiyelwe Yokuphathwa
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Kwemvelo (IEMP). Ngokususela kwidatha yemvelo eqoqwe esigabeni

se-IEMP sokuhlolwa kwemvelo (EE), kanye nalo lonke ulwazi
oluphathelene nomklamo noma umsebenzi ohlongozwayo oluhlinzekwe
ngumhlongozi womklamo, kwenziwa isibikezelo sezesayensi somthelela
ongenzeka kwimvelo. Inqubo yokubikezela wuhlaziyo lomthelela
kwimvelo oluyingxenye esemqoka yokuhlolwa komthelela kwimvelo.
Kusetshenziswa izindlela ezihlukahlukene ukwenza lezo zibikezelo,
ezinye zalezi yizindlela zokukala ezigxile kakhulu kwezesayensi, kanti
ezinye zisuselwa emibonweni yongoti kanye nemibono yabantu
abajwayelekile nje emphakathini abanentshisekelo emklamweni noma
emsebenzini ohlongozwayo noma abathintekile kulokho. Abantu
abajwayelekile babizwa ngabantu abanentshisekelo noma abantu
abathintekile (IAPs) futhi ngokwemithetho yezemvelo yaseNingizimu
Afrika, imibono yabo kumele ilalelwe futhi ibandakanywe. Kumele
kuqapheleke ukuthi kunephutha elivamise ukwenzeka
lokusetshenziswa, esikhathini esiningi, kwetemu elithi “ukuhlolwa
komthelela kwimvelo” kanye netemu elithi “ukuhlaziywa komthelela
kwimvelo” njengamatemu angomqondofana. Futhi okubi kakhulu
kunalokhu wukuphanjaniswa kwetemu elithi ukuhlolwa komthelela
kwimvelo (environmental impact assessment) kanye nokuhlolwa
kwemvelo (environmental evaluation). Ukusetshenziswa ngendlela
elungile futhi eqondile kwawo wonke lawa matemu kuchazwe ngendlela
efanele emibhalweni echaza inqubo yaseNingizimu Afrika ye-IEMP
kanye noMthetho Kazwelonke Wezokuphathwa Kwemvelo,
ongunombolo 107 we-1998. Ngakho-ke, akumele kube nomuntu
ohlulekayo ukusebenzisa lawa matemu ngendlela efanele.
Environmental justice: This is probably the most elusive environmental term to
define. While environmental management deals with concepts and theories and
scientific facts that can easily be defined, and environmental law deals with the
written law, neither of the two deals with justice. Justice is an intangible,
philosophical concept embedded in an equally intangible construct, namely ethics. It
deals with what is good, what is bad, wrong or right, fair or just and unfair or unjust.
These are not things scientists and lawyers are at ease with! In ethics, justice
encompasses the principle of fairness that like cases should be treated alike, that a
particular distribution of benefits and burdens should be fair, and that punishment
should be proportionate to the offence. The entire idea of justice is extremely
important in environmental matters. The poor, rural communities in many parts of the
world, have no option but to exploit their natural environment (see “environmental
resources” and “exploitation”) in order to survive. Yes, they cause enormous
environmental degradation, but what else must they do? Yet, they are often severely
criticized for their actions, especially by well-heeled tourists who drive through these
devastated communal areas en route to exorbitantly expensive nature reserves and
eco-lodges (see “eco-lodges”). Is this criticism fair or just? The major air polluters in
the world are the rich, industrialised, developed nations, but the effects of
atmospheric pollution are often experienced more severely by the poor countries
than the rich countries. Is this fair or just? Brazil is harshly criticized for destroying
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vast tracts of the Amazonian forests for staggering profits. The destruction of forests
out of greed is morally not justifiable, but to expect Brazil to preserve the forests in
order to filter the atmosphere of the CO2 that the developed countries such as the
United States of America release into the atmosphere, is neither fair nor just. These
matters were not even on the agenda at the start of the Earth Summit in Rio de
Janeiro in 1992, but the developing countries made sure that it became the main
point of discussion at the summit. The paradox between greed and morality has
been part of all environmental thinking ever since. The legal entrenchment of the
principle that the polluter must pay, is probably the only true advance made in this
regard.

Ubulungiswa bezemvelo: Mhlawumbe kungenzeka leli kube yitemu

okungelula neze ukulichaza. Nakuba itemu elithi ukuphathwa kwemvelo
liphathelene nemiqondo, amathiyori kanye namaqiniso ezesayensi
achazeka kalula, kanti imithetho yezemvelo yona iphathelene
nemithetho ebhalwe phansi, alikho kulawa matemu eliphathelene
nobulungiswa. Itemu elithi ubulungiswa yitemu elingabambeki futhi
elingaqondakali kalula (intangible), elinobunzululwazi (philosophical
concept) elakhelwe phezu kwelinye itemu nalo elinokungabambeki
okufanayo, elibizwa ngezimiso zokuziphatha (ethics). Liphathelene
nalokho okuhle, nalokho okubi, okulungile noma okungalungile, kanye
nokunobulungiswa nokungenabo ubulungiswa. Lezi akuzona neze izinto
ososayensi kanye nabameli abazizwa bekhululekile ngazo futhi
abangasebenza kalula ngazo! Ezimisweni zokuziphatha, ubulungiswa
bubandakanya umgomo wokusebenza ngendlela engachemile futhi
engenakho ukwenzelela, yokuthi amacala afanayo kumele aphathwe
ngendlela efanayo, nokuthi ukwabiwa kwemihlomulo kanye nemithwalo
kumele kungachemi futhi kungenzeleli, futhi isijeziso kumele silingane
nesenzo sokuphulwa komthetho. Umqondo wonkana wobulungiswa
usemqoka kakhulu ezindabeni eziphathelene nemvelo. Abantu
emiphakathini ehlwempu ehlala ezindaweni zasemakhaya ezingxenyeni
eziningi zomhlaba akukho okunye abangakwenza ngaphandle
kokusebenzisa imvelo ebazungezile (bheka i-“environmental resources”
kanye ne-“exploitation”) ukuze bakwazi ukuziphilisa. Ngokuqinisekileyo,
laba bantu badala umonakalo omkhulu impela ngokucekela phansi
imvelo, kodwa-ke yini nje enye abangayenza? Kepha-ke nakuba kunjalo
bathola ukugxekwa okukhulu ngezenzo zabo, okuvela ikakhulukazi
kubavakashi abaphila kahle futhi abadla izambane likapondo abadlula
ngezimoto zabo kulezi zindawo zomphakathi esezicekeleke phansi
ngenkathi besendleleni eya eziqiwini kanye nama eco-lodges abiza imali
eshisiwe futhi amba eqolo (bheka ama-“eco-lodges”). Ingabe kulungile
futhi kunabo yini ubulungiswa lokhu kugxekwa kwabantu abahlwempu?
Abangcolisi bomoya abakhulukazi emhlabeni ngamazwe asethuthukile,
acebile futhi anezimboni eziningi, kepha imithelela emibi yokungcoliseka
komkhathi ivamise ukukhahlameza ikakhulu amazwe ahlwempu
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kunamazwe acebile. Ingabe lokhu kunabo yini ubulungiswa? Izwe lase-

Brazil ligxekwa kakhulu ngokucekela phansi ingxenye enkulu yehlathi
lase-Amazon ngenhloso yokuzitholela inzuzo ephakeme kakhulu.
Ukucekelwa phansi kwamahlathi ngenxa yobugovu yinto engalungile
neze futhi ebonisa ukungaziphathi kahle, kodwa-ke ukulindela ukuthi i-
Brazil yonge futhi ilondoloze amahlathi ngenhloso yokunciphisa
isikhutha se-CO2 emkhathini esikhiqizwe ngamazwe asethuthukile
anjenge-United States of America, akuyona neze into elungile futhi
enobulungiswa. Lolu daba lwalungekho ngisho nakwi-ajenda ngenkathi
kuqala ingqunguthela yamazwe ngamazwe i-Earth Summit eyabe
ibanjwele e-Rio de Janeiro ngowe-1992, kodwa amazwe asathuthuka
aqinisekisa ukuthi luyafakwa njengengxenye yamaphuzu asemqoka
okwakuzoxoxwa ngawo kule ngqungquthela. Kusukela lapho-ke
ukuphikisana okukhona phakathi kobugovu kanye nokuziphatha
ngendlela elungileyo bekulokhu kuyingxenye yakho konke ukucabanga
okuphathelene nemvelo. Ukuqiniswa komthetho ohambisana nomgomo
wokuthi umngcolisi wemvelo kumele akhokhe, mhlawumbe iyona
kuphela inqubekelaphambili ebonakalayo eseyenziwe kuze kube manje
mayelana nalokhu.
Environmental management: A pluri-disciplinary field of scientific inquiry about
the relationship between human-kind and the natural and human-made environment.
The field of study sprang from concern about the state of the global environment and
all local environments, and the effect of human activities on the global or local
environment. It has led to a structured regulatory system of investigation into the
possible impact(s) of human activities on the environment, and a legally enforceable
process of authorisation for proposed developments or projects. In short, it is the
structured regulation of human decision-making about actions that might have a
significant impact on the environment.

Ukuphathwa kwemvelo: Lolu wucwaningo lwezesayensi

olumkhakha-mningi oluphathelene nobudlelwano phakathi kwabantu
nemvelo yoqobo kanye nezinto zemvelo ezakhiwe ngabantu. Lo
mkhakha wokufunda wasungulwa ngenxa yokukhathazeka mayelana
nesimo semvelo emhlabeni jikelele kanye nazo zonke izimo zemvelo
zangaphakathi ezweni ngalinye kanye nomthelela wezenzo zabantu
kwimvelo yomhlaba wonkana kanye nemvelo yezwe ngalinye. Lokhu
sekuholele ekutheni kwakhiwe uhlelo oluhleleke kahle lokulawula
uphenyo oluphathelene nomthelela noma imithelela engaba khona
ebangelwa yizenzo zabantu kwimvelo, kanye nokusungulwa kwenqubo
ephoqelelwa ngumthetho yokugunyazwa kwemiklamo nemisebenzi
ehlongozwayo. Ngamafuphi, lokhu wukulawulwa ngendlela ehlelekile
kwezinqumo ezithathwa ngabantu eziphathelene nezenzo ezingaba
nomthelela omkhulu kwimvelo.
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Environmental monitoring: All the checks, measurements, observations,

inspections and any other data collection techniques used to assess the
environmental impacts of every aspect of a development or activity permitted under
the environmental legislation of a country (see “environmental auditing”). Data is
required for the environmental authority to assess the environmental performance
of a development or activity, and ascertain whether the owner or developer or
holding company is complying with the stipulations and conditions of the
environmental management plan. The necessary data is collected by a wide array of
methods and techniques, and this entire process is called environmental monitoring.
Based on this data, the environmental authority can do the environmental auditing
which the environmental legislation provides for. As an example of the role
environmental monitoring plays in environmental management, the management of
limestone caves can be mentioned. In limestone caves which are open to the public
and form popular tourist attractions (such as those in the Cradle of Humankind world
heritage site) the carbon dioxide (CO2) levels of the air inside the caves are routinely
monitored. Tourists exhale CO2 and limestone is soluble in water saturated with CO2
(which actually is weak carbonic acid). This could cause accelerated weathering in
the caves and some delicate cave features might even be destroyed. Degradation of
these caves might have a serious impact on their tourism potential (see “destination”
and “environmental potential”) and the status of the area as a world heritage site.

Ukuqapha imvelo: Zonke izindlela zokubheka, ukukala, ukubuka,

ukuhlola kanye nazo zonke ezinye izindlela zokuqoqa idatha
ezisetshenziselwa ukuhlola umthelela kwimvelo, kukho konke
okuphathelene nomklamo noma umsebenzi ogunyaziwe ngaphansi
kwemithetho yezemvelo yelizwe elithile (bheka i-“environmental
auditing”). Idatha iyadingeka ukuze isiphathimandla sezemvelo sikwazi
ukuhlola indlela oqhuba ngayo umklamo noma umsebenzi othile
mayelana nokuphathwa kwemvelo, kanye nokuthola ukuthi ingabe
umnikazi noma umthuthukisi noma inkampani elawulayo iyayithobela
yini imigomo nemibandela yohlelo lokuphathwa kwemvelo. Idatha
edingekayo iqoqwa ngezindlela eziningi ezihlukahlukene, futhi le nqubo
ibizwa ngenqubo yokuqapha imvelo. Ngokususela kule datha eqoqiwe,
isiphathimandla sezemvelo singenza ucwaningo lokuhlola umthelela
kwimvelo (environmental auditing) oluhlinzekeliwe emithethweni
yezemvelo. Njengesibonelo sendima edlalwa wukuqapha imvelo
ekuphathweni kwemvelo, lapha singabala ukuphathwa kwama-limestone
caves. Kuma-limestone caves avulelekile emphakathini futhi ayingxenye
yezindawo ezithandwa kakhulu eziheha abavakashi (njengemigede
etholakala e-Cradle of Humankind world heritage site), ahlolwa
ngokuqhubekayo amazinga esikhutha se-carbon dioxide (CO2) emoyeni
otholakala ngaphakathi emgedeni. Abavakashi bakhipha isikhutha i-CO2
futhi i-limestone iyancibilika emanzini agcwele i-CO2 (empeleni okuyi-
carbonic acid engashubile). Lokhu kungasheshisa ukukhumuzeka
komgede futhi kungenzeka kucekeleke phansi ngisho nezinto ezithile
ezibucayi eziyingxenye yomgede. Ukucekeleka phansi kwale migede
kungaba nomthelela omubi ekuhehweni kwabavakashi kule ndawo
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(bheka i-“destination” kanye ne-“environmental potential”) futhi kubeke

engcupheni nesimo sokwamukelwa ngokusemthethweni kwale ndawo
njengesizinda samagugu omhlaba.
Environmental movements: Since the international, all-encompassing
Environmental Movement took off in the USA in the early 1960s, it has spread to
every corner of the globe. Numerous environmental movements and organisations
have been founded internationally and regionally, while innumerable local bodies
have been founded. Instead of supplying a long list of them here, you are advised to
use your study material and this glossary to compile your own list. Starting with the
high-pofile movements such as Greenpeace and ending with your own local
conservancies, you will be surprised to see how long your list is. Remember that
these bodies together constitute a powerful lobby group in every official body such
as provincial or regional governments and also national governments and eventually
on international bodies like the agencies of the United Nations (see “polarisation”).
Strictly speaking, “environmental movements” refer to non-governmental
organisations (NGOs). However, owing to all the pressure applied by these
organisations all countries in the world now have official environmental management
or control bodies. These work hand in glove with the non-governmental movements
and it would be churlish to view the official bodies as separate from the non-
governmental ones. In fact, the environment is probably an exceptional aspect of
human concern since governmental and non-governmental bodies often work
together to try and save our fragile environment.

Imibutho yokulondolozwa nokuvikelwa kwemvelo: Kusukela

ekusungulweni kwawo ngedumela elikhulu ngasekuqaleni kweminyaka
yawo-1960 kwelase-USA, uMbutho Wokulondolozwa Nokuvikelwa
Kwemvelo wamazwe ngamazwe obandakanya zonke izinhlaka
ususabalele waze wafinyelela kuzo zonke izingxenye zomhlaba.
Sekusungulwe imibutho nezinhlangano zemvelo eziningi emhlabeni
kanye nasezifundeni, futhi kusenjalo sekusungulwe nezinhlangano
zendawo (local) eziningi impela. Esikhundleni sokuthi sikuhlinzeke lapha
ngohlu olude lwalezi zinhlangano, sikucebisa ukuthi usebenzise
izinsizakufunda (study material) zakho kanye le-glosari ukuqoqa
amagama ezinhlangano ozowafaka ohlwini lwakho. Uma uqala
ngemibutho edumile njenge-Greenpeace futhi ugcine ngezinhlangano
ezisendaweni yangakini, uzomangala ukuthi lude kangakanani uhlu
lwezinhlangano ongalwenza. Khumbula ukuthi lezi zinhlangano uma
sezizonke zakha iqembu elinamandla lamashoshozela kuzo zonke
izinhlangano ezisemthethweni, njengohulumeni bezifundazwe noma
bezifunda kubandakanya futhi nohulumeni bakazwelonke futhi
ekugcineni kuyofinyelela nasezinhlanganweni zamazwe ngamazwe
ezinjengezinhlangano ezingaphansi kweNhlangano Yezizwe (United
Nations) (bheka i-“polarisation”). Uma sikhuluma iqiniso, “imibutho
yokulondolozwa nokuvikelwa kwemvelo” ichaza izinhlangano ezingekho
ngaphansi kukahulumeni (NGOs). Kodwa-ke, ngenxa yengcindezi evela
kulezi zinhlangano, wonke amazwe emhlabeni jikelele manje
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asenezawo izinhlangano ezisemthethweni zokuphathwa noma

ukulawulwa kwemvelo. Lezi zinhlangano zisebenzisana kakhulu
nemibutho engekho ngaphansi kukahulumeni futhi kungaba yindelelo
ukubheka lezi zinhlangano ezisemthethweni njengezinhlangano
ezihlukile futhi ezingeyona ingxenye yezinhlangano ezingekho
ngaphansi kukahulumeni. Empeleni, imvelo wumkhakha okhethekile
obonisa ukukhathazeka kwabantu, njengoba izinhlangano zikahulumeni
kanye nezinhlangano ezingekho ngaphansi kukahulumeni zivamise
ukusebenza ngokubambisana emzamweni wokuvikela imvelo yethu
entekenteke edinga ukunakekelwa kakhulu.
Environmental potential: An economic appraisal of the ability of the natural
environmental components in a specific area or region to profitably support a certain
type of economic activity. The environmental resources may be able to support one
or more of the following: mining, tourism, settlement, agriculture in the form of animal
husbandry or crop cultivation or both, forestry, fishing, and many more. If the
environment in a specific area has excellent potential to produce food crops, it would
be unwise to use the land for forestry, a golf course, or residential purposes. It would
be environmentally highly irresponsible to convert all scenic, relatively pristine land
into golf courses as is currently the highly profitable practice. Certain attributes such
as the occurrence of exploitable minerals, proximity to a large industrial
development, proximity to a flourishing tourist destination, or being located on the
main road to a popular nature reserve or game park greatly increase the
environmental potential of a stretch of land. The environmental potential of land is
also influenced by the occurrence of archaeological remains and sites on or near the
property, while land located inside or near to an area that is of religious, cultural or
historic importance has a number of options for tourism developments and has,
therefore, a higher potential.

Amandla namathuba ahlinzekwa yimvelo: Lokhu kusho ukuhlolwa

kwekhono namandla ezomnotho ezinto eziyingxenye yemvelo endaweni
ethile noma isifunda, okungenisa imali nenzuzo engasekela umsebenzi
othile ophathelene nezomnotho. Imithombo yemvelo ingakusekela
okukodwa noma ngaphezulu kulokhu okulandelayo: izimayini,
ezokuvakasha, ukuhlaliswa kwabantu, ezolimo emkhakheni
wokuzalaniswa nokuphathwa kwemfuyo noma ukulinywa kwezitshalo
noma kokubili, ezamahlathi, ezokudoba, kanye nokunye okuningi. Uma
imvelo, endaweni ethile, inamandla okuvula amathuba amahle
okukhiqiza izitshalo zokudla, ngeke kube wumqondo omuhle
okusebenzisa lowo mhlaba ukutshala amahlathi, ukwakha inkundla
yegalofu noma ukuhlalisa abantu. Kungaba yisenzo esiwubula
ukuguqula wonke umhlaba onobuhle bendalo obumangalisayo
osesimweni sobuhle bawo esingakaguquki, kwakhiwe izinkundla
zegalofu kulowo mhlaba, ngenhloso yokungenisa inzuzo ephakeme
njengoba kuvamise ukwenzeka esikhathini samanje. Ezinye izibaluli
(attributes) zendawo ezinjengokutholakala kwezimbiwa kuleyo ndawo,
ukusondelana kwayo nesizinda esikhulukazi okwakhiwa kusona
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izimboni, ukusondelana kwayo nesikhungo sabavakashi esichumile,

noma ukuba seduze kwayo nomgwaqo omkhulu oya esiqiwini esidumile
futhi esithandwa kakhulu, kukhulisa amandla emvelo alowo mhlaba.
Ukuba khona kwezizinda eziqukethe izinsalela zasemandulo eduze
kwendawo ethile kunomthelela emandleni emvelo aleyo ndawo, kanti
futhi umhlaba oseduze noma ongaphakathi kwendawo enokubaluleka
okuthile okuphathelene nezenkolo, ezamasiko noma ezomlando
inamathuba amaningana engawasebenzisa okwakha izizinda
zokuvakasha ezinhlobonhlobo, futhi ngalokho leyo ndawo inamandla
emvelo aphakeme.
Environmentalist: A person who is concerned about the negative impact of human
activities on the quality of the natural environment and believes that certain human
actions are degrading some or even all parts of the environment as a global life-
supporting system. Environmentalists profess a worldview and ethical code that the
natural environment should be protected, conserved or even preserved in pristine
condition. Not all environmentalists are equally involved in the world-wide
environmental movement; in fact, their environmental sentiments form a continuum
stretching from those who passively subscribe to attempts at protecting the
environment, to those who are active members of nature conservation and
environmental protection organisations, to the extremist activists who would even go
to provocative and violent means to protect the natural environment (see
“ecocentrism”). There are many different words and terms to describe
environmentalists. Firstly, there are the “shallow greens” who are moderate
sympathisers who will not partake in active protests about an environmental issue.
The less moderate ones who would occasionally even join a public protest to prevent
the destruction of an environmentally important area or asset are called the “greens”
or “greenies”. Many natural scientists belong to this group. A number of scientists
from a variety of sciences were heavily involved in the protection of the area around
the paleontologically important Sterkfontein and Swartkrans caves, and also in the
subsequent declaration of the Cradle of Humankind as a world heritage site. The
“deep greens” (or “bunny huggers” and “tree huggers”) are the extreme
environmental activists who would actively and tirelessly campaign against
developments that would negatively impact on the natural environment, or against
projects that might destroy the habitat of a certain animal or insect. On the extreme
left of the spectrum are the environmental saboteurs and terrorists who do not shy
away from criminality in order to advance their cause (see “ecocentrism”). Three
appropriate examples of deep green, law-abiding environmental activists who lost
their lives as a result of their protests are: Chico Mendez who tried to prevent
injudicious, environmentally unsound and illegal destruction of the large hardwood
trees in the Amazonian forests in Brazil; Ken Saro-Wiwa who actively protested
against the large oil companies’ despoilment of the Niger Delta by dangerous and
environmentally abhorrent oil extraction methods; and Dian Fossey who tried to stop
the ruthless, illegal extermination of the mountain gorillas in Central Africa. All three
of them died – in fact, they were murdered (though Ken Saro-Wiwa’s death is
officially described as “lawful execution”) – as a direct result of their environmental
activism. They have become environmental heroes and martyrs whose
contribution to the current global environmental movement should not be
underestimated.
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Umlondolozi wemvelo: Umuntu okhathazekile ngomthelela omubi

wezenzo zabantu kwikhwalithi yemvelo futhi okholelwa ukuthi izenzo
zabantu ezithile zicekela phansi izingxenye ezithile noma zonke
izingxenye zemvelo, ewuhlelo lomhlaba wonke lokusekela izinto
eziphilayo. Abalondolozi bemvelo bavumelana nombono womhlaba
kanye nenkambiso elungileyo yokuthi imvelo kumele ivikelwe,
ilondolozwe futhi igcinwe isesimweni sayo soqobo. Akubona bonke
abalondolozi bemvelo ababandakanyeka ngokulinganayo embuthweni
wemvelo womhlaba wonke jikelele; empeleni, imibono nemizwa yabo
mayelana nemvelo ihlukahlukene kusuka kulabo abakholelwa ekutheni
kumele kwenziwe imizamo ethile yokuvikela imvelo kube kungekho lutho
abakwenzayo ngalokho, kuye kulabo abangamalungu akhuthele
ezinhlangano zokulondolozwa nokuvikelwa kwemvelo, kuyofinyelela
kwizishoshovu nezidlamlilo ezinganqeni neze ukusebenzisa izindlela
ezibonisa intukuthelo nodlame ukuvikela imvelo (bheka i-“ecocentrism”).
Kunamagama kanye namatemu amaningi ahlukahlukene achaza
abalondolozi bemvelo. Okokuqala, kukhona labo ababizwa ngama-
“shallow greens” abakhombisa ukuzwelana nombono wokuvikelwa
kwemvelo kodwa abangazibandakanyi emibhikishweni yezemvelo.
Kukhona nalabo ababonisa ubushoshovu obukhudlwana impela, ngoba
kwesinye isikhathi bayasukuma babe yingxenye yeminye imibhikisho
yomphakathi yokuvimbela ukucekelwa phansi kwendawo noma impahla
ebaluleke kakhulu kwimvelo, futhi laba babizwa ngama-“greens” noma
ama-“greenies”. Ososayensi bemvelo abaningi bayingxenye yaleli
qembu labalondolozi bemvelo. Kunososayensi abaningana abavela
emikhakheni yezesayensi ehlukahlukene abadlala indima enkulu
ekuvikelweni kwendawo ezungeze imigede yase-Sterkfontein nase-
Swartkrans ebaluleke kakhulu ngenxa yemivukubulo yasemandulo
etholakala lapho, futhi bazibandakanya ekunxenxeni ukuthi i-Cradle of
Humankind imenyezelwe njengesizinda samagugu omhlaba.
Izishoshovu ezibizwa ngama-“deep greens” (noma ama-“bunny
huggers” kanye nama-“tree huggers”) ziyizishoshovu eziyizidlamlilo
zokuvikelwa kwemvelo ezikhankasa ngenkuthalo futhi ezingapheli
amandla ezilwisana nemiklamo yokwakha nokuthuthukiswa kwezindawo
ezithile engaba nomthelela omubi kwimvelo, noma ezilwisana
nemiklamo okungenzeka icekele phansi indawo okuhlala kuyona
izilwane nezilokazane ezithile. Kukhona nezinye izidlamlilo
ezingabashokobezi abacekela phansi izinto, abanganqeni nakancane
ukusebenzisa izenzo zobugebengu ngenhloso yokufeza izinhloso zabo
kanye nokuqhubekisela phambili umzabalazo wabo (bheka i-
“ecocentrism”). Izibonelo ezintathu zezishoshovu ezazithobela umthetho
futhi zingama-deep green ezalahlekelwa yizimpilo zazo ngenxa
yemibhikisho yazo, yilezi: u-Chico Mendez owazama ukuvimbela isenzo
 99

esingenangqondo futhi esingekho emthethweni sokucekelwa phansi

kwemvelo sokugawulwa kwezihlahla ezinkulu zohlobo lwe-hardwood
emahlathini ase-Amazon kwelase-Brazil; u-Ken Saro-Wiwa
owabhikisha ngenkuthalo enkulu ephikisana nokucekelwa phansi kwe-
Niger Delta yizinkampani zikawoyela ezinkulu ezazisebenzisa izindlela
zokumba nokumpompa uwoyela ongahluziwe ezinobungozi futhi
ezinyanyekayo zokulimaza imvelo; kanye no-Dian Fossey owazama
ukumisa ukubulawa nokuqothulwa kwezimfene ezingama-gorilla
ezintabeni zase-Central Africa okungekho emthethweni futhi
okuhambisana nesihluku esikhulu. Zontathu lezi zishoshovu
zalahlekelwa yizimpilo zazo – futhi empeleni zabulawa (nakuba ukufa
kuka-Ken Saro-Wiwa kubizwa “ngokubulawa okusemthethweni” ngoba
wagwetshwa isigwebo sentambo) – ngenxa yobushoshovu bazo kanye
nokushisekela ukuvikelwa nokulondolozwa kwemvelo. Manje
sezingamaqhawe namadelakufa afela imvelo futhi akumele neze
lithathwe kancane futhi libukelwe phansi igalelo labo emzabalazweni
oqhubekayo njengamanje emhlabeni wokuvikela nokulondoloza imvelo.
Environmental resources: In the strictest sense of the term, it refers to all
goods and services we receive from the environment. This broad definition presents
problems as it includes both the natural things and the people in the environment.
Therefore, it includes both natural and human-made goods (see “economic
valuation”). To simplify matters, we usually regard natural goods as environmental
resources. These include the air, water, soil, vegetation, rocks, minerals, the natural
beauty of landscapes, and even a beautiful view of the sea. To ascribe value to
these resources is an extremely difficult process and various different approaches
are used. Some are purely economical, while others take intangibles like natural
beauty into account. Many of these resources are available for free, but to mine gold
or diamonds requires a financial input from us. Similarly, a coastal property with a
sea-view is worth more than one without. Environmental resource valuation is one
of the very important concepts and processes in the fields of environmental
management and environmental law (see “economic valuation”). When it comes to
ownership, these resources present us with even bigger problems. Nobody or no
country can claim ownership of the sky, or the rivers, or the sea or a mountain range.
Nevertheless, we have developed various procedures and systems to define
ownership of natural resources, because we need to resolve serious questions such
as: “who owns the land?”, “who owns the minerals in the Earth’s crust?”, “may your
neighbour (or neighbouring state) pollute the air or the water which blows or flows to
you?”, “can we allow a mine to spoil nature right next to a nature reserve?”, “should
the settling of the landless, poor and destitute in pristine natural areas be allowed?”.
In each state (country), these matters are handled according to the country’s legal
system and power (or will) of the authorities to enforce the law. In certain countries,
regions or areas, one might – by law – under certain circumstances have “a right to”
something like a sea-view and no-one can build a high structure in front of you to
obscure the view. One type of environmental resources that needs extra mention is
what we call the “commons”. These include the atmosphere, the oceans, the fresh
water sources which border on or flow through different regions or countries, and the
grazing lands in communal areas, and so forth. None of these “belongs” to any
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person or entity. They are there to be used by all. Since no-one “owns” them, no-one
takes responsibility for the sustainability of their usage. Most of these resources have
for hundreds of years been exploited (see “exploitation”) by all who used them to a
point of unsustainability, irreversible degradation or even total collapse – it has truly
become the “tragedy of the commons”. The Environmental Movement that sprang
to life in the early 1960s (see “ecocentrism, “ecological citizenship”, “ecological
niche” and “environmentalist”) is largely the child born of this tragedy.
Environmentalism and environmental management, in their essence, strive towards
the saving of the “commons” and to ensure that they are used sustainable.

Izinsiza zemvelo: Ngokwencazelo yoqobo yaleli temu, lisho zonke

izimpahla nezinsizakalo esizithola kwimvelo. Le ncazelo ebanzi isinikeza
inkinga ngoba ikubandakanya kokubili, izinto zemvelo kanye nabantu
abaphila kwimvelo. Okusho ukuthi, ikubandakanya kokubili, izimpahla
zemvelo kanye nezimpahla ezakhiwe ngabantu (bheka i-“economic
valuation”). Ukwenza izinto zibe lula, sivamise ukuthatha ngokuthi izinto
eziyimpahla yemvelo ziyizinsiza zemvelo. Lokhu kubandakanya
umoya, amanzi, umhlabathi, izimila zemvelo, amadwala, izimbiwa,
ubuhle bezintaba namathafa kanye nobuhle bolwandle. Ukuchaza inani
lobugugu (value) balezi zinsiza zemvelo kuyinqubo enzima kakhulu futhi
kusetshenziswa izindlela ezihlukahlukene ukwenza lokhu. Ezinye
izindlela ziphathelene nomnotho nje kuphela, kanti ezinye zibhekisisa
nezinto ezinenani elingakaleki kalula njengobuhle bemvelo. Iningi lalezi
zinsiza litholakala mahhala, kodwa-ke umsebenzi wokumba igolide
noma amadayimane udinga izimali. Ngokunjalo, isakhiwo esisogwini
lolwandle esibonisa ubuhle bolwandle singaphezulu ngokwenani uma
siqhathaniswa nesakhiwo esingalubonisi ulwandle. Ukuhlolwa
kwezinsiza zemvelo ngenye yezinqubo ezisemqoka kakhulu
emkhakheni wezokuphathwa kwemvelo kanye nowezomthetho wemvelo
(bheka i-“economic valuation”). Uma sekuza ngasodabeni lobunikazi,
lezi zinsiza zisinikeza inkinga enkulu impela. Akekho umuntu noma izwe
elingathi lingumnikazi wesibhakabhaka, imifula, ulwandle noma izintaba.
Kepha-ke nakuba kunjalo, sesiqhamuke nezinqubo nezinhlelo
ezihlukahlukene zokuchaza ubunikazi bezinsiza zemvelo, ngoba phela
kuyadingeka ukuthi sikwazi ukuphendula imibuzo eshubile njengokuthi:
“ubani umnikazi womhlaba?”, “ubani umnikazi wezimbiwa ezitholakala
emajukujukwini omhlaba?”, “uvumelekile yini umakhelwane wakho
(noma izwe elingumakhelwane) ukungcolisa umoya ovunguzela
ngakuwe noma amanzi agelezela ngakuwe?”, “kulungile yini ukuthi
sivumele imayini icekele phansi imvelo eseduze kwesiqiwu?”, “kufanele
kuvunyelwe yini ukuhlaliswa kwabantu abangenawo umhlaba,
abahlwempu futhi abantulayo ezindaweni zemvelo ezingakaze
ziphazanyiswe, lapho isimo semvelo silokhu sinjalo njengasekuqaleni?”.
Ezweni ngalinye, lezi zindaba ziphathwa ngokwemithetho yezwe kanye
namandla (noma ukuzimisela) kweziphathimandla ukuphoqelela
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ukuthotshelwa komthetho. Emazweni athile noma izifunda ezithile noma

izindawo ezithile futhi ngaphansi kwezimo ezithile, ngokuvunyelwa
wumthetho, umuntu “unelungelo” lokwakha noma lokuhlala endaweni
ebonisa ubuhle bolwandle futhi akekho umuntu ovumelekile ukwakha
isakhiwo eside esizovimbela abanye abantu bangakwazi ukubona
ulwandle bengaphakathi ezindlini zabo noma ezakhiweni abahlala
kuzona. Olunye uhlobo lwezinsiza zemvelo ezidinga ukuthi sikhulume
ngazo kabanzi yilezo ezibizwa ngama-“commons”. Lokhu
kubandakanya umkhathi, izilwandle, imifula esemngceleni yezifunda
noma amazwe ahlukahlukene noma egeleza idlule ezifundeni noma
emazweni ahlukahlukene kanye namadlelo asezindaweni zomphakathi
lapho kuklabisa khona abantu abahlukahlukene, njalo njalo. Konke lokhu
“akuyona into” engeyomuntu othile noma isikhungo esithile. Lezi yizinto
zomuntu wonke futhi kumele zisetshenziswe yibo bonke abantu.
Njengoba engekho umuntu noma isikhungo esingathi “singumnikazi”
walezi zinto zemvelo, akekho umuntu okwenza kube yisibopho
nomthwalo wakhe ukuqinisekisa ukuthi lokhu kusetshenziswa ngendlela
esimeme ukuze kuhlale isikhathi eside. Iningi lalezi zinsiza zemvelo
selixhashazwe amakhulu ngamakhulu eminyaka (bheka i-“exploitation”)
yibo bonke abantu abazisebenzisayo, kangangokuthi ezinye zalezi
zinsiza ngeke zisatholakala esikhathini eside esizayo, futhi ezinye
sezicekeleke phansi ngendlela engeke isalungiseka kanti ezinye zazo
seziwohloke ngokuphelele – lokhu kuyinhlekelele yoqobo
yokucekeleka phansi kwezinto zemvelo (“tragedy of the commons”).
Umbutho Wezokuvikelwa Nokulondolozwa Kwemvelo owaqubuka
ngasekuqaleni kweminyaka yawo-1960 (bheka i-“ecocentrism,
“ecological citizenship”, “ecological niche” kanye ne-“environmentalist”)
wasungulwa ngenxa yokukhathazeka ngale nhlekelele yemvelo.
Abalondolozi bemvelo, kukho konke abakwenzayo, bazabalazela
ukuhlenga lemi thombo yemvelo engama-“commons” kanye
nokuqinisekisa ukuthi isetshenziswa ngendlela esimeme ukuze
iqhubeke isikhathi eside.
Erosion: The group of denudation processes that wear away the land surface
by mechanical and/or chemical actions. Debris is created by weathering is and
removed by one or more of the agents of erosion, namely glaciers, flowing water
(overland flow, also called surface runoff, and rivers), ocean waves and currents,
wind, and mass movement (such as landslides) caused by gravity (see
“channelization” and “mass wasting”). An agent of erosion containing debris will
abrade (scour) the surfaces over which it moves and the debris particles themselves
will also be worn away by abrasion and attrition (bumping against each other).
Flowing water may also remove material in solution when soluble material, such as
calcium carbonate from limestone and dolomite rocks, is dissolved in the water.
Erosion differs from weathering since erosion includes the transportation of the
weathered material (see “weathering”).
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Ukuguguleka komhlaba: Iqoqwana lezinqubo zokuqothuka

komhlaba okugugula umhlabathi okuzenzekela ngokwemvelo noma
ukuwumphumela wezenzo zabantu kanye/noma ngenxa yezenzo
zamakhemikhali. Izimvithi zakhiwa wukukhumuzeka kwamadwala futhi
zigugulwa noma zisuswe ngama-ejenti okuguguleka komhlaba, okusho,
izinguzunga zeqhwa, amanzi agelezayo (amanzi ahamba ngaphezu
komhlaba abizwa futhi nge-surface runoff, kanye nemifula), amagagasi
nemisinga yolwandle, umoya kanye nokunyibilika komhlabathi nodaka
(landslides) okubangelwa ngamandla omhlaba adonsela phansi izinto, i-
gravity (bheka i-“channelization” kanye ne-“mass wasting”). I-ejenti
yokuguguleka komhlaba equkethe izimvithi izohhudla izindawo edlula
kuzona futhi izinhlayiya zezimvithi nazo zizodleka futhi zihhudluzeke
ngenxa yenqubo yokugudluzeka (ukuhhudluzana nokungqubuzana).
Amanzi agelezayo kungenzeka futhi asuse izinto ezithile eziyingxenye
yengxube ngenkathi izinto ezincibilikayo, ezinjenge-calcium carbonate
yamadwala e-limestone nawe-dolomite, zincibilika emanzini.
Ukukhumuzeka (weathering) kuhlukile ekugugulekeni kwenhlabathi
ngoba phela ukuguguleka kwenhlabathi kubandakanya ukuthwalwa
nokuthuthwa (transportation) kwezinto ezikhumuzekile (bheka i-
“weathering”).
Escarpment: The steep slope that terminates a plateau or any relatively flat or
level upland surface. Escarpments are often spectacular landscape features. The
impressive Drakensberg escarpment as seen from KwaZulu-Natal defines the border
between South Africa and Lesotho and is one of South Africa’s prime tourist
destinations (see “destination”). From Lesotho’s side, however, is it not impressive at
all – in fact, it cannot even be seen! This is the case in all high-lying plateau areas –
everybody down below stares at the escarpments edging the plateaus, but on the
plateau itself there is no escarpment to stare at. Perhaps an even more spectacular
escarpment in South Africa is the Drakensberg escarpment separating the so-called
Highveld and the Lowveld. The rugged escarpment in Mphumalanga and Limpopo
also contains prime tourist destinations, especially for foreign tourists on their way to
the Kruger National Park (see “intervening opportunity”).

I-escarpment: Indawo ewummango noma umthambeka owehlela

kakhulu ophelela ethafeni eliphakeme noma endaweni eqondile.
Izindawo ezingama-escarpments zivamise ukuba yizindawo ezinobuhle
bemvelo obumangalisayo. I-escarpment enhle kakhulu yezintaba
zokhahlamba, ama-Drakensberg, uma ibonwa ngasohlangothini
lwesifundazwe saKwaZulu-Natali iwumngcele phakathi kweNingizimu
Afrika nezwe lase-Lesotho futhi ngenye yezindawo eziphuma phambili
ezithandwa ngabavakashi (bheka i-“destination”). Kepha-ke le ndawo
ayiyinhle uma umuntu eyibona ngasohlangothini lwase-Lesotho –
empeleni ayibonakali ngisho nokubonakala! Lena yinto eyenzekayo
kuzo zonke izindawo ezingamathafa aphakeme – wonke umuntu
osendaweni ephansi uma ebheka phezulu uwabona kahle ama-
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escarpments amahle aphelela emathafeni aphakeme, kodwa uma

esemathafeni akayiboni i-escarpment. Mhlawumbe enye i-escarpment
enhle kakhulu kunalena eshiwo ngenhla, eNingizimu Afrika yi-
escarpment yezintaba ze-Drakensberg ehlukanisa i-Highveld
(iNkangala) ne-Lowveld (indawo eseHlanzeni). I-escarpment
yaseMpumalanga naseLimpopo engamangelengele nayo iqukethe
izindawo eziphuma phambili ezithandeka kakhulu kubavakashi, ikakhulu
abavakashi bakwamanye amazwe abasuke besendleleni elibangise e-
Kruger National Park (bheka i-“intervening opportunity”).
Equity: In Geography, the term “equity” is used in connection with fairness,
reasonableness and impartiality. The term is often used in environmental
management in connection with environmental justice and in environmental impact
assessments, environmental monitoring, environmental auditing, and so forth (see
“environmental justice”, “environmental monitoring” and “environmental auditing”).
These environmental actions should be fair and reasonable and not become witch-
hunts. Nor should environmental impact assessments and analyses be unfair and
disregard the interests and concerns of any interested and affected party (IAPs) (see
“interested and affected parties” and “environmental management”). Equity is
extremely important in the environmental field as money so often gains the upper-
hand over poverty, while the rich and the poor have an equal claim on a healthy and
conducive environment. A forced removal of a poor community in order to build a
golf course on their land is a crude – but unfortunately not uncommon – happening in
our modern world. Is this fair, or reasonable? There is a second sense in which
“equity” may be used in Geography and that is in economic geography when shares
(on a stock exchange) are referred to.

Ukulingana: Kwezejografi, itemu elithi “ukulingana” lisetshenziswa

maqondana nobulungiswa, ukufaneleka kwesenzo esithile kanye
nokungachemi. Leli temu livamise ukusetshenziswa kwezokuphathwa
kwemvelo maqondana nobulungiswa bemvelo futhi liyasetshenziswa
maqondana nokuhlolwa komthelela kwimvelo, ukuqapha imvelo,
ukuhlola umthelela kwimvelo, njalo njalo (bheka i-“environmental
justice”, “environmental monitoring” kanye ne-“environmental auditing”).
Lezi zinqubo eziphathelene nemvelo kumele zibe nobulungiswa futhi
zibe ngezilungile, ezifanelekile futhi akumele zibe yizinqubo zokujezisa
abantu okungabonwa ngaso linye nabo. Futhi ukuhlolwa nokuhlaziywa
komthelela kwimvelo akumele kube yizinqubo ezingenabo ubulungiswa
futhi ezishaya indiva izimfuno nezidingo kanye nezinto ezikhathaza
noma yibaphi abantu abanentshisekelo noma abathintekile (IAPs)
(bheka ama-“interested and affected parties” kanye ne-“environmental
management”). Ukulingana kusemqoka kakhulu emkhakheni wezemvelo
njengoba esikhathini esiningi abantu abanemali begcina sebeshaya
amaphiko phezu kwabantu abahluphekayo, ekubeni abantu abacebile
kanye nalabo abahlwempu benelungelo elilinganayo lokuphila
ngaphansi kwesimo semvelo esikahle futhi esinempilo. Ukususwa
ngoshova komphakathi ohlwempu ukuze kwakhiwe inkundla yegalofu
 104

emhlabeni wabo kuyisenzo esibi futhi esingcolile – kodwa ngelishwa

lokhu sekuyinto evamisile – eyenzekayo kulo mhlaba esiphila kuwona
kulezi zinsuku. Ingabe lokhu kuyisenzo esifanele futhi esinobulungiswa?
Kwezejografi, kukhona nomunye futhi umkhakha okusetshenziswa
kuwona igama elithi “ukulingana”, futhi lowo ngumkhakha wejografi
yezomnotho lapho kuhwetshwa khona ngamasheya (esikhungweni
sokuhwebelana ngamasheya).
Eutrophication: The human-induced chemical and biological changes in the
water of a fresh-water body such as a river, lake or dam. Eutrophic water is heavily
polluted and contains high concentrations of various chemical compounds, and
especially phosphate and nitrate compounds. These chemical substances are plant
nutrients that enhance the growth of plants that grow in the water itself (for instance
waterlilies and algae), as well as the riparian vegetation (for example reeds and
bamboo) that grow on the floodplain and banks of fresh-water bodies. Most of these
plants are strong growing pioneer plants that flourish on the additional nutrients in
the nutrient enriched eutrophic water. The vigorous growth of the plants lessens the
oxygen content of the water. Consequently, fish, crabs, waterbirds, and many other
forms of aquatic life would struggle to survive or will simply die and disappear from
the ecosystem (see “ecology”, “ecosystems” and “wetlands”). Hence, an entire
ecosystem could be vastly changed or even destroyed by eutrophication. Recreation
activities such as boating, waterskiing and angling are hardly possible in water
bodies that are totally covered by water plants. This may have a dramatic negative
effect on the tourist potential of an entire region. The origins of the pollutants include
fertilizers used for crop cultivation that are washed into the water by runoff, industrial
waste water which is pumped into some water body or other, and inadequate
sewerage systems which result in the deliberate or inadvertent deposition of raw
human waste (excreta) in some nearby water body. Eutrophication is one of the most
difficult and expensive environmental problems to solve. A rather spectacular
example of eutrophication is found in the Hartebees Poort Dam in Gauteng. The
water in the dam contains very high concentrations of nitrates and phosphates. To
make matters worse the surface of the dam is usually completely covered by non-
indigenous hyacinths which have accidently washed into the dam many years ago
and flourish because of the nutrient-rich, polluted water of the dam. Despite
numerous ongoing attempts to eradicate the hyacinths, by means of an array of
methods, no successful way to permanently solve the problem has yet been found.

Iyuthrofikheshini: Izinguquko eziphathelene namakhemikhali noma

izinto eziphilayo ezibangelwe yizenzo zabantu emithonjeni yamanzi
angenawo usawoti (fresh-water bodies) njengomfula, ichibi lamanzi
noma idamu. Uhlobo lwamanzi olunika impilo ezimileni zasemanzini
(Eutrophic water) lunokungcoliseka okukhulu futhi luqukethe umthamo
omkhulu wezingxubevange zamakhemikhali, ikakhulukazi
izingxubevange ezingama-phosphate noma ama-nitrate. Lezi zinto
ezingamakhemikhali yizakhi zezimila zemvelo ezilekelela ukukhula
kwezimila zemvelo ngaphakathi emanzini (isibonelo, amazibu
[waterlilies] nolwelwe [algae]), kanye nezimila zemvelo zasogwini
(isibonelo, umhlanga kanye noqalo) ezimila emathafeni ezikhukhula
 105

(floodplain) noma osebeni lwemithombo yamanzi angenawo usawoti.

Iningi lalezi zitshalo ngama-pioneer plants akhula ngamandla futhi
akhuliswa kakhulu yizakhi ezengeziwe ezitholakala kuma-eutrophic
water aqukethe izakhi eziningi. Ukukhula ngamandla kwalezi zitshalo
kunciphisa oksijini emanzini. Umphumela walokhu wukuthi izinhlanzi,
izinkalankala, izinyoni zasemanzini kanye nezinye izinto eziphila
emanzini zikuthola kunzima ukuphila emanzini futhi ezinye zazo ziyafa
bese zishabalala kwi-ekhosistimu (bheka i-“ecology”, “ecosystems”
kanye nama-“wetlands”). Ngakho-ke, i-ekhosistimu yonkana ingaguquka
kakhulu noma icekeleke phansi ngenxa ye-yuthrofikheshini. Imidlalo
yokungcebeleka nokuzijabulisa ephathelene nokuntweza ngezikebhe
enjenge-boating, waterskiing kanye ne-angling ngeke neze yenzeke
kahle emachibini amanzi agcwele izitshalo zasemanzini. Lokhu kungaba
nomthelela omubi esifundeni sonkana ngoba kungenza kube nzima
ukuheha abavakashi. Umsuka wezinto ezingcolisa amanzi ubandakanya
umanyolo noma izivundisi ezisetshenziselwa ukulima izitshalo
ezigugulwa ngamanzi ahamba phezu komhlaba angcolile aphuma
ezimbonini, angena emachibini noma emifuleni, kanye nezinhlelo
zokuthuthwa kwendle ezingasebenzi ngendlela efanele, okuholela
ekutheni amanzi aqukethe indle yabantu angene emachibini noma
emifuleni eseduzane, okungaba yisenzo esenziwa ngabomu noma-ke
mhlawumbe esenzeke ngephutha noma kungaqondiwe. Iyuthrifikheshini
ngenye yezinkinga zemvelo okunzima kakhulu ukuzixazulula futhi lokho
kudinga imali eningi impela. Esinye sezibonelo ezimangalisayo
zeyuthrifikheshini sitholakala edamini i-Hartebees Poort Dam e-
Gauteng. Amanzi kuleli damu aqukethe umthamo omkhulu kakhulu
wama-nitrates nama-phosphates. Okwenza isimo sibe sibi kakhulu
wukuthi ingxenye engaphezulu yedamu ivamise ukuvalwa ngokuphelele
wuhlobo lwezimbali okungezona zendabuko ezibizwa ngama-hyacinths
ezaguguleka ngephutha zangena edamini eminyakeni eminingi edlule
futhi zikhula ngamandla ngenxa yamanzi edamu angcolile futhi aqukethe
izakhi eziningi ezikhuthaza ukukhula kwezitshalo. Nakuba kwenziwa
imizamo eminingi eqhubekayo yokuqeda izimbali ezingama-hyacinths,
ngokusebenzisa izindlela ezihlukahlukene, ayikatholakali indlela
ezokuqeda ngokuphelele futhi unomphela ukukhula nokusabalala
kwalezi zimbali kuleli damu.
Exploitation: The over-use and abuse of any resource, be it physical or
human. Overgrazing of fields, over-cultivation of croplands and removal of all the
vegetation from forested areas will reduce them all to barren, unproductive stretches
of eroded and degraded land. The over-use of a water source for irrigation or for
mining or for the dilution of polluted water, will either deplete the source or pollute it
to such a degree that it becomes useless. Human resources such as factory or mine
workers can also be exploited and that is sure to lead to labour unrest, strikes and
production loss. Nearly all exploitation has one aim, namely quick profit, and nearly
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all stem from one human foible, namely greed. The only exceptions are where
poverty forces people to exploit their land, vegetation and water resources. However,
all exploitation has a common end, namely environmental degradation, unproductive
land, increased poverty, hunger and misery.

Ukuxhashazwa kwemvelo: Ukusetshenziswa ngokweqile kanye

nokuxhashazwa kwanoma iyiphi insiza yemvelo, kungakhathalekile
ukuthi lokhu kwenzeka ngokwemvelo noma ngenxa yezenzo zabantu.
Ukuklabisa imfuyo ngokweqile emadlelweni, ukulinywa kwamasimu
ngokweqile kanye nokususwa kwazo zonke izimila zemvelo ezindaweni
ezinamahlathi kuyokwenza ukuthi zonke lezo zindawo zigcine
seziyizindawo eziqothukile, eziwugwadule, ezicekeleke phansi futhi
okungasamili lutho kuzona. Ukusetshenziswa ngokweqile komthombo
wamanzi ngenhloso yokunisela kanye nasezimayini noma njengomzamo
wokunciphisa ukungcola emanzini angcolisekile, kungaholela ekutheni
uphele nya umthombo wamanzi, noma amanzi angcoliseke kakhulu
agcine eseyinto engasasebenziseki. Abasebenzi, njengabasebenzi
basemafemini noma emayini, nabo bangaxhashazwa futhi nakanjani
lokho kuholela ezinxushunxushwini zabasebenzi, iziteleka kanye
nokulahleka komkhiqizo. Cishe zonke izinhlobo zokuxhaphaza
zinenhloso eyodwa, ukwenza inzuzo esheshayo, futhi cishe zonke lezi
zinhlobo zokuxhaphaza zisukela kubuthakathaka bomuntu obubodwa
nje, ubugovu. Isimo esisodwa esingangeni ngaphansi kobugovu
nomzamo wokuzenzela inzuzo esheshayo yilapho ububha buphoqelela
abantu ukuthi baxhaphaze umhlaba wabo nezimila zemvelo kanye
nemithombo yamanzi. Kodwa-ke, konke ukuxhashazwa kwemvelo
kunesiphelo esifanayo, okuwukucekeleka phansi kwemvelo, umhlaba
ongavundile futhi ongamilisi lutho, ukukhula kwamazinga obubha, indlala
kanye nosizi.
Extinction: The complete disappearance of a species from the global ecosystem.
For millions of years natural forces of environmental change had resulted in the
extinction of innumerable species all over the Earth (on land as well as in the
oceans), but it had also led to the origin of many new species as organisms adapted
to their changed environment. Extinction happens when a species (either animal or
plant) cannot evolve (or change) fast enough to adapt to a changing environment.
This is what happened with the dinosaurs some 70 million years ago when the global
climate changed and the animals and plant species of the time could not survive the
drier, warmer conditions. Most of the fossil animals found in the caves of the Cradle
of Humankind World Heritage sitehad been extinct for thousands or even millions of
years. The global environment is always changing, and that will always lead to the
natural extinction of certain animals and plants. Global natural environmental
change usually happens slowly, and many species can change and adapt to a
changed environment, provided the change takes place over thousands or millions of
years. However, for the past few hundred years, human activities have been the
greatest force for accelerated extinction. Some species have been hunted to
extinction, the famous dado and the Cape quagga are examples of animals that went
 107

extinct over the last few hundred years. All species of rhinoceros in Africa and Asia
seem doomed to extinction. The most active and dangerous human-induced
(anthropogenic) cause of extinction is habitat loss, habitat degradation (see
“environmental degradation”) and habitat fragmentation that humans bring about.
Owing to habitat loss the blue swallow of Kaapsche Hoop in South Africa is very
nearly extinct. With less than 30 breeding pairs the genetic pool is so small that it
would probably not be able to escape extinction. Habitat loss is also responsible for
the fact that two species of South Africa’s cranes are teetering on the brink of
extinction. South Africa’s national bird, the blue crane, was very nearly extinct when
a number of nongovernmental, environmental organisations stepped in with a
successful protection and breeding project. The species is still threatened, but there
is hope that it might still be rescued.

Ukushabalala kwezinto eziphilayo: Ukushabalala ngokuphelele

kwezinto eziphilayo ku-ekhosistimu yomhlaba. Eminyakeni eyizigidi
ngezigidi edlule, izimo zemvelo eziguqukayo zaholela ekushabalaleni
kwezinhlobo eziningi zezinto eziphilayo emhlabeni wonke jikelele
(ngaphakathi emhlabeni kanye nasolwandle), futhi lokhu kwaholela
ekuvumbukeni kwezinye izinto eziphilayo, ngenkathi izinto eziphilayo
ziguqula isimo sazo ukuze sihambelale nezimo zemvelo eziphila kuyo
eziguqukile. Ukushabalala kwezinto eziphilayo kwenzeka uma izinto
eziphilayo (izilwane noma izitshalo) zihluleka ukuguquka ngokushesha
ukuze isimo sazo sihambelane nesimo semvelo esiguqukayo.
Eminyakeni eyizigidi ezingama-70 eyadlula kwenzeka into enjengalena
kuma-dinasaurs ngenkathi kuguquka isimo sezulu emhlabeni,
okwaholela ekutheni izilwane kanye nezitshalo ezaziphila ngaleso
sikhathi zihluleke ukuphila ngaphansi kwesimo sezulu esomisile futhi
esishisayo. Iningi lezinsalela zezilwane ezitholakala emigedeni ye-
Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site ngeyezilwane ezashabalala
eminyakeni eyizinkulungwane ngezinkulungwane noma eyizigidi
ngezigidi eyadlula. Imvelo yomhlaba ilokhu iguquke njalo, futhi lokho
kuyohlala njalo kuholela ekushabalaleni kwezilwane kanye nezitshalo
ezithile. Ukuguquka kwesimo semvelo emhlabeni kuvamise
ukwenzeka kancane kancane, futhi izinto eziphilayo eziningi ziyakwazi
ukuguquka ukuze isimo sazo sihambelane nokuguquka kwesimo
semvelo, kodwa-ke lokhu kwenzeka kuphela uma ukuguquka kwesimo
semvelo kwenzeka kancane kancane esikhathini esiyizinkulungwane
ngezinkulungwane noma izigidi ngezigidi zeminyaka. Kepha kule
minyaka engamakhulu ambalwa edlule, izenzo zabantu nemisebenzi
yabo sekusheshise kakhulu ukushabalala kwezinto eziphilayo. Ezinye
izinto eziphilayo zizingelwe ngabantu zabulawa zaze zaphela, futhi
ezinye zezibonelo zezilwane ezishabalalile kule minyaka engamakhulu
ambalwa edlule yinyoni edumile i-dodo kanye nedube i-Cape quagga.
Kubukeka sengathi zizogcina ngokushabalala zonke izinhlobo
zobhejane kwizwekazi lase-Afrika kanye nase-Asia. Imbangela enkulu
futhi enobungozi yokushabalala kwezinto eziphilayo okubangelwa
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yizenzo zabantu wukulahleka nokucekeleka phansi kwendawo lapho

kuphila khona izilwane nezimila zemvelo (bheka i-“environmental
degradation”) kanye nokuhlakazeka kwaleyo ndawo yemvelo,
okubangelwa yizenzo zabantu. Ngenxa yokulahleka kwendawo okuphila
kuyona izilwane nezimila zemvelo, izinkonjane eluhlaza yase-Kaapsche
Hoop eNingizimu Afrika sezisondele kakhulu esimweni sokushabalala.
Njengoba sekusele iqoqwana lezinkonjana ngazimbili ezizalanayo
ezingaphansi kwama-30, leli qoqwana lincane kakhulu kangangokuthi
kuzoba lukhuni kakhulu ukuthi ziphunyuke ekushabalaleni. Ukulahleka
kwendawo okuphila kuyona izilwane nezitshalo yikona futhi osekwenze
ukuthi izinhlobo ezimbili zenyoni i-crane zisondele kakhulu esimweni
sokushabalala. Inyoni yesizwe yaseNingizimu Afrika indwe (blue crane),
yacishe yashabalala ngaphambi kokuthi izinhlangano zemvelo
ezingekho ngaphansi kukahulumeni zingenelele ngomklamo wazo obe
yimpumelelo enkulu wokuvikelwa nokuzalaniswa kwalolu hlobo
lwenyoni. Nakuba kunjalo, lolu hlobo lwenyoni lusesengozini
yokushabalala, kodwa-ke likhona ithemba lokuthi ingahlengeka
ekushabalaleni.
Extrapolation: The transfer of quantitative, empirical research results from one
study area to another area without first testing whether the results apply in that
area or not. In many sciences – and especially the spatial sciences such as
Geography – this is an extremely risky thing to do. In certain specialisation fields of
Geography, extrapolation is scientifically justifiable, but when research results are
based on primary, area-specific data extrapolation should only be done with the
greatest of care, or not at all, unless there is strong theory-based justification for
doing it. Geographers should never assume that what applies in one area also
applies in another. Unlike interpolation (see “interpolation”) where justifiable intra-
areal generalisation is commonly used, extrapolation is inter-areal generalisation
and is less commonly used because it is more difficult to justify scientifically. In
Geography, both intra-areal and inter-areal generalisation should be handled with
care. Remember that Geography is the study of spatial variability and the
idiographic or uniqueness principle should always be born in mind (see
“geodiversity” and “spatial interpolation”).

I-extrapolation: Ukudluliswa kwemiphumela yocwaningo olugxile

ebuningini nasezintweni ezibonakele isuswa emkhakheni wocwaningo
owodwa isiwa komunye ngaphandle kokuhlola kuqala ukuthi leyo
miphumela iyahambelana yini nalowo mkhakha noma cha. Kumasayensi
amaningi – futhi ikakhulukazi kumasayensi aphathelene nendawo,
anjengeJografi – ukwenza lokho kuyinto enobungozi obukhulu.
Kweminye imikhakha ekhethekile yeJografi, ukusetshenziswa kwe-
extrapolation kuyafakazeleka ngokwesayensi, kodwa-ke uma
imiphumela yocwaningo isuselwa kwidatha eyisisekelo eqondene
nendawo ethile i-extrapolation kumele yenziwe ngokucophelela
okukhulu, noma-ke nje iyekwe ingenziwa, ngaphandle uma kukhona
 109

isizathu esiqinile esisuselwa kwithiyori ethile esifakazela isidingo sokuthi

yenziwe. Izazi zeJografi akumele neze zicabange ukuthi into eqondene
nomkhakha othile ingasebenza nakweminye imikhakha. Ngokungafani
ne-interpolation (bheka i-“interpolation”) lapho kuvamise
ukusetshenziswa izitatimende ezisuselwe kwimiphumela yalokho
okutholwe wucwaningo ezintweni ezibonakele ngaphakathi endaweni
eyodwa (intra-areal generalisation), i-extrapolation yona iphathelene
nezitatimende ezisuselwe kwimiphumela yalokho okutholwe
wucwaningo ezintweni ezibonakele ezindaweni ezihlukahlukene (inter-
areal generalisation) futhi ayivamisile ukusetshenziswa ngoba kunzima
kakhulu ukufakazela ngokwesayensi isidingo sokusetshenziswa kwayo.
KuJografi, kokubili i-intra-areal kanye ne-inter-areal generalisation
kumele kuphathwe ngokucophelela. Khumbula ukuthi i-Jografi yisifundo
esiphathelene nokuhlukahluka ngokwendawo futhi umgomo
wobunjalo obuhlukile kwezinye izinto noma wobunjalo
obunobungqayizivele kumele ukhunjulwe ngaso sonke isikhathi
kulokhu (bheka i-“geodiversity” kanye ne-“spatial interpolation”).
F
Fauna: The association of animals living in a certain place at a certain time. It
includes all the animals that form part of an ecosystem at a specific time before the
system changes and some animals move out or die out. At that stage, the
association of animals in the ecosystem changes. It may include various species
ranging from large animals such as elephants or whales to insects and even to
microscopic, single celled forms of animal life like zooplankton.

Iqoqo lezilwane eziphila endaweni ethile (fauna): Ubudlelwano

bezilwane eziphila ndawonye endaweni ethile ngesikhathi esithile. Lokhu
kubandakanya zonke izilwane eziyingxenye ye-ekhosistimu ngesikhathi
esithile ngaphambi kokuba i-ekhosistimu iguquke futhi kube nezilwane
eziphumayo kuleyo ekhosistimu noma ezifayo. Kuleso sigaba,
buyaguquka ubudlelwano bezilwane eziphila kuleyo ekhosistimu. Leli
qoqo lezilwane lingabandakanya izilwane ezinhlobonhlobo, kusukela
ezilwaneni ezinkulu njengezindlovu noma imikhomo kuya
kwizinambuzane kanye nezilwanyazana ezincane kakhulu njengalezo
ezinengqamuzana eyodwa (single celled) imbala, njenge-zooplankton.
Feedback loop: A lesser, repetitive cycle within a larger open system of energy
and matter flow. Most open systems contain numerous feedback loops. Such
systems function on a response-control principle. At a certain point in a system,
enough energy or matter (that is, potential energy) flow forward in the system to
exceed a threshold-limit and trigger a reactive process in the system. A simple
example is the feedback loop of refugees or illegal immigration from one country to
another. A number of Zimbabweans moved to South Africa when conditions in
Zimbabwe became too difficult to endure. They were not turned back, but granted
asylum or temporary resident rights and started to make a new living. This
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encouraged other Zimbabweans to do the same, which reinforced the whole

feedback loop. A constant inflow of Zimbabweans into South Africa has ensued. This
is a typical positive feedback loop. Had the first arrivals been turned back, a
sustainable loop would not have developed and a negative feedback loop would
have developed with less and less Zimbabweans daring to move to South Africa,
and those already in South Africa would have tried to get out of the country. In
natural systems, feedback is even more common. The destruction of vegetation in
an area causes accelerated run-off, which leads to the increased washing away of
the topsoil and ends in an accelerated removal of the surface layer. When an
eroding slope is revegetated, a negative feedback loop immediately kicks in, and soil
erosion is then halted and might be under control. Correlation diagrams
(correlation structures) are usually used to graphically represent the feedback
loops in a system.

Umjikelezo webuyisambiko: Umjikelezo omncane

ophindaphindekayo ngaphakathi ohlelweni olukhulu lwamandla (energy)
kanye nokuqhubeka kwento ethile. Iningi lezinhlelo ezivulekile liqukethe
imijikelezo webuyisambiko eminingana impela. Izinhlelo ezinjalo
zisebenza ngomgomo we-response-control principle. Eqophelweni
elithile ohlelweni, amandla noma into ethile enomthamo owanele
(okusho, into okungenzeka ibe ngamandla) iyaqhubeka iye phambili
ohlelweni ize idlule ngaphezulu komkhawulo ophezulu obekiwe futhi
ngalokho iqalise inqubo ezama ukuphikisana nalokhu. Isibonelo esilula
wumjikelezo webuyisambiko wababaleki bakwamanye amazwe noma
izifikanamthwalo ezingekho emthethweni ezisuka kwelinye izwe
ziyohlala kwelinye. Kunabantu base-Zimbabwe abaningi abafudukela
eNingizimu Afrika ngenkathi bebona isimo senhlalo eZimbabwe
singasabekezeleleki. Abazange babuyiselwe emuva ezweni labo, kodwa
banikezwa imvume yokukhosela kuleli lizwe noma ilungelo lesikhashana
lokuhlala kuleli futhi baqala ukwenza imizamo yokuziphilisa kuleli lizwe.
Lokhu kwakhuthaza nabanye abantu baseZimbabwe ukuthi nabo benze
into efanayo, okuyisenzo esaqinisa umjikelezo webuyisambiko wonkana.
Kwaqala kanjalo-ke ukuthutheleka ngobuningi kwabantu baseZimbabwe
eNingizimu Afrika. Lolu wuhlobo lomjikelezo webuyisambiko obizwa
nge-positive feedback loop (umjikelezo webuyisambiko ovumela
ukuqhubeka kwenqubo ethile). Ukube zabuyiselwa emuva lezo
zifikanamthwalo ezafika kuqala kuleli, kwakungeke kuqhubeke
ukuthutheleka kwabantu baseZimbabwe kuleli, ngakho-ke
kwakuyokwenzeka i-negative feedback loop (umjikelezo
webuyisambiko onqanda ukuqhubeka kwenqubo ethile) futhi
babezoba yingcosana kakhulu abantu baseZimbabwe ababezoba
nesibindi sokuza eNingizimu Afrika, futhi nalabo abase bevele
bengaphakathi eNingizimu Afrika babezozama ukuphuma baphele
lapha, babuyele ezweni labo. Ezinhlelweni zemvelo, ibuyisambiko yinto
evamile kakhulu. Ukucekeleka phansi kwezimila zemvelo endaweni
ethile kuholela ekutheni amanzi ageleze kalula phezu komhlabathi,
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okuyisenzo esiholela ekugugulekeni komhlabathi ongaphezulu, ovundile

futhi lokhu kuholela ekutheni ekugcineni kusheshe ukuguguleka
kongqimba lomhlabathi ongaphezulu. Uma kuphinda kumila izimila
zemvelo endaweni eyehlelayo, kwenzeka i-negative feedback loop
ngokushesha, futhi kuyanqandeka nokuguguleka komhlaba, futhi
ngaleyo ndlela kulawuleke. Imidwebo yokuhambelana nokuhlobana
kwezinto, ebizwa ngama-correlation diagrams (izinhlaka
zokuhambelana kwezinto) ivamise ukusetshenziswa ukwenza
imijikelezo yebuyisambiko ohlelweni oluthile.
Fertility: The quality of being able to reproduce. In Geography this term is
mostly used in connection with human populations and population increase. In most
sciences fertility is regarded as the ability of every female member of the population
to produce offspring. In some populations females produce less offspring than in
others. The fertility rate is the measure to express the number of offspring every
female is bound to produce. Of course, the figures are averages and therefore are
expressed in decimals and do not apply to each and every female. The total fertility
rate (TFR) is the number of babies every woman in the population is expected to
have. The present world fertility rate is 3,1. Since this is a global average it does not
convey much information about any one specific area or country. In most African
countries women often give birth to eight or eleven children, but in other countries
they have one or two or three children. In China they had for many years not been
allowed to have more than one baby (this prohibition has now been lifted). The
fertility rate does not necessarily indicate the population growth rate, as infants and
children might die, but the average number of children every woman is expected to
have, is a good indication of how fast the population might be growing, and it is a
handy statistic to compare different populations.

Ukuba nenzalo: Ukuba sesimweni sokukwazi ukuzala. KuJografi, leli

temu lisetshenziswa ikakhulukazi uma kukhulunywa ngenani labantu
kanye nokukhula kwaleli nani. Kumasayensi amaningi, ukuba nenzalo
kuthathwa njengekhono namandla awo wonke amalungu omphakathi
esifazane okuthola abantwana. Kweminye imiphakathi abesifazane
bathola inani labantwana elingaphansi kwenani elitholakala kweminye
imiphakathi. Izinga lokuzala liyisikali sokubonisa inani labantwana
okumele batholwe ngowesifazane ngamunye. Nembala, lawa manani
ayizilinganiso nje, ngakho-ke aboniswa ngokwamaqhezu noma
amadesimali (decimals) futhi awaqondene nabo bonke abantu
besifazane. Izinga lenzalo eliphelele (TFR) yinani labantwana
okulindeleke ukuthi litholwe ngowesifazane ngamunye emphakathini.
Njengamanje izinga lenzalo emhlabeni lime ku-3,1. Njengoba leli nani
liyisilinganiso somhlaba wonke alinikezi ulwazi olwanele mayelana
nendawo eyodwa ethile noma izwe elithile. Emazweni amaningi ase-
Afrika abesifazane bathola abantwana abayisishiyagalombili kuya
kwishumi nanye, kepha kwamanye amazwe bathola umntwana oyedwa
noma ababili noma abathathu. Kwelase-China sekuphele iminyaka
eminingi bengavumelekile abantu ukuba nabantwana abevile koyedwa
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(kodwa-ke usususiwe lo mkhawulo). Izinga lenzalo alibonisi izinga

lokukhula kwesibalo sabantu ezweni, njengoba kunokwenzeka zishone
izinsana nabantwana, kodwa libonisa isilinganiso senani labantwana
okulindeleke ukuthi owesifazane ngamunye abathole, futhi liyinkomba
enhle yokuthi inani labantu ezweni lingakhula ngesivinini esingakanani,
futhi liyithuluzi eliwusizo kakhulu lokwenza izibalo zokuqhathanisa
amanani abantu ezindaweni ezihlukahlukene.
Flora: The association of plants that live collectively in a certain place at a
certain time. All the plants that form part of an ecosystem at a specific time, before
the system changes and some plants wither or die out; at that stage, the association
of plants in the ecosystem changes. It may include various species ranging from
large plants such as a baobab tree to small or even to single-celled forms of plant life
like phytoplankton.

Iqoqo lezitshalo eziphila endaweni ethile (flora): Ubudlelwano

bezitshalo eziphila ndawonye endaweni ethile ngesikhathi esithile.
Lokhu kubandakanya zonke izitshalo eziyingxenye ye-ekhosistimu
ngesikhathi esithile, ngaphambi kokuba i-ekhosistimu iguquke futhi kube
nezitshalo ezibunayo noma ezifayo; kuleso sigaba, buyaguquka
ubudlelwano bezitshalo eziphila kuleyo ekhosistimu. Leli qoqo lezitshalo
libandakanya izitshalo ezinhlobonhlobo kusukela ezitshalweni ezinkulu
njengesihlahla somkhomo esikhulukazi (i-baobab) kuya ezitshalweni
ezincane kakhulu njengalezo ezinengqamuzana eyodwa (single celled)
imbala, njenge-phytoplankton.
Food security: The assurance that there will always be enough food for
everybody in the world. Two hundred years ago, Thomas Malthus predicted that the
world population would run out of food in the (then) not too distant future. However,
for 200 years we have been able to produce far more than enough food for all. New
technologies, better varieties of crop plants, irrigation to turn previously non-
productive land into croplands, and policies to incentivise commercial agriculture
have resulted in a huge increase in global food produced since the so-called Green
Revolution of the 1950s. Unfortunately, more than half of the world population do not
have enough food or are literally starving, but the reasons for that are political and
economical, not a shortage of food. We currently produce far more than enough food
to feed every man, woman and child over and over, but in Asia and especially Africa,
millions of people are at starvation level. There is a large discordance between
production and availability of food. Food security has become a field of study and the
United Nations even has an agency to encourage food production and distribution,
although it experiences serious difficulties to ensure the provision of food to starving
masses in certain African countries. The challenge for the future is not the production
of enough food, but the distribution of available supplies.

Ukutholakala kokudla okwanele: Isiqinisekiso sokuthi njalo kuyohlala

kunokudla okwanele wonke umuntu emhlabeni. Eminyakeni
engamakhulu amabili edlule, u-Thomas Malthus wabikezela ukuthi
abantu emhlabeni bayophelelwa wukudla esikhathini esifushane
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esizayo. Kodwa-ke, sekuphele iminyaka engama-200 sikhiqiza ukudla

okungaphezulu kwalokho okudingwa ngumuntu wonke. Ubuchwepheshe
obusha, izinhlobo zezitshalo ezingcono, ukuniselwa kwamasimu
abengakwazi ukukhiqiza ukudla esikhathini esedlule, kanye
nezinqubomgomo zokuhlinzeka ngezibonelelo zokukhuthaza abalimi
abakhulu abathengisayo sekuholele ekutheni ukhuphuke kakhulu
umthamo wokudla okukhiqiziwe emhlabeni kusukela ngezikhathi ze-
Green Revolution ngeminyaka yawo-1950. Ngelishwa-ke, kunabantu
abangaphezu kwesigamu sabantu abakhona emhlabeni abangenakho
ukudla okwanele noma ababhuqwa yindlala, kodwa-ke izizathu zalokhu
ziphathelene nezepolitiki kanye nezomnotho, futhi lokhu akubangelwa
wukushoda noma ukuntuleka kokudla. Njengamanje sikhiqiza ukudla
okungaphezulu kakhulu kokudla okudingekayo ukuphakela bonke
abantu abakhona emhlabeni ngokuphindaphindekile, kodwa-ke e-Asia,
futhi ikakhulukazi kwelase-Afrika, bayizigidi ngezigidi abantu
abasezingeni labantu ababhuqwa yindlala. Kunegebe elikhulukazi
phakathi kokudla okukhiqizwayo kanye nokutholakala kokudla.
Ukutholakala kokudla okwanele sekuwumkhakha wesifundo futhi
iNhlangano Yezizwe inophiko olusungulelwe ukukhuthaza ukukhiqizwa
nokusatshalaliswa kokudla, nakuba lolu phiko luhlangabezana
nezingqinamba ezinkulu ekuqinisekiseni ukuhlinzekwa kokudla kubantu
abaningi ababhuqwa yindlala emazweni athile ase-Afrika. Inselelo
yesikhathi esizayo akukhona ukukhiqiza ukudla okwanele, kodwa
wukusatshalaliswa kokudla okukhona.
Forest decline: The degradation and ultimate destruction of natural forests or
cultivated plantations by a number of natural causes, but largely by human activities.
Natural climate changes or a disease or pest or some animals might destroy forests.
Throughout human history we have witnessed a few such cases. Long, unusually
cold or warm periods have destroyed a few historically recorded forested areas in
North America and Europe. Fungi and weevils have destroyed sections of large
needle-leaved forests over the last three decades, but we now have chemicals and
biological controls to stem these declines. The savannah forests in Tsavo, Kenya,
were destroyed by elephant overpopulation together with long term drought, but then
elephants too died, and now nature is recovering and a new balance has been
established. Lava flows and wildfires have done great harm to certain sections of
forests, but they are fast recovering. Injudicious logging of hardwood trees in the
Amazon basin, the Congo basin and South East Asia cause irreparable forest
damage. The natural forests in Tasmania and Madagascar have also been seriously
damaged by logging. In North America and Western Europe vast parts of pine and
spur forests have died back as a result of industrial air pollution and acid rain (see
“acid rain” and “air pollution”). Seen globally, forests have declined and shrank as a
result of human activities and it is an environmental issue of great concern since
forests are our “oxygen factories”.

Ukuncipha kwamahlathi: Ukucekeleka phansi kwamahlathi emvelo

noma amahlathi atshaliwe okulandelwa wukushabalala kwamahlathi
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ngenxa yezimbangela zemvelo eziningana, kodwa ikakhulukazi ngenxa

yezenzo zabantu. Isimo sezulu esiguquguqukayo noma isifo esithile
noma isinambuzane esiwuhlupho noma isilwane esithile
kungawabhubhisa amahlathi. Emlandweni wonke wabantu, sesibone
izigameko eziningi ezifana nalezi ezingenhla. Izinkathi zonyaka ezinde
ezihambisana nokubanda noma ukushisa okungajwayelekile kubhubhise
amahlathi ambadlwana impela e-North America nase-Europe, futhi lokhu
kuyinto eqoshiwe nasemlandweni. Kule minyaka engama-30 edlule
isikhunta (fungi) kanye nezimpehlwa (weevils) sekucekele phansi
izingxenye ezinkulu zamahlathi anezihlahla ezinamaqabunga acijise
okwenaliti, kodwa-ke manje sesinawo amakhemikhali kanye nezindlela
zebhayoloji zokunqanda lokhu kucekeleka phansi nokuncipha
kwamahlathi. Ama-savannah forests ase-Tsavo, kwelase-Kenya,
acekeleke phansi ngenxa yezindlovu eziningi ngokweqile kuleya ndawo
kuhlangene nesomiso esadonsa isikhathi eside, kodwa-ke njengamanje
imvelo isiqalile ukuvuseleleka nokubuyela esimweni sayo sakudala futhi
sekune-ekhosistimu entsha. Udaka olushisayo oluqubuka
kwizintabamlilo kanye nemililo yequbula sekudale umonakalo omkhulu
ezingxenyeni ezithile zamahlathi, kodwa-ke nakuba kunjalo lawo
mahlathi nawo aseqalile ukubuyela ngesivinini esimweni sawo sakudala.
Ukugawulwa kwezihlahla zohlobo lwe-hardwood emahlathini ase-
Amazon, nasemahlathini ase-Congo kanye nase-South East Asia kudala
umonakalo omkhulu emahlathini, futhi ongeke neze usalungiseka.
Amahlathi emvelo ase-Tasmania kanye nawase-Madagascar
asecekeleke phansi kakhulu ngenxa yokugawulwa kwezihlahla. E-North
America kanye nase-Western Europe izingxenye ezinkulu zamahlathi
kaphayini (pine) kanye nama-spur forests sekuphelile ngenxa
yokungcoliseka komoya okubangelwa yizimboni kanye nezimvula ezine-
asidi (bheka i-“acid rain” kanye ne-“air pollution”). Uma sibheka isimo
sawo emhlabeni jikelele, amahlathi asenciphile ngenxa yezenzo zabantu
kanye nemisebenzi yabo futhi lena yinkinga yemvelo ekhathaza kakhulu
ngoba phela amahlathi “yizimboni zethu ezikhiqiza umoya
esiwuphefumulayo, i-oksijini”.
Fossil fuel: All fuels derived from the fossilisation of living organisms. Three
main types can be distinguished, namely: a) coal, coke (very high quality coal), and
brown coal (low quality coal), b) oil and oil shale, and c) gas (such as methane). The
first group is typically derived from plant organisms that are deposited in shallow
fresh-water swamps and marshes, covered by sediments and under high pressure
are turned into coal over millions of years. The second group derives from
microscopic sea animals that die, sink to the bottom, are covered by ocean
sediments and over thousands or millions of years under the influence of high
pressure, the organic material turns into various forms of fuels, such as oil, oil shale
and kerosene. Gas is associated with both of the groups. All fossil fuels are
hydrocarbon compounds (that is, various combinations of hydrogen and carbon). All
fossil fuels form over very long periods, and if we depleted all the available reserves,
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we cannot expect to have newly formed resources after a number of years. The
chemical composition of all fossil fuels determines that the burning of these fuels will
release carbon and hydrogen compounds into the atmosphere.

Iziphehlamandla ezimbiwa phansi: Zonke iziphehlamandla ezivela

kwizinsalela zezitshalo nezilwane zasemandulo ezilondolozekile
ngaphansi komhlaba. Zintathu izinhlobo ezinkulu esingazibala, okuyilezi
ezilandelayo: a) amalahle, i-coke (okuwuhlobo lwamalahle
olunekhwalithi ephakeme) kanye namalahle ansundu (okuwuhlobo
lwamalahle olunekhwalithi ephansi), b) uwoyela ne-oil shale, kanye c)
negesi (njenge-methane). Iqembu lokuqala livela ezitshalweni
ezazifakwe emaxhaphozini amanzi angenawo usawoti futhi angashoni
phansi kakhulu, ezazimbozwe yinzika nezicucu (sediments) futhi
ezaguquka eminyakeni eyizigidi ngezigidi ngenxa yengcindezi enkulu
zaba ngamalahle. Iqembu lesibili livela kwizilwanyazana ezincane
zasolwandle ezafa zazika zaya phansi ekujuleni kolwandle, ezambozwa
yinzika nezicucu zezinto ezitholakala olwandle futhi ngenxa yengcindezi
enkulu eminyakeni eyizigidi ngezigidi izinsalela zezilwanyazana
zaguquka zaba yizinhlobo ezihlukahlukene zeziphehlamandla,
njengowoyela, ne-oil shale kanye ne-kerosene. Igesi ihlobene nawo
womabili amaqembu. Zonke iziphehlamandla ezimbiwa phansi
ziyingxubevange ye-hydrocarbon (okusho, izinhlanganisela
ezihlukahlukene ze-hydrogen kanye ne-carbon). Zonke iziphehlamandla
ezimbiwa phansi zakheka esikhathini eside kakhulu impela, futhi uma
sesizisebenzise zaze zaphela zonke lezo ezikhona njengamanje, ngeke
silindele ukuthi sithole ezintsha emva kweminyaka embadlwana. Ngenxa
yamakhemikhali akhona kuzo zonke lezi ziphehlamandla ezimbiwa
phansi zikhiqiza i-carbon kanye ne-hydrogen ekhuphukayo iyongena
emkhathini.
G
Genetically manipulated organism (GMO): A genetically manipulated, or
genetically modified organism is a “new” living plant or animal that has been created
in a laboratory by scientists by means of some deliberate interference with the
chromosomes of an existing plant or animal. The chromosomes in the DNA of any
organism are the proteins that carry the genetic identity of the organism. Any
alteration of the chromosomes of an organism changes it into a different (“new”)
organism. GMO technology does not entail an alteration of the chromosomes of a
mature individual organism to create an altered mature individual organism – that is
what happens in science fiction movies. In reality the chromosomes of DNA material
from individual organisms are altered and new individuals are then created from this
DNA. GMO technology is relatively new and has only been developed over the last
two decades. It is ethically questionable and still very controversial. Deep ecologists
find GMO technology totally unacceptable (see “ecocentrism” and
“environmentalist”). GMO technology should not be confused with the time-tested,
deliberate, breeding and cultivation of new varieties of existing species by
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propagating the multiplication of a natural mutant (an unexpected variant) of a

species or by the crossbreeding of different varieties of one and the same species or
different but closely related species of the same organism. These latter processes of
variant and species creation might as well have happened in nature without any
human involvement. Since time immemorial people have created (bred) variants of
existing plants and animals. Since the 1950s scientists have created numerous new
varieties of plants and animals that constitute the main varieties of commercial
agriculture in the world today. The high-production, pest resistant, drought resistant
and cold resistant variants of grain crops currently planted in all parts of the world
today have all been bred or refined from existing species. Without these variants we
would not be able to feed the world population. Environmentalists do not find it
objectional when new variants and species are bred or created without direct
interference with the chromosomes of any organisms, but they object vehemently to
the creation of GMOs. Whether GMOs are ever going to be generally accepted, is
still a strongly debated issue.

Into ephilayo eshintshwe izakhi zayo zofuzo ngobuchwepheshe

(GMO): Into ephilayo eshintshwe izakhi zayo zofuzo
ngobuchwepheshe yisitshalo noma isilwane “esisha” esiphilayo
esakhiwe elabholethri ngososayensi ngokuthi bashitshe ngabomu izakhi
zofuzo (chromosomes) zesitshalo noma isilwane esikhona njengamanje.
Izakhi zofuzo ze-DNA (ulibofuzo) yanoma iyiphi into ephilayo
ngamaphrotheyini athwala ubunjalo bofuzo lwento ephilayo.
Ukushintshwa kwanoma yiziphi izakhi zofuzo zento ephilayo
kuyayishintsha ibe yinto ephilayo ehlukile (“entsha”). Ubuchwepheshe
be-GMO abubandakanyi ukushintshwa kwezakhi zofuzo zento ephilayo
esikhulile ngokweminyaka (mature) ukuze kwakhiwe enye into ephilayo
eshintshiwe esikhulile – lokho kwenzeka kuphela kumafilimu
ebhayisikobho ezinganekwane zesayensi. Into eyenzeka ngokwempela
nangokweqiniso wukuthi izakhi zofuzo ze-DNA ezivela entweni ngayinye
ephilayo ziyashintshwa bese kwakhiwa izinto eziphilayo ezintsha
kusebenzisa leyo-DNA eguqulilwe. Ubuchwepheshe be-GMO
busewumkhakha omusha impela futhi buthuthukiswe kuphela kule
minyaka engama-20 edlule. Kusenongabazane mayelana nokuthi lokhu
kuyinto elungile yini futhi kusenokuphikisana okukhulu ngalokho. Izazi
ze-ekholoji ejulile (Deep ecologists) zibubona buyinto engalungile neze
ubuchwepheshe be-GMO (bheka i-“ecocentrism” kanye ne-
“environmentalist”). Ubuchwepheshe be-GMO akumele buphanjaniswe
nokuzalaniswa nokulinywa kwezinhlobo ezintsha zezinto eziphilayo,
osekuphele iminyaka ngeminyaka kwenziwa ngabomu, ngokusabalalisa
ukuphindaphindeka kwezinto ezithile eziphilayo ezigugukele
ngokwemvelo (uhlobo obelungalindelekile lwento ephilayo eguqukile)
noma-ke okwenzeke ngokuzalaniswa kwezinto eziphilayo zohlobo
olufanayo noma ezihlukile kodwa ezinokuhlobana okuthile. Lezi zinqubo
okukhulunywa ngazo lapha ngenhla zokwakhiwa kohlobo olwehlukile
lwento ephilayo zingazenzekela ngokwemvelo ngaphandle
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kokubandakanyeka nokungenelela kwabantu. Kusukela emandulo,

abantu bebakha noma bezalanisa izinhlobo ezihlukahlukene zezitshalo
kanye nezilwane ebezikhona ngaleso sikhathi. Kusukela ngeminyaka
yawo-1950 ososayensi sebakhe izinhlobo eziningi zezitshalo nezilwane
ezintsha okuyizona ezisetshenziswa kakhulu emhlabeni kulezi zinsuku
emkhakheni wezabalimi asebethethukile abathengisayo. Izitshalo
ezisanhlamvu ezinomkhiqizo ophezulu futhi ezikwaziyo ukumelana
nezinambuzane eziwuhlupho nesomiso kanye nokubanda, ezitshalwayo
emhlabeni wonke kulezi zinsuku, zakhiwe ngokususela ezitshalweni
ebezivele zikhona. Ngaphandle kwalezi zinhlobo zezitshalo nezilwane,
besingeke sikwazi ukuhlinzeka ngokudla kubo bonke abantu abakhona
emhlabeni. Abalondolozi bemvelo kabaphikisani nokwakhiwa noma
ukuzalaniswa kwezinhlobo zezitshalo nezilwane ezintsha uma
zingaguqulwanga izakhi zofuzo zanoma yisiphi isitshalo noma isilwane,
kodwa baphikisana kakhulu nokwakhiwa kwama-GMO. Kusazoba yinto
edala impikiswano enkulu impela ukuthi ama-GMO ayogcina
esemukelekile yini kubo bonke abantu kanye nezinhlaka zonkana.
Genetic engineering: The manipulation of any organism’s genetic material
through either selective breeding or recombinant genetic material or DNA (see
“genetically manipulated organism”). Recombinant DNA are techniques by which
DNA molecules are extracted from different living organisms and chemically joined
together in order to “create’’ a different organism. A rather grisly, but perfectly true
example is that DNA from an animal can be extracted and recombined (fused) with
DNA from an insect or a bacterium. It might sound like Hollywood science fiction, but
the technology to do it does in fact exist. Many people, action groups and even
scientists regard these techniques as morally unacceptable and ethically
inexcusable. Many people do not eat food containing genetically modified organisms
or GMOs (see “genetically manipulated [modified] organisms”). GMOs are constantly
negatively discussed in the popular media; it definitely does not receive favourable
media coverage. Environmental activists are completely opposed to both the
technology used in the creation of GMOs and human consumption of GMO food.
Whether GMOs are really detrimental to human health has yet to be proved.

Ukushintshwa kwezakhi zofuzo zento ephilayo: Ukushintshwa

kwezakhi zofuzo zanoma iyiphi into ephilayo ngokuzalanisa
ngokukhethekile izinhlobo ezithile noma ngokusebenzisa inhlanganisela
yezakhi zofuzo noma i-DNA (bheka i- “genetically manipulated
organism”). Inhlanganisela ye-DNA yizindlela ezisetshenziswayo
zokukhishwa kwamamolekhyuli e-DNA ezintweni eziphilayo
ezihlukahlukene bese ehlanganiswa ngokusebenzisa inqubo
yokulumbanisa amakhemikhali ukuze “kwakhiwe” into ephilayo ehlukile.
Isibonelo salokhu esithusayo, kodwa esiyiqiniso, wukuthathwa kwe-DNA
esilwaneni esithile ihlanganiswe ne-DNA yesinambuzane noma
yegciwane elithile. Lokhu kuzwakala njengenganekwane yefilimu
lezesayensi lase-Hollywood, kodwa ngempela bukhona ubuchwepheshe
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bokwenza lokhu. Abantu abaningi, amaqembu ezishoshovu kanye

nososayensi imbala bazibona njengento engalungile nakancane lezi
zindlela zokuguqula izakhi zofuzo zezinto eziphilayo, okungafanele neze
yenziwe. Abantu abaningi abakudli ukudla okuqukethe izinto eziphilayo
ezishintshwe izakhi zofuzo noma ama-GMO (bheka ama-“genetically
manipulated [modified] organisms”). Emithonjeni yabenzidaba edumile
kuvamise ukukhulunywa kabi ngama-GMO; futhi kuyinto ecace
ngokuphelele ukuthi awakutholi ukusekelwa emithonjeni yezindaba.
Izishoshovu zokuvikelwa nokulondolozwa kwemvelo ziyaphikisana
nokusetshenziswa kobuchwepheshe ekwakhiweni kwama-GMO futhi
azivumelani nokuthi abathu badle ukudla okunama-GMO.
Abukatholakali ubufakazi obuqanda ikhanda bokuthi ngempela ama-
GMO anobungozi empilweni yomuntu.
Gentrification: The process of revival and rejuvenation of old and decayed
urban neighbourhoods. Gentrification seems to be part of the normal development
history or cycle of large cities all over the world. Usually it is the old, historical,
original city centre and central business district or CBD (see “central business
district”), old harbour and wharf areas, and the oldest residential districts that fall into
disuse, decay and dereliction. The homeless, drug pushers, addicts, and prostitutes
often occupy such areas, and consequently vice and squalor thrive. The schools and
churches also fall into disrepair since most of the people have moved out to the
newer, more modern and affluent suburbs relatively far from the old CBD. However,
at a certain stage the private and professional sectors of a city’s economy as well as
the most affluent of its population, often in co-operation with the urban officialdom,
decide to renovate the derelict CBD. Old buildings are restored and turned into up-
market residential premises and prestigious shops and offices, while many old
houses are restored and fitted with modern and expensive amenities. The very rich,
the celebrities and the most reputable professionals move their business and their
residential and recreational pursuits back to the now very posh, rejuvenated CBD
and wharf areas. There are many examples of such urban developments all over the
developed world. In South Africa, the Waterfront in Cape Town, the docklands in
Durban and the old CBD of Johannesburg are typical examples, although the
rejuvenation (or gentrification) of the Johannesburg CBD is still underway.

Ukuvuselelwa kwezindawo ezindala: Inqubo yokuvuselelwa

kwezindawo zasemadolobheni ezindala futhi eseziwohlokile.
Ukuvuselelwa kwezindawo ezindala kubonakala njengengxenye
yomlando ojwayelekile wentuthuko noma umjikelezo wamadolobha
amakhulu emhlabeni wonke jikelele. Ngokuvamile, lokhu yizindawo
ezindala ezinomlando omude ezisenkabeni yedolobha kanye nesifunda
sebhizinisi esiyinhloko noma i-CBD (bheka i-“central business district”),
amachweba amadala nezikhumulo zemikhumbi, kanye nezifunda
ezindala kakhulu zokuhlalisa abantu ezigcina zingasasetshenziswa,
seziwohlokile futhi sezifana nezindawo ezilahliwe. Kulezi zindawo
kuvamise ukuhlala abantu abangenamakhaya, abathengisi
bezidakamizwa, imilutha yezidakamizwa kanye nabaqwayizi, futhi
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ngenxa yalokho-ke lapha kugcina sekudlange kakhulu imikhuba emibi

nezenzo ezingcolile. Izikole kanye namasonto nakho kuyaba sesimweni
sokuwohloka njengoba abantu bethutha kulezi zindawo bayohlala
ezindaweni ezintsha, zesimanjemanje, lapho behlala khona
ngokunethezeka, kude nama-CBD amadala. Kodwa-ke, ngokuhamba
kwesikhathi imikhakha ezimele kanye neyochwepheshe nongoti kanye
nabantu abadla izambane likapondo, bavamise ukuthatha isinqumo
sokuvuselela lezi zindawo ezingama-CBD eseziwohlokile,
ngokubambisana neziphathimandla zedolobha. Izakhiwo ezindala
ziyavuselelwa, ziguqulwe zibe yizindawo zokuhlalisa abantu abahola
imiholo ephakeme futhi kwakhiwe nezitolo namahhovisi kanokusho, futhi
nezindlu ezindala ziyavuselelwa zifakwe izinsizakalo zesimanjemanje,
ezimba eqolo. Abantu abadla izambane likapondo, nosaziwayo kanye
nalabo abenza imisebenzi ekhethekile yobungoti bayathutha ezindaweni
abebehlala kuzona bayovula amabhizinisi namakhaya abo kanye
nezindawo zokungcebeleka kulama CBD kanye nezikhumulo
zemikhumbi zikanokusho esezivuselelwe kabusha. Ziningi izibonelo
zezindawo ezisemadolobheni ezinjengalezi emazweni asethuthukile
emhlabeni wonke jikelele. ENingizimu Afrika singabala i-Waterfront e-
Cape Town, isikhumulo semikhumbi saseThekwini kanye ne-CBD
endala yaseGoli, nakuba usaqhubeka umsebenzi wokuvuselelwa
(nokulungiswa kabusha) kwe-CBD endala yaseGoli.
Geodiversity: The variation of geographical attributes or properties or
characteristics (variables) from one place or time to another. The global
environment displays countless differences (variation) from any region to any other
region, which indicate that conclusions made in one area cannot summarily be
extrapolated to similar areas all over the world. No two desert regions are exactly the
same in all respects; no two equatorial forests are perfectly the same. The same
applies to all natural regions and areas. Similarly, cities differ much from one another
and also from area to area within any city itself. The characteristics of each and
every area on Earth – however small or large it may be – consists of a unique set of
attributes (characteristics) and we may never assume that whichever applies to one
area or region would apply to any other similar area or region. Different areas or
regions may have certain attributes in common, but they might have even more
attributes that differ completely from the one area to another. Therefore, we can
never assume that regions with more or less comparable characteristics or
collections of characteristics, could simply be regarded as being “the same”. Spatial
differentiation should always be borne in the geographer’s mind. The fact that there
is so much geodiversity on Earth constitutes the idiographic principle (uniqueness
principle) in Geography. This essential and extremely important principle holds that
there are no two places that are exactly the same. The idiographic principle is of the
utmost importance in Geography where we are always generalising and grouping
like to like and looking for similarities in small local areas as well as on the large
global scale. True enough, certain regions or areas might have a lot of attributes in
common, but there will still be numerous characteristics that differ somewhat or
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largely. All of this is covered by the basic geographical principle of spatial variation
and variability (see “spatial variation”).

Ukwahluka kwezinsiza zemvelo: Ukwahluka kwezici nobunjalo

bezinto ngokwendawo, noma ngokwesikhathi. Imvelo yomhlaba ibonisa
umehluko omningi impela kusuka esifundeni esithile kuya kwesinye,
okuyinto ebonisayo ukuthi imiphumela etholakale ocwaningweni kanye
izinqumo ezithathiwe mayelana nendawo ethile ngeke kuvele
kusetshenziswe nje kwenye indawo efanayo emhlabeni wonke jikelele.
Azikho izifunda eziwugwadule ezimbili ezifana ngokuphelele kuyo yonke
imikhakha; awekho amahlathi amabili angama-equatorial forests afana
ngokuphelele, ngokunjalo nazo zonke izindawo kanye nezifunda
zemvelo. Ngokufanayo, idolobha ngalinye lihlukile kwamanye futhi
nezindawo ezingaphakathi kwedolobha nazo zihlukile. Izici kanye
nobunjalo bendawo ngayinye emhlabeni – kungakhathalekile ukuthi
incane kanjani – inezinto kanye nezimo eziningi ezingafani ezitholakala
kuleyo ndawo kuphela futhi akumele neze sicabange ukuthi into
eyenzeka noma etholakala endaweni noma esifundeni esithile iyenzeka
noma iyatholakala nakwezinye izindawo noma izifunda ezifanayo.
Izindawo noma izifunda ezihlukahlukene zingaba nezici ezifanayo,
kodwa futhi kungenzeka zibe nezici eziningi impela ezingafani
nakancane nalezo ezikwezinye izindawo noma izifunda. Ngakho-ke,
asikwazi ukuvele sicabange ukuthi “ziyafana” lezo zifunda ezicishe zibe
nezici ezifanayo noma iqoqwana lezici ezifanayo. Kumele kuhlale
kuyinto ekhona njalo emqondweni wesazi sejografi ukuhluka
ngokwendawo. Ukuba khona kokuhluka kwezinsiza zemvelo okuningi
kangaka emhlabeni kwakha umgomo wobunjalo obuhlukile kwezinye
izinto (wobunjalo obunobungqayizivele) kuJografi. Lo mgomo
obaluleke kakhulu kangaka ugxile kwelokuthi azikho izindawo ezimbili
ezifana ncamashi. Umgomo wobunjalo obuhlukile usemqoka kakhulu
kuJografi lapho sivamise ukucabangela noma ukwenza izitatimende
ezibanzi futhi siqoqelanise ndawonye izinto ezifanayo futhi sibheke izici
ezifanayo ezindaweni ezincane ezingaphakathi ezweni elithile kanye
nasezindaweni ezinkulukazi emhlabeni jikelele. Kuyiqiniso impela ukuthi
zikhona izifunda noma izindawo ezingaba nezici eziningi ezifanayo,
kepha noma kunjalo kusazoba khona nezinye izici eziningi ezithanda
ukwehluka kancane noma-ke ezihluke kakhulu. Konke lokhu
kungaphansi komgomo wejografi oyisisekelo wokwahluka
ngokwendawo (bheka i-“spatial variation”).
Geographic coordinate system: A reference system by means of which the
exact location of any point or object on the Earth’s surface can be described
accurately. Since the Earth is not a flat plane, but a spherical globe, a Cartesian grid
could not be used (see “Cartesian coordinates”). Consequently, geographers had to
develop a similar system of reference, but one that would work on a globe. A grid
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works perfectly to describe location since each point’s position on the grid is
described by two unique coordinates. Hence geographers developed a grid that
would work on a sphere. The geographical coordination system consists of an
imaginary network, or grid, of two sets of straight lines. One set runs in a north-
south-north direction around the globe, and the other in an east-west-east direction.
The north-south lines are called lines of longitude (or meridians), and the east-
west lines are the lines of latitude (or the parallels). The prime meridian, or
Greenwich Meridian (because it runs through Greenwich in England) line is the 0°
meridian dividing the Earth into an eastern and a western hemisphere. The main
parallel or 0° line of latitude is the equator which divides the Earth into a northern
and a southern hemisphere. The north pole and the south pole are respectively the
90°N and the 90°S latitudes and they are not lines, but points. When the absolute
location (see “location”) of a place (point) is described, the latitudinal location
coordinate is given first and secondly the longitudinal location coordinate, for
instance 25°S32°E, or 18°N72°W (see “absolute location” under “location”.) This is
commonly – but unofficially – referred to as the Lat-Lo rule. One exception to this
rule is the the large scale maps of the British Ordinance Survey where longitude is
given first and latitude is given secondly. On these maps lines of longitude are called
“eastings” and lines of latitude are called “northings”.

I-Geographic coordinate system: Uhlelo olusetshenziselwa

ukuthola ngendlela enembayo futhi eqondile ukuthi indawo noma into
ethile itholakala kuphi emhlabeni. Njengoba umhlaba ungelona ithafa,
kepha uyindingilizi, ngeke isebenziseke i-Cartesian grid (bheka i-
“Cartesian coordinates”). Ngenxa yalokho-ke, kwadingeka ukuthi izazi
zejografi zakhe uhlelo olunjengalolu, kodwa lona bekumele kube wuhlelo
oluzokwazi ukusebenza kwigilobhu (globe). Igridi isebenza kahle
kakhulu ukuchaza nokubonisa ukuthi ikuphi indawo ethile njengoba
isimo sephoyinti ngalinye kwigridi sichazwa ngama-coordinates amabili
ahlukile. Ngakho-ke izazi zejografi zathuthukisa igridi ezokwazi
ukusebenza kwindingilizi. I-geographical coordination system yakhiwe
yinethiwekhi ebonakala ngamehlo engqondo, noma igridi,
yamaqoqwana amabili emigqa eqondile. Iqoqwana elilodwa lizungeza
igilobhu liqonde enyakatho-eningizimu-enyakatho, bese kuthi leli elinye
liqonde empumalanga-entshonalanga-empumalanga. Imigqa esuka
enyakatho iye eningizimu ibizwa ngemigqa yenkombamhlaba
ilongithudi (noma ama-meridians), kanti-ke imigqa esuka
empumalanga iye entshonalanga yona ibizwa ngemigqa
yenkombamhlaba ilathithudi (noma ama-parallels). I-prime meridian,
noma umugqa we-Greenwich Meridian (ngoba inqamula phakathi kwe-
Greenwich e-England) ume ku-0° meridian ehlukanisa umhlaba kabili,
ube yingxenyemhlaba (ihemisfiye) esempumalanga kanye
nengxenyemhlaba esentshonalanga. I-parallel eyinhloko noma u-0°
womugqa welathithudi yinkabazwe (equator) ehlukanisa umhlaba kabili
ube yingxenyemhlaba esenyakatho kanye nengxenyemhlaba
eseningizimu. Izingxenye lapho kuphelela khona umhlaba, i-north pole
(ingxenye yokuphela komhlaba esenyakatho) kanye ne-south pole
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(ingxenye yokuphela komhlaba eseningizimu) zitholakala kulathithudi

engu-90°N kanye no-90°S ngokulandelana kwazo futhi aziyona imigqa
kodwa zingamaphoyinti. Uma kuchazwa isimo soqobo noma
indawobukhoma emile (absolute location) (bheka i-“location”) yendawo
(iphoyinti) ethile, kunikezwa kuqala i-latitudinal location coordinate bese
kulandela i-longitudinal location coordinate, isibonelo 25°S32°E, noma
18°N72°W (bheka i-“absolute location” ngaphansi kwe-“location”.)
Ngokuvamile – kodwa hhayi ngokusemthethweni – lokhu kubizwa
ngomthetho i-Lat-Lo rule. Into eyodwa ephambene nalo mthetho
ngamabalazwe anesilinganiso esikhulu (large scale maps) e-British
Ordinance Survey lapho ilongithudi inikezwa kuqala bese kulandela
ilathithudi. Kulawa mabalazwe imigqa yelongithudi ibizwa ngama-
“eastings” futhi imigqa yelathithudi ibizwa ngama-“northings”.
Global warming: A general increase in global temperatures over periods of at
least several decades believed to be caused by increased levels of so-called
“greenhouse gasses” (such as CO2, CO and methane [CH4]) released into the
atmosphere by human activities. These gases “trap” the longwave radiation from the
Earth to the atmosphere and, therefore, the Earth-atmosphere system retains more
of the heat energy than it would if the greenhouse gasses were absent. The theory
holds that the global climate is changing at an unusually fast rate and warmer
climatic conditions now prevail all over the Earth than did a hundred years ago. This
does not mean that the everyday atmospheric temperature all over the Earth is
notable higher than it was 50 to 100 years ago, so proving this is a difficult task and
since there are always abnormally cold winters to disprove the theory (an example is
the exceptionally cold winters of 2010-2011 and 2012-2013 in both Europe and
North America). However, the average temperatures over the past 30 or so years
seem to be higher than a 100 years ago. This slow warming of the climate is largely
blamed on the anthropogenic (human-made) actions such as releasing large
volumes of carbon-rich compounds into the atmosphere (see “air pollution”), but
proving these assumptions is extremely difficult and many people remain
unconvinced. Global climate is undoubtedly changing, but that is a normal process
which had been happening repetitively (actually continuously) for thousands of
years. In fact, the composition of the Earth’s atmosphere has continuously been
changing ever since the creation of the Earth some 4 500 million years ago. The
current phase of warming is often ascribed to human activities that cause
atmospheric pollution as a result of the combustion of fossil fuels, but many
creditable scientists believe that human actions have a very small to negligible effect
compared to what nature itself is doing. Statistics irrefutably show that the CO 2
(carbon dioxide) concentration in the atmosphere has increased by approximately
15% since 1890 and the Earth’s temperature has increased by 0,5˚C during the
twentieth century, but the cause is by no means certain. Owing to industrial
development, enormous volumes of greenhouse gasses have been released into the
atmosphere since about 1850. The question is whether this caused the higher
temperatures now being recorded. In other words, are human activities responsible
for the recorded warming of the atmosphere? We cannot prove it, but we make the
assumption that they are. Since global warming could have many serious impacts on
human life on Earth, we take the notion of global warming seriously enough to hold
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one international conference after the other in order to curb the release of
greenhouse gasses, but little success has yet been achieved.

Isivuvu somhlaba: Ukukhula kwamazingakushisa emhlabeni

okwenzeka okungenani esikhathini esingamashuminyaka amaningana
impela, okukholakala ukuthi kubangelwa ngamazinga aphakeme
esikhutha neminye imimoya engcolile ebizwa ngama-“greenhouse
gasses” (njenge-CO2, CO kanye ne-methane [CH4]) ekhiqizwa yizenzo
nemisebenzi yabantu ikhuphuke iye emkhathini. Le mimoya “ibamba”
amagagasi amade emisebe yokushisa esabalalayo (radiation) evela
emhlabeni eya emkhathini futhi ngenxa yalokho-ke, uhlelo lomhlaba
nomkhathi lugcina amandla okushisa okuningi okungaphezulu kwalokho
obeluzokubamba ukuba ayengekho ama-greenhouse gasses. Ithiyori
iveza ukuthi isimo sezulu emhlabeni siguquka ngesivinini esikhulu
ngendlela engajwayelekile futhi isimo sezulu esishisayo sesigcwele
kuwo wonke umhlaba uma kuqhathaniswa nesimo esabe sikhona
eminyakeni eyikhulu eyadlula. Lokhu akusho ukuthi izingakushisa
lansukuzonke emhlabeni lingaphezulu kakhulu kunalokho elabe liyikona
eminyakeni engama-50 kuya kweyi-100 eyadlula, ngakho-ke
kungumsebenzi onzima ukufakazela lokhu njengoba kuvamile ukuthi
njalo kube nezikhathi lapho kubanda khona ngendlela engajwayelekile
ebusika okwenza kube nzima ukufakazela le thiyori (isibonelo salokhu
wubusika obabubanda ngendlela exakile ngowezi-2010-2011 kanye
nowezi-2012-2013 ezwekazini lase-Europe kanye nase-North America).
Kodwa-ke, isilinganiso sezingakushisa elimaphakathi elibonakale kule
minyaka edlule engama-30 noma ngaphezulu sikhombisa ukuba
ngaphezudlwana kwezingakushisa elabe likhona eminyakeni eyi-100
edlule. Lokhu kukhula kancane kancane kokushisa kwesimo sezulu
kubangelwa ikakhulukazi yizenzo zabantu njengokukhiqizwa
komthamo omkhulukazi wezingxube eziqukethe ikhabhoni eningi
uyongena phezulu emkhathini (bheka i-“air pollution”), kodwa-ke
kunzima kakhulu ukufakazela nokuqinisekisa lo mbono futhi basebaningi
impela abantu abangakukholwa lokhu. Noma kanjani akungabazeki
ukuthi siyaguquka isimo sezulu emhlabeni, kodwa lokhu kuyinqubo
ejwayelekile ebilokhu yenzeka futhi iphindaphindeka (empeleni
ngokuqhubekayo) eminyakeni eyizinkulungwane ngezinkulungwane.
Empeleni, uhlaka lokwakheka komkhathi womhlaba belulokhu luguquke
njalo ngokuqhubekayo kusukela ekwakhiweni komhlaba eminyakeni
eyizigidi eziyizi-4 500 eyadlula. Lesi sigaba esikhona njengamanje
sokushisa komhlaba sivamise ukubonakala njengento ebangelwa
yizenzo zabantu, okuyizona ezidala ukungcoliseka komkhathi ngenxa
yokushiswa kweziphehlamandla ezimbiwa phansi, kodwa-ke
kunososayensi abaningi emhlabeni abakholelwa ukuthi izenzo zabantu
zidlala indima encane kakhulu kulokhu uma kuqhathaniswa nomonakalo
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owenziwa yimvelo ngokwayo. Izibalo zibonisa ngokungenakuphikiswa

ukuthi umthamo we-CO2 (carbon dioxide) emkhathini ukhule okungenani
ngama-15% kusukela ngowe-1890 futhi izingakushisa lomhlaba likhule
ngo-0,5˚C ngekhulunyaka lamashumi amabili, kodwa-ke asikho
isiqiniseko esiphelele sembangela yalokhu. Ngenxa yokuthuthukiswa
kwezimboni, sekukhiqizwe umthamo omkhulukazi wama-greenhouse
gasses okhuphukayo uyongena emkhathini cishe kusukela ngowe-1850.
Umbuzo omkhulu wukuthi ingabe lokhu kubangelwa ngamazingakushisa
aphakeme abonakalayo kulezi zinsuku? Ngamanye amazwi, ingabe
izenzo zabantu yizona ezibangela ukufudumala komkhathi? Lokhu
kuyinto esingakwazi ukuyiqinisekisa nokuyifakazela, kodwa-ke
ngokubona kwethu nembala kunjalo. Njengoba isivuvu somhlaba sizoba
nomthelela omubi kakhulu ezimpilweni zabantu emhlabeni, siluthatha
njengodaba olubucayi kakhulu udaba lwesivuvu somhlaba,
kangangokuthi sibamba izingqungquthela zamazwe ngamazwe
ngokulandelana njengomzamo wokunqanda nokuvimbela ukukhiqizwa
kwama-greenhouse gasses, kodwa-ke incane kakhulu impumelelo
eseyizuziwe kuze kube manje.
Globalisation (globalization): The term is self-explanatory in that it indicates that
some phenomenon or activity regards the world as one place. The main globalising
factors are economics and trade, and technological developments that increase and
simplify world-wide human interaction. Since the late 19th century new transport
technology has been unifying the world into one global entity. Initially large
companies established close trade ties with different countries, thus becoming
multinational corporations (MNCs) with branches all over the world. Famous
brands like Macdonalds are today equally at home in Moscow and in New York.
Travel time between any two places on Earth has “shrunk” so much that one could
get to nearly any place on Earth in a few hours. Of course, the world has not really
shrunk, but transport technology has improved. Jules Verne’s famous 1873 novel
entitled Around the World in 80 Days could now become “around the world in 8 days”
or, at a push, 80 hours! The internet plays an enormous role in globalising the world
and has become indispensible for world-wide international communication and
interconnectedness. It is important to note that during the collapse of the large
political entities such as the British and French empires and the Russian Soviet
Union (USSR), global interconnectivity was extending and improving so that
members of those erstwhile entities are today more closely connected than ever
before. Cultural and social globalisation followed hard on the heel of economic
globalisation and has already replaced the large political unifications. Today all over
the world (except in India and China) the American blue jean is more or less
standard street dress and almost everybody in the world knows who James Bond is.
Globalisation has become a way of doing and thinking; that is, the paradigm of “the
flat world”, which has already generated a large literature.

Insebenziswanoxhumano yomhlaba: Leli temu liyazichaza ngokwalo

njengoba libonisa ukusebenzisana okuthile komhlaba wonke
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njengendawo eyodwa. Imikhakha eyinhloko okusetshenziswana kuyona

ngowezomnotho, ukuhwebelana kanye nenqubekelaphambili
yezobuchwepheshe, ekhulisa futhi yenze lula ukuxhumana kwabantu
emhlabeni wonke jikelele. Kusukela ngekhulunyaka le-19
ubuchwepheshe obusha bezokuthutha bebulokhu buhlanganisa
umhlaba buwenza indawo eyodwa eyimbumba. Ekuqaleni, izinkampani
ezinkulu zasungula ubudlelwano obuqinile bokuhwebelana namazwe
ahlukahlukene, ngakho-ke zagcina sezingamabhizinisi
ayizikhondlakhondla ahweba emazweni amaningi (MNCs), futhi
anamagatsha emhlabeni jikelele. Amabhizinisi adumile njenge-
Macdonalds atholakala emhlabeni wonkana, emadolobheni anjenge-
Moscow, New York, njalo njalo. Isikhathi sokuhamba phakathi kwanoma
yiziphi izindawo ezimbili emhlabeni “sesinciphe kakhulu” kangangokuthi
umuntu useyakwazi ukufinyelela kunoma iyiphi indawo esikhathini
esingamahora ambalwa nje. Kodwa-ke iqiniso wukuthi umhlaba wona
awuzange unciphe, kodwa ubuchwepheshe bezokuthutha
sebuthuthuke kakhulu, okwenza kube lula ukufinyelela endaweni ethile
ngokushesha okukhulu. Esikhathini samanje, inoveli edumile ka-Jules
Verne yowe-1873 esihloko sithi Around the World in 80 Days ibizoba
nesihloko esithi “around the world in 8 days” noma-ke, uma
kuphuthunywa ngempela, amahora angama-80 imbala! I-inthanethi
idlala indima enkulu impela ekuxhumaniseni umhlaba futhi iyithuluzi
elisemqoka kakhulu lokuxhumana emhlabeni wonke jikelele.
Kusemqoka ukuba kuphawuleke ukuthi ngenkathi kuhlakazeka imibuso
emikhulu enjenge-British empire ne-French empire kanye ne-Russian
Soviet Union (USSR), kwakhula futhi kwaba ngcono ukuxhumana
kwamazwe ngamazwe, kangangokuthi namuhla amazwe ayengaphansi
kwaleyo mibuso asenobudlelwano bokuxhumana nokusebenzisana
obukhulu kunakuqala. Ukuxhumana nokusebenzisana kwamazwe
kwezamasiko nezenhlalo kwalandela ezithendeni zokuxhumana
nokubambisana kwamazwe kwezomnotho futhi njengamanje lokhu
kuxhumana nokusebenzisana sekuthathe indawo yezinhlangano
zamazwe ahlukahlukene ayesungule umbimbi lwezepolitiki. Namuhla
emhlabeni wonke jikelele (ngaphandle kwase-India nase-China)
ubhogadi oluhlaza waseMelika usuyimpahla yokugqoka ethe chithi saka,
futhi cishe wonke umuntu emhlabeni uyamazi u-James Bond.
Insebenziswanoxhumano yomhlaba isiyindlela yokwenza izinto
nokucabanga; okusho, iphethini noma imodeli “yomhlaba olinganayo”
(“flat world”), osekubhalwe ngawo kakhulu ezincwadini.
Global North: The spatial distribution (see “spatial development”) of the
developed (“rich”) countries (see “developing countries”) over the world describes a
distinct pattern. Most of the developed countries lie in the northern hemisphere, with
two notable exceptions, namely Australia and New Zealand. The developed
countries have high per capita gross national products (GNPs), high gross domestic
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products (GDPs), and high human development indices (HDIs) (see “development”
and “developing countries”). From the late 1960s through the 1970s the gap between
the developed countries and the developing countries became very pronounced and
extremely politicised. A number of international organisations such as the United
Nations (UN) and the World Trade Union (WTO) intensified investigation into the
rich-versus-poor discourse and all its economic and political ramifications. In 1980
the UN published the so-called Brandt Report, named after Dr Willy Brandt, the
former Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and
respected supporter of the European Economic Community, and then Chairman of
the UN’s Brandt Commission. In order to simplify the description of the global spatial
distribution patterns of wealth and development, poverty and underdevelopment, the
terms “rich North” and “poor South” were created. These two entities are supposed
to be separated by the so-called Brandt line (see “development” and “developing
countries”). These terms became entrenched in scientific as well as lay literature.
When the terms “rich” and “poor” became stigmatised, the use of “global” became
habitual. The Brandt line has a very distinguished shape, as it includes Japan and
South Korea into the rich North and then dips down south to include Australia and
New Zealand into the developed North. Although this line is still being used, it is
rapidly becoming obsolete since several developing states are now countries in
transition (CITs) and these so-called BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China le
South Africa; also see “countries in transition”) are not given special recognition by
the Brandt line.

I-Global North: Ukusabalala ngokwendawo (bheka i-“spatial

development”) kwamazwe asethuthukile (amazwe “acebile”) (bheka
ama-“developing countries”) emhlabeni kubonisa iphethini ethile
ehlukile. Iningi lamazwe asethuthukile litholakala kwingxenyemhlaba
esenyakatho, ngaphandle kwamazwe amabili aseningizimu, okuyi-
Australia ne-New Zealand. Amazwe asethuthukile anezamba
zomkhiqizo wezwe (GNPs) eziphakeme, nezamba zomkhiqizo
wasekhaya eziphakeme (GDPs), kanye nezinkomba zentuthuko yabantu
(HDIs) eziphakeme (bheka i-“development” kanye nama-“developing
countries”). Kusukela ngasekupheleni kweminyaka yawo-1960 kuya
eminyakeni yawo-1970 igebe phakathi kwamazwe asethuthukile
namazwe asathuthuka libonakala kakhulu futhi lisetshenziswa kakhulu
njengebhola lezepolitiki. Izinhlangano zamazwe ngamazwe eziningi
ezinjengeNhlangano Yezizwe (UN) kanye nenhlangano
yezokuhwebelana i-World Trade Union (WTO) ziluqinisile uphenyo
oluphathelene nengxoxo yokuqhathaniswa kwamazwe acebile namazwe
ahlwempu kanye nayo yonke imithelela yalokho kwezomnotho
nakwezepolitiki. Ngowe-1980 i-UN yashicilelwa umbhalo obizwa nge-
Brandt Report, owaqanjwa ngo-Dkt Willy Brandt, u-Chancellor
wangaphambilini we-Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany)
owayengumxhasi ohlonishwayo we-European Economic Community,
futhi owayenguSihlalo we-Brandt Commission ngaphansi kweNhlangano
Yezizwe. Ngenhloso yokwenza lula incazelo yamaphethini okusabalala
komcebo nentuthuko ngokwezindawo ezihlukahlukene emhlabeni
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jikelele kwaqanjwa amatemu amabili amasha, “okuyi-“rich North”

(amazwe acebile aseNyakatho) kanye ne-“poor South” (amazwe
ahlwempu aseNingizimu). Lezi zingxenye ezimbili zamazwe omhlaba
kuthiwa zihlukaniswe wumugqa obizwa nge-Brandt line (bheka i-
“development” kanye nama-“developing countries”). Lawa matemu
asetshenziswa kakhulu emibhalweni yezesayensi kanye
nasemibhalweni ejwayelekile yansuku zonke. Emva kokugxekwa
kwetemu elithi “acebile” kanye netemu elithi “ahlwempu” njengamatemu
abonisa ukubukelwa phansi kwamazwe athile, kwaqaliswa
ukusetsheziswa kakhudlwana kwegama elithi “global”. I-Brandt line
inesimo esihlukile kakhulu njengoba ifaka i-Japan ne-South Korea
ngaphansi kwamazwe aseNyakatho bese futhi yehla iyofaka i-Australia
kanye ne-New Zealand ngaphansi kwamazwe aseNyakatho
asethuthukile. Nakuba usasetshenziswa namanje lo mugqa,
seliyancipha impela izinga lokusetshenziswa kwawo njengoba manje
kunamazwe asathuthuka asethathwa njengamazwe aguqukayo
(countries in transition) (CITs) futhi ngoba i-Brandt line ayiwanikezi
indawo ekhethekile amazwe ombimbi lwe-BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India,
China kanye South Africa - bheka “countries in transition”).
Global South: The opposite of the Global North (see “Global North”) with the
focus on the “poor” developing countries. The countries of the Global South have low
GNPs, low GDPs and low HDIs. The BRICS countries present the very same
classification problem as when we focus on the Global North. Nowadays, the terms
“developed countries”, “developing countries”, “countries in transition” and “BRICS
countries” are preferred, and “Global North” and “South” are falling into disuse.

I-Global South: Ingxenyemhlaba esohlangothini oluphikisana ne-Global

North (bheka i-“Global North”) egxile emazweni asathuthuka
“ahlwempu”. Amazwe e-Global South anama-GNPs aphansi, nama-
GDPs aphansi kanye nama-HDIs aphansi. Amazwe e-BRICS anikeza
inkinga efanayo nakulokhu, njengoba kwenzekile naku-Global North,
mayelana nokuthi kumele afakwe kuliphi iqembu lamazwe. Kulezi
zinsuku, amatemu asetshenziswa kakhulu futhi abonakala engcono
kunetemu elithi “Global North” kanye nelithi “Global South” ngamatemu
anjengalawa: “amazwe asethuthukile”, amazwe asathuthuka” “amazwe
aguqukayo” kanye “namazwe e-BRICS”.
Governance: The actions and manner in which a government or its
representative person or authority executes control and authority over a certain
constituency (people) or over the activities and actions of certain sectors of, or
groups within, a population. In other words, it is the way in which policies or
decisions of the government of the day are executed, controlled, enforced and
monitored. “Passing the buck” commonly happens as far as the environment is
concerned. Although a world heritage site such as the Cradle of Humankind falls
under the ultimate jurisdiction and accountability of some UN agencies (in the case
of a world heritage sites, that agency is UNESCO), the actual control and
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management of the site has been delegated to the national authority(ies) in South
Afrcia, namely the national and local (or provincial) departments of the environment,
science, technology, tourism and culture, which again passes the execution of
decisions to local authorities and even to local community leaders and the
communities themselves. Hence, the central government is seldom directly involved
in the environmental, paleontological and archaeological conservation issues and the
day to day management of the declared sites. However, ultimately someone or some
authoritive body must accept accountablility. In the explanation above, environmental
governance is used as an example, but more or less the same applies to any other
aspect of life, for instance health, education, sport, housing, defence, social services,
and so forth.

Ukuphatha nokulawula: Izenzo kanye nendlela alawula ngayo

uhulumeni, noma umuntu omele uhulumeni noma isiphathimandla
sikahulumeni, noma asebenzisa ngayo amandla negunya lakhe phezu
kwabantu noma phezu kwemisebenzi yemikhakha ethile noma phezu
kwamaqembu athile emphakathini othile. Ngamanye amagama, lena
yindlela okuqaliswa, kulawulwe, kusetshenziswe futhi kuqashelwe
ngayo ukusebenza kwezinqubomgomo kanye nezinqumo zikahulumeni.
Mayelana nemvelo kuvamise ukwenzeka into ebizwa “ngokudluliswa
kwesibopho sokuphatha nokulawula” (“passing the buck”). Nakuba
isizinda esiyigugu lomhlaba esinjenge-Cradle of Humankind ekugcineni
singaphansi kwegunya nesibopho sokuphendula sezimpiko ezithile ze-
UN (mayelana nezizinda ezingamagugu omhlaba, uphiko olunegunya
lokwengamela yi-UNESCO), amandla okulawulwa nokuphathwa
kwesizinda adluliselwe kwiziphathimandla zezwe laseNingizimu Afrika,
okusho, iminyango kazwelonke kanye neyasekhaya (noma
yesifundazwe) yezemvelo, ezesayensi, ezobuchwepheshe,
ezokuvakasha kanye nezamasiko, kanti ngokunjalo nayo leyo minyango
iyawadlulisa amandla okuqaliswa kokusebenza kwezinqumo iwanikeze
iziphathimandla zendawo noma iwanikeze ngisho nabaholi bomphakathi
basendaweni imbala noma imiphakathi ngokwayo. Yingakho-ke
uhulumeni omkhulu engavamisile ukuzibandakanya ngqo ezindabeni
zemvelo noma zokulondolozwa kwemivukubulo nezinsalela
zasemandulo kanye nasemsebenzini wansuku zonke wokuphathwa
nokulawulwa kwesizinda esimenyezelwe njengendawo eyigugu
lomhlaba. Kodwa-ke, ekugcineni kumele kube nomuntu othile noma
isikhungo esithile esinegunya okumele siphendule mayelana
nomsebenzi owenziwayo esikhungweni kanye nokuphathwa kwaso.
Ngenhloso yokuchaza lokhu okungenhla, kusetshenziswe isibonelo
sokuphathwa kwemvelo, kodwa-ke cishe konke lokhu
kungasetshenziswa nakweminye imikhakha yempilo, isibonelo,
njengomkhakha wezempilo, ezemfundo, ezemidlalo, ezezindlu,
ezokuvikela, ezenhlakahle yomphakathi, njalo njalo.
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Greening mainstream politics: The true or feigned concern of politicians

and political parties for the environment and environmental issues. Since the birth of
the world-wide Environmental Movement in the 1960s, environmentalism (see
“ecocentrism”, “ecological citizenship” and “environmental movements”) has grabbed
the imagination and attention of ordinary people, scientists from many disciplines,
and a multitude of interested and activist groups. As environmental concern gathered
momentum, politicians soon realised that support for environmental issues could win
votes. Certain politicians, such as Al Gore, former candidate for the Presidency of
the USA, and former USA Presidents Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton, have become
true champions for the environment. In all developed, democratic countries there are
relatively powerful environmental lobby groups. The environment simply cannot any
longer be shunned by those who strive for political power. These days,
environmental concerns are central to the policies of most political parties in
developed, democratic countries. In some countries (mostly in Western Europe)
there are political parties that have the environment as the main tenet of all their
policies. These are the so-called “green parties”, and many of them now have
substantial representation in their respective parliaments or local governmental
bodies. “Green” issues (environmental issues) have thus become part and parcel of
mainstream politics, and are not anymore the sole domain of non-governmental
organisations and activist organisations, such as Greenpeace and Earth Life Africa.
A closely related term is “greenwashing” (a pejorative term) which refers to an
insincere incorporation of environmental-friendly practices in the political rhetoric of a
political party, industry or company, without them having any true commitment to the
protection of the environment. So these parties or companies say all the right-
sounding things about the protection of the environment, but do nothing significant to
reduce their ecological footprint (see “ecological footprint”). A number of very large,
powerful and influential South African companies could be mentioned as examples
here, but for fear of unpleasant repercussions, it is left to your own – now informed –
judgement to identified these “greenwashers”.

I-Greening mainstream politics (Ipolitiki egxile kwezemvelo):

Ukukhathazeka ngokwempela noma kokuzenzisa kosopolitiki kanye
namaqembu ezepolitiki mayelana nemvelo kanye nezindaba zemvelo.
Kusukela ekusungulweni koMbutho Wokuvikelwa Nokulondolozwa
Kwemvelo emhlabeni jikelele ngeminyaka yawo-1960, ubushoshovu
bezemvelo noma injulalwazi yokuvikela imvelo (environmentalism)
(bheka i-“ecocentrism”, “ecological citizenship” kanye nama-
“environmental movements”) sekudonse amehlo abantu abajwayelekile,
ososayensi bemikhakha ehlukahlukene, kanye namaqembu amaningi
abantu abanentshisekelo kanye nezishoshovu. Ngokukhula
nokudlondlobala kokukhathazeka ngemvelo, osopolitiki nabo
kwabacacela ukuthi bangazizuzela amavoti uma besekela izindaba
eziphathelene nemvelo. Abanye osopolitiki, njengo-Al Gore, ongomunye
wababegaqele isikhundla sikaMongameli wase-USA phambilini, kanye
noMongameli bangaphambilini base-USA u-Jimmy Carter kanye no-Bill
Clinton, sebengoshampeni bangempela bemvelo. Kuwo wonke amazwe
asethuthukile, abuswa ngokwentando yabantu, kunamaqembu
anamandla impela ezishoshovu zemvelo. Labo abafuna ukuphatha
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kwezepolitiki akulula neze ukuthi baphumelele kahle uma belushaya

indiva udaba lwemvelo. Namuhla, ukukhathazeka ngemvelo
sekungumgogodla wezinqubomgomo zamaqembu ezepolitiki amaningi
emazweni asethuthukile abuswa ngokwentando yabantu. Emazweni
athile (ikakhulukazi e-Western Europe) kunamaqembu ezepolitiki
asebenzisa ezemvelo njengomgomo ongumongo wazo zonke
izinqubomgomo zawo. Lawa ngamaqembu ezepolitiki abizwa ngokuthi
ngama-“green parties”, futhi kulezi zinsuku amaningi awo asenamalungu
amaningi impela awamele emaphalamende noma ezinhlakeni
zohulumeni basekhaya, emazweni awo. Ngakho-ke, izindaba zemvelo
(“green” issues) seziyingxenye enkulu yezepolitiki emazweni
ahlukahlukene, futhi lokhu akuseyona nje kuphela into ebonakala
njengento ebhekene nezinhlangano ezingekho ngaphansi kukahulumeni
noma izinhlangano zezishoshovu zokuvikelwa nokulondolozwa
kwemvelo, ezinjenge-Greenpeace kanye ne-Earth Life Africa. Elinye
itemu elisondelene kakhulu nepolitiki yezemvelo yi-“greenwashing”
(okuyitemu elilulazayo) eliphathelene nenkohliso yokufakwa kwezenzo
nemisebenzi ephathelene nokunakekelwa nokulondolozwa kwemvelo
ezinkulumeni nasemikhankasweni yeqembu elithile lezepolitiki, noma
imboni noma inkampani ezingenabo ubumnene neqiniso, futhi
okuyizinkulumo ezingenakho ukuzibophezela ngokuphelele ekuvikelweni
kwemvelo. Amanye alawa maqembu ezepolitiki, noma izinkampani,
bakhuluma amagama amnandi mayelana nokuvikelwa kwemvelo,
kodwa bangathathi izinyathelo ezibonakalayo futhi ezinohlonze
zokunciphisa umthelela kwimvelo. (bheka i-“ecological footprint”). Ziningi
izinkampani zaseNingizimu Afrika eziyizikhondlakhondla esingazibala
lapha njengesibonelo, kodwa ngokusabela imiphumela emibi
engabangelwa yilokho, sizowushiyela wena umsebenzi wokuhlonza lezo
zinkampani ezingama-“greenwashers”, njengoba sesikuhlomisile
ngolwazi olufanele.
Green political parties: Political parties that have the environment as the basic
tenet of their constitutions and all their policies (see “greening mainstream politics”).
Owing to the huge general concern for the environment, voters want political
representatives who would see to the protection of the local and global
environments. Most of the developed, democratic states of Western Europe (for
example Germany, England, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium,
France and Austria), the United States of America, Canada, Australia, New Zealand,
Japan, Iceland, and others have fully fledged green parties. These parties enjoy so
much public support that they are in some cases even able to form coalition
governments with mainstream parties. In the developing world, politics are
dominated by questions other than the environment, consequently the environment
is not an important role-player in the politics of the day.

Amaqembu ezepolitiki agxile kwezemvelo (Green political parties):

Lawa ngamaqembu ezepolitiki abeka imvelo njengomgomo oyisisekelo
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futhi ongumongo wemithethosisekelo yawo kanye nazo zonke

izinqubomgomo zawo (bheka i-“greening mainstream politics”). Ngenxa
yokukhathazeka okukhulu ngemvelo, abavoti bafuna abameleli
bezepolitiki abazoqinisekisa ukuvikelwa kwemvelo yezwe kanye
nemvelo yomhlaba wonke. Amazwe amaningi asethuthukile, futhi
abuswa ngokwentando yabantu ase-Western Europe (isibonelo,
Germany, England, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Netherlands, Belgium,
France kanye ne-Austria), i-United States of America, Canada, Australia,
New Zealand, Japan, Iceland, kanye namanye amazwe, anamaqembu
agxile kwimvelo ngokuphelele. Lawa maqembu asekelwa kakhulu
ngumphakathi kangangokuthi amanye awo akwazi ngisho nokusungula
ohulumeni ngokubambisana nalawo maqembu agxile kakhulu
kwezepolitiki. Emazweni asathuthuka, ezepolitiki zigxile kwezinye izinto
ezibonakala zibalulekile, hhayi imvelo, futhi ngenxa yalokho-ke imvelo
ayithathwa njengento esemqoka kwezepolitiki ezweni.
H
Habitat destruction: A significant or complete alteration of the organic
community and/or inorganic components that occur in a specific place at a certain
time and constitute an ecosystem (see “ecosystem”, “ecology” and “extinction”). The
organisms (animals, insects, plants, microbes and even the humans that happen to
live in that place at that time) form a community and a network of
interdependence. All the animal and vegetative organisms in an ecosystem are
well-adapted to the conditions posed by the inorganic components (rocks, soil,
water, atmospheric temperatures, type of climate, and so on). When an alteration is
so severe and/or fast, that the organisms cannot adapt to the new conditions, the
organic community must move away or die out (see “extinction”). A habitat can be
altered or destroyed by nature, either slowly or suddenly. An example of slow natural
alteration is the onset of an ice age (that is natural climate change [see “climate
change”]). An example of fast, natural alteration is a volcanic eruption or a meteorite
strike, but these are, of course, very rare. Alteration caused by human actions
(anthropogenic causes) happens fast in geological time although they might appear
to happen over a long period in human time. Compare the rate at which a frontend
loader removes a heap of sand to the time it takes natural erosion processes to
remove a mount of weathering debris (see “erosion”). Humans cause enormous
habitat destruction by erecting buildings, creating settlements, installing sewerage
systems, road building, the removing of plants where construction has to take place,
draining wetlands, converting grasslands into croplands, and so on. In these cases,
the habitat destruction is immediately obvious, and innumerable millions of hectares
of land all over the world have changed irreversible and the natural habitats of
innumerable animal and plant species have been destroyed. However, there are
more insidious activities which are equally or even more harmful, yet less obvious. A
golfing estate is a typical example. From an environmental point of view golf is a far
greater threat to the environment than hunting is. The golfing greens, the clumps of
endemic, or at least indigenous, trees and natural vegetation between the greens,
and the artificial rivulets look so beautiful that the golfing public does not even think
about the habitat destruction that has taken place. The establishment of a golf
course and – even worse – a golfing estate, implies the total destruction of a natural
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habitat. The moment a habitat is subdivided into portions, habitat fragmentation

(see “extinction”) has taken place and the natural habitat will start to decline and
eventually wither away, change into a completely different sysem, or be overrun by a
human-made system. Habitat destruction and fragmentation has for many hundreds
of years been responsible for most of the species extinction on Earth. Thousands of
species have gone extinct because of habitat destruction and fragmentation. Most of
the species listed in the Red Data Lists (publications listing all species that are
critically threathened, or seriously threatened, or simply threatened) are in danger of
extinction because of habitat destruction and fragmentation. The panda bear (which
has become the logo for the World Wildlife Fund [WWF]) is critically threathened as
a result of habitat loss. Two of the most threatened species in South Africa, namely
the Brenton Blue butterfly and the Blue Swallow, are critically threatened by nothing
other than habitat loss. However, the most publicised threatened species in South
Africa, namely the black and the white rhinoceros, are on the verge of extinction
because of poaching and hunting, not because of habitat loss.

Ukucekeleka phansi kwendawo yemvelo lapho kuphila khona

izilwane nezimila: Ukuguquka kakhulu noma ukuguquka
ngokuphelele komphakathi wezinto eziphilayo kanye/noma izinto
ezingaphili ezitholakala endaweni ethile ngesikhathi esithile futhi
okuyizinto ezakha i-ekhosistimu yaleyo ndawo (bheka i-“ecosystem”,
“ecology” kanye ne-“extinction”). Izinto eziphilayo (izilwane,
izinambuzane, izitshalo, amagciwane kanye nabantu imbala, abaphila
kuleyo ndawo ngaleso sikhathi) umphakathi kanye nendlela yokuphila
ndawonye lapho into ephilayo eyodwa ithembele kwenye noma
incike kwenye ukuze ikwazi ukuziphilisa. Zonke izilwane kanye
nezimila zemvelo ezitholakala kwi-ekhosistimu ethile zakheke ngendlela
ehambelana kahle nezimo ezilethwa noma ezibangelwa yizinto
ezingaphili (amadwala, umhlabathi, amanzi, izingakushisa lomkhathi,
uhlobo lwesimo sezulu, njalo njalo). Uma uguquko lulukhulu kakhulu
futhi/noma lwenzeka ngesivinini esiphakeme, kangangokuthi izinto
eziphilayo ziyahluleka ukuguqula isimo sazo ukuze sihambelane nezimo
ezintsha, umphakathi wezinto eziphilayo kumele uthuthe kuleyo ndawo
uye kwenye, noma-ke ufe noma ushabalale (bheka i-“extinction”).
Indawo lapho kuphila khona izinto zemvelo ingaguquka noma icekeleke
phansi ngenxa yezimo zemvelo, futhi lokhu kungenzeka kancane
kancane noma kwenzeke ngokushesha. Isibonelo sokuguquka
kwemvelo okwenzeka kancane kancane wukuqala kwenkathi yeqhwa
ehambisana nokwehla okukhulu kwamazinga okushisa emhlabeni
(okusho ukuguquka kwesimo sezulu ngokwemvelo [bheka i-“climate
change”]). Isibonelo sokuguquka kwemvelo okusheshayo wukuqubuka
kwentabamlilo noma ukuwa kwetshekazi elivela ekhathini, kodwa-ke lezi
yizigameko eziyivelakancane kakhulu. Ukuguquka okubangelwa yizenzo
zabantu (okubizwa ngama-anthropogenic causes) kwenzeka
ngokushesha uma kubhekwa ngokwezikhathi eziphathelene
nokwakheka komhlaba (geological time) kepha kubukeka sengathi
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kwenzeka esikhathini eside impela uma kubhekwa ngokwesikhathi

sabantu (human time). Qhathanisa isivinini i-frontend loader esusa
ngaso inqwaba yesihlabathi nesivinini sokuguguleka ngokwemvelo
kwezimvithi zokukhumuzeka kwamadwala (bheka i-“erosion”). Abantu
benza umonakalo omkhulu kwindawo yemvelo ngokwakha amabhilidi,
izindawo zokuhlalisa abantu, izinhlelo zokuthuthwa kwendle, imigwaqo,
ngokususa izitshalo endaweni okuzokwakhiwa kuyona, ngokumpompa
amanzi bawakhiphe emaxhaphozini, ngokuguqula amadlelo abe
ngamasimu okulima, njalo njalo. Kulezi zimo-ke kuyacaca ukuthi
ukucekeleka phansi kwendawo yemvelo kwenzeka ngokushesha, futhi
kunezigidi ngezigidi zamahekthare omhlaba osuguquleke kangangokuthi
ngeke neze uphinde ubuyiseleke esimweni sawo saphambilini, futhi
secekeleke phansi nendawo yemvelo obekuphila kuyona inqwaba
yezilwane nezitshalo. Kodwa-ke kukhona nezinye izenzo ezimbi kakhulu
ezidala umonakalo olingana nalona noma ngaphezulu, kepha
ezingagqamile futhi ezinganakekile. Indawo kanokusho enamakhaya
okuhlalisa abantu eyakhelene nenkundla yegalofu iyisibonelo esihle
salokhu. Uma le ndawo ibhekwa ngasohlangothini lwemvelo, inobungozi
obukhulu kwimvelo futhi idala umonakalo ongaphezulu kakhulu
kokuzingelwa kwezilwane zasendle. Amabala okudlalelwa kuwona
igalofu, amahlashana ezihlala ezingumsinsi wokuzimilela kanye nezimila
zemvelo ezitholakala phakathi kwamabala okudlalelwa kuwona igalofu,
kanye nemifudlana yokuzakhela etholakala lapho, konke kubukeka
kukuhle ngendlela emangalisayo, kangangokuthi akufiki nakancane
emiqondweni yabantu abathanda igalofu ukuthi muningi umonakalo
wokucekelwa phansi kwemvelo owenzekile lapho ngenkathi kwakhiwa
inkundla yegalofu. Ukwakhiwa kwenkundla yegalofu, ingasaphathwa-ke
nje eyokwakhiwa kwendawo kanokusho enamakhaya okuhlalisa abantu
eduze kwenkundla yegalofu, kusho ukucekeleka phansi ngokuphelele
kwendawo yemvelo okuphila kuyona izilwane nezitshalo. Ngenkathi
indawo yemvelo ihlukaniswa ibe yiziqeshana ezihlukene lokho kusho
ukuthi sekwenzeke i-habitat fragmentation, okusho ukuhlukaniswa
kwendawo yemvelo okuphila kuyona izilwane nezitshalo ibe yizingcezu
(bheka i-“extinction”) futhi sizokwehla isimo sempilo kuleyo ndawo futhi
sigcine sesiwohlokile ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, noma sikuguke sibe
yisimo esihluke kakhulu, noma ingxenye enkulu yendawo yemvelo
igcine isithathwe yizinhlelo nemiklamo eyakhiwe ngabantu. Sekuphele
amakhulu ngamakhulu eminyaka ukucekelwa phansi nokuhlukaniswa
kwendawo yemvelo kudala umonakalo omkhulu kwimvelo, futhi lowo
monakalo yiwona oyimbangela enkulu yokushabalala kwezilwane
nezitshalo emhlabeni. Izinkulungwane ngezinkulungwane zezilwane
nezitshalo sezishabalele ngenxa yokucekelwa phansi nokuhlukaniswa
kwendawo yemvelo ibe yiziqeshana. Iningi lezilwane nezitshalo
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ezibhalwe kuma-Red Data Lists (imibhalo ehlinzeka ngoluhlu lwazo

zonke izilwane nezitshalo ezisengcupheni enkulu kakhulu, noma
ezisengcupheni enkulu impela, noma-ke nje lezo ezisengcupheni)
zisengcupheni yokushabalala ngenxa yokucekelwa phansi
nokuhlukaniswa kwendawo yemvelo eziphila kuyona. Ibhele elibizwa
nge-panda bear (eselaba yi-logo [uphawu] ye-World Wildlife Fund
[WWF]) lisengcupheni enkulu kakhulu ngenxa yokulahleka
nokucekeleka phansi kwemvelo eliphila kuyona. Izilwanyazane
esizengcupheni enkulu kakhulu eNingizimu Afrika, okuwuvemvane i-
Brenton Blue butterfly kanye nenkonjane i-Blue Swallow, zisengcupheni
ngenxa yokulahleka nokucekeleka phansi kwemvelo eziphila kuyona.
Kodwa-ke, izilwane ezisengcupheni enkulu yokushabalala, okubikwa
ngazo kakhulu eNingizimu Afrika, okuwubhejane omnyama kanye
nobhejane omhlophe, zisengcupheni ngenxa yokuzingelwa ngendlela
engekho emthethweni, hhayi ngenxa yokulahleka nokucekeleka phansi
kwemvelo eziphila kuyona.
Hazardous waste: The unwanted residue and by-products of industrial and
mining processes, petrochemical production, medical procedures, military operations
and nuclear applications. These waste materials cannot be handled like common
domestic waste and garden refuse, since they pose a toxic, flammable, explosive,
contamination or contagious threat to the local environment and/or the local or even
wider community. Typical hazardous waste includes anything that might impact on
the local and ancillary environment and the well-being of the people residing there or
in the immediate vicinity. Hazardous waste cannot be disposed of in ordinary landfills
or simply be incinerated (see “incineration”). For every type of hazardous waste,
there is a strict protocol which has to be observed. Specialist waste disposal
companies dispose of these materials and great care is taken that neither the
environment nor the waste disposal workers are endangered by contamination. In
certain developed countries regulations for the treatment of domestic waste are
strictly applied and the public take great care to dispose of hazardous waste (for
instance expired medicines, syringes, domestic insecticides and empty rodent and
vermin poison containers) in the prescribed way since the fines for transgressing the
regulations are extremely high. In developing countries like South Africa, waste
disposal is a far more haphazard affair. Although the laws and regulations might be
in place, they are seldom enforced. Consequently, medical waste is often found in
the waste dumps around informal settlements or in landfills, and squatter
communities even live on operational landfills, while the mines release acid mine
drainage containing arsenic and radio-active substances into river systems and the
underground water supplies.

Imfucuza enobungozi: Izinsalela ezingafuneki zemikhiqizo

yezimboni neyezimayini, nezinsalela zokwelapha nezemikhankaso
yezempi, nezemikhiqizo kaphethiloli kanye neyenuzi. Le mfucuza
akufanele neze iphathwe ngendlela efanayo nemfucuza yasekhaya
noma yasengadini, njengoba yona inobungozi bukashevu, futhi
kungenzeka ivuthe noma iqhume okuyizinto ezingadala umonakalo
noma zilimaze imvelo yendawo futhi/noma zilimaze nomphakathi
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wendawo noma wezwe lonkana. Imikhiqizo ejwayelekile enobungozi

ibandakanya noma yini engaba nomthelela omubi kwimvelo yendawo
noma izinto ezincike kwimvelo yendawo (ancillary environment) kanye
nenhlalakahle yabantu abahlala lapho noma eduzane kwalapho.
Imfucuza enobungozi ayilahlwa ezindaweni ezijwayelekile okulahlwa
kuzona imfucuza futhi akulungile neze ukuthi ishiswe (bheka i-
“incineration”). Maqondana nohlobo ngalunye lwemfucuza kunenqubo
enqala okumele ilandelwe. Izinkampani ezingongoti bokulahlwa
kwemfucuza yizona ezenza umsebenzi obucayi wokulahlwa
kwemfucuza futhi lokhu zikwenza ngokucophelela okukhulu ukuze
kungabeki engozini imvelo noma abasebenzi abenza umsebenzi
wokulahla imfucuza enobungozi. Emazweni athile asethuthukile
kuyaqinisekiswa ukuthotshelwa nokulandelwa kwemithethonqubo
yokuphathwa kwemfucuza yasekhaya futhi umphakathi uyilahla
ngokucophelela okukhulu imfucuza enobungozi (njengemithi
esiphelelwe yisikhathi, imijovo, izibulali-zinambuzane kanye
namaphakethe angasenalutho abequkethe ushevu wokubulala
amagundwane noma izinambuzane eziwuhlupho) ngokulandela inqubo
ebekiwe, ngoba bakhokhiswa izinhlawulo eziphakeme kakhulu abantu
abaphula imithethonqubo ebekiwe. Emazweni asathuthuka,
anjengeNingizimu Afrika, ukulahlwa kwemfucuza kwenziwa ngendlela
engahlelekile neze. Nakuba kungenzeka ibe khona imithetho
nemithethonqubo ebekiwe, akuvamile ukuthi iphoqelelwe. Ngenxa
yalokho-ke, imfucuza yokwelapha ivamise ukutholakala ezindaweni
okulahlwa kuzona imfucuza eziseduze kwezindawo eziyimijondolo
nemigodikazi yokulahla udoti, futhi amanye amalungu emiphakathi
ehlala emijondolo ahlala kule migodikazi yokulahla udoti, futhi kusenjalo
izimayini zikhiqiza amanzi angcolile ane-asidi aqukethe amakhemikhali
anoshevu kanye nezinsalela zemikhiqizo esabalalisa imisebe eyingozi
ageleza ayongena emifuleni kanye nasemithonjeni yamanzi engaphansi
komhlaba.
Hierarchical diffusion: A process whereby a tangible (tactile, physical, things
that can be touched) or an intangible entity extends its spatial distribution or
occurrence from a large, influential place to smaller, less important places and
ultimately to every little place anywhere. A hierarchy is a ranking of items or places
according to size, influence and popularity or even according to the frequency of
occurrence of negative characteristics (or attributes) such as drug addiction or
numbers of murders committed. New things tend to spread from large, influential
places to small, far-off places. That means that it spreads from the top of the
hierarchy to the bottom. A new fad (like wearing black nailpolish) or type of music
may originate in New York City, but soon it would spread to other major cities in the
USA and to London and then to every city and town and eventually to the smallest
hamlets anywhere in the world. The use of cell phones in South Africa is an
interesting example of hierarchical diffusion that forced major communication
companies to extend their physical networks to outlying areas so that people could
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use cellphones not only in the cities, but even in rural areas and certain wilderness
areas far from the beaten track. The diffusion of the popularity of the internet’s social
networks like Facebook and Twitter did not happen hierarchically, but the diffusion of
the physical satellite data reception installations did.

Ukusabalala kwento ethile ngokwendawo, okuphathelene

nokuhleleka ngokulandelana: Inqubo lapho izinto eziphathekayo
noma ezibambekayo (izinto ezithintekayo) noma izinto ezingathinteki
zisabalala ngokwendawo ezitholakala kuyona, zisuka endaweni enkulu
esemqoka ziye ezindaweni ezincane ezingabalulekile kakhulu futhi
emva kwalokho zifinyelele nakuzo zonke ezinye izindawo ezincane
ezikhona. Ukuhleleka ngokulandelana (hierarchy) wukukleliswa kwezinto
noma izindawo ngokobukhulu bazo, umthelela wazo kanye nodumo
lwazo noma izinga lokwenzeka nokuphindaphindeka kwemikhuba emibi
noma izigameko ezimbi imbala, njengenani labantu abayizigqila
zezidakamizwa noma inani lezigameko zokubulawa kwabantu. Izinto
ezintsha zivamise ukusabalala zisuka ezindaweni ezinkulu ezibalulekile
ziye ezindaweni ezincane ezikude kakhulu. Lokhu kusho ukuthi
ukusabalala kwalezo zinto zisuka phezulu ku-hierarchy ziye phansi.
Isitayela esisha (njengokugcobisa upende wezinzipho omnyama) noma
uhlobo lomculo othile, okungenzeka kuqale e-New York City, kodwa
ngokushesha kusabalale kudlulele kwamanye amadolobha amakhulu
ase-USA kanye nase-London bese emva kwalokho kudlulela kuwo
wonke amadolobha namadolobhana, kugcine sekufinyelele nasezigodini
ezincane emhlabeni wonke jikelele. Ukusetshenziswa kwezingcingo
ezingomakhalekhukhwini eNingizimu Afrika ngesinye isibonelo
esimangalisayo sokusabalala kwento ethile ngokwendawo, njengoba
kwaphoqeleleka izinkampani zokuxhumana ezinkulu ukuthi zidlulisele
amanethiwekhi azo nasezindaweni ezingaphandle kwamadolobha ukuze
abantu bangagcini nje kuphela ngokusebenzisa omakhalekhukhwini
kuphela uma besemadolobheni, kodwa babasebenzise nasezindaweni
ezisemakhaya kanye nasezindaweni ezithile ezisehlane, ezikude
kakhulu kwezizinda ezinkulu ezijwayelekile. Ukusabalala kodumo
lwezinkundla zokuxhumana nge-inthanethi ezinjenge-Facebook ne-
Twitter akwenzekanga ngokohlelo lokulandelana okuthile, kodwa-ke
ukusabalala kobuxhakaxhaka bamasathelayithi okuthola nokuthumela
idatha kona kwalandela inqubo yokuhleleka ngokulandelana okuthile.
Host community: A collection of interacting human or non-human
individuals who occupy a common area and suddenly or gradually have to cope with
the influx of humans or non-humans from an adjoining or nearby area. The new,
invading individuals might have fled, been driven to, or happened to end up in the
area occupied by the host community. In a non-human, natural ecosystem (see
“ecosystem”), the intruders would probably perish or devour some of the local
individuals and become a dominant species of the entire ecosystem. If they cannot
adapt to the conditions and individuals occupying the ecosystem, they would die out
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or move away. In human communities, the “invaders” could be people fleeing for
their lives, have no identity papers or money and tenuous or no connections to the
community they have fled to (see “refugee”). The host community might be hostile to
the newcomers and drive them out or even kill them, but that does not happen very
often because people would not flee to an area where they know they would be
unwelcome. There are also international organisations such as the International Red
Cross, Médecins Sans Frontièrs, Oxfam and the United Nations High Commission
for Refugees (UNHCR) who could assist both the refugees and the host community
to cope with the situation. But there is no denying that the people of the host
community are presented with a problem when they have to assimilate “foreigners”.
Even if the foreigners are not refugees in the true sense of the word, problems may
occur as the foreigners consume services, need health care and education, occupy
jobs, and do never quite become part of the host community. South Africans are
currently a host community for many thousands (or even millions) of people from
Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Angola, Nigeria, Ghana, Malawi, the Democratic Republic
of the Congo, Somalia and many other African states. A number of xenophobic
clashes have already taken place and many South Africans are not overly happy
with the presence of these foreigners, but thus far South Africans have proven a
remarkably tolerant host community.

Umphakathi osingathayo (host community): Iqoqo lezinto

eziphilayo, ezingabantu noma ezingebona abantu, ezihlala endaweni
eyodwa ethile futhi ezizithola, ngokushesha noma kancane kancane,
kudingeka ukuthi zibekezelele ukuthutheleka kwezinye izinto eziphilayo
endaweni yazo, okungenzeka kube yizinto eziphilayo ezingabantu noma
ezingebona abantu, ezisuka endaweni eyakhelene nendawo yazo. Laba
bantu abasha abagasela endaweni entsha kungenzeka ukuthi babalekile
endaweni abebehlala kuyona, baze bazithola sebefinyelela endaweni
okuhlala kuyona i-host community. Ku-ekhosistimu yemvelo (bheka i-
“ecosystem”), engaphathelene nabantu, amaxhantela (intruders)
mhlawumbe abengagcina esefile noma-ke mhlawumbe eseshwabadele
ezinye zezinto eziphilayo azithole kuleyo ndawo entsha afikele kuyona,
futhi ngalokho kugcine sekuyiwona ashaya amaphiko phezu kwazo
zonke izinto eziphila kuleyo-ekhosistimu yonkana. Uma amaxhantela
ehluleka ukumelana nesimo asithole lapho kanye nezinye izinto
eziphilayo azithole lapho kuleyo e-khosistimu, ayafa noma adlulele
phambili. Emiphakathini yabantu, “abagaseli” kungenzeka kube
ngabantu ababaleke ezindaweni zabo ngoba besaba ukubulawa, futhi
kube ngabantu abangenabo omazisi nezincwadi ezichazayo ukuthi
bangobani nokuthi bavelaphi, futhi abanokuxhumana okuncane noma
abangenakho nokuncane ukuxhumana nemiphakathi ababaleke kuyona
(bheka i-“refugee”). I-host community kungenzeka ingazamukeli
ngezandla ezifudumele izifikanamthwalo futhi bazixoshe noma
bazibulale nokuzibulala imbala, kodwa-ke lokhu akuyona into evamise
ukwenzeka ngoba abantu abaze bangathanda ukubalekela endaweni
abayaziyo ukuthi ngeke bamukelwe kahle kuyona. Kukhona
nezinhlangano zamazwe ngamazwe ezinjenge-International Red Cross,
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Médecins Sans Frontièrs, Oxfam kanye ne-United Nations High

Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) ezingabasiza ababaleki, futhi zisize
ne-host community ukuthi ikwazi ukumelana nesimo ebhekene naso.
Kodwa-ke kuyinto engephikwe ukuthi abantu be-host community
bazithola bebhekene nenkinga uma kudingeka ukuthi bamukele futhi
baphilisane “nezifikanamthwalo ezivela kwamanye amazwe”. Ngisho
nakulezo ezingebona ababaleki boqobo, kungenzeka kube nezinkinga
njengoba izifikanamthwalo zisebenzisa izinsizakalo zomphakathi,
zidinga usizo lwezempilo kanye nemfundo, zithatha imisebenzi, futhi
azivamisile ukuba yingxenye ye-host community ngokuphelele.
Njengamanje iNingizimu Afrika isingethe izinkulungwane
ngezinkulungwane (noma izigidi ngezigidi imbala) zabantu abadabuka
kwelase-Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Angola, Nigeria, Ghana, Malawi,
Democratic Republic of Congo, Somalia kanye namanye amazwe
amaningi ase-Afrika. Ziningana impela izigameko esezenzekile
eNingizimu Afrika zokuhlaselwa kwabantu abavela emazweni
angaphandle abahlala kuleli, futhi abantu abaningi baseNingizimu Afrika
abakuthokozeli ukuba khona kwabantu bakwamanye amazwe kuleli,
kodwa-ke kuze kube manje abantu baseNingizimu Afrika sebebonise
ukuba yi-host community ezibekezelelayo izifikanamthwalo.
Human Development Index (HDI): A statistical instrument used by the United
Nations (UN) to measure the level of human wellbeing of a community or a specific
group of people in a spatially demarcated or defined area, such as a city, region,
country (but rarely an entire continent except for Australia which is a country as well
as a continent). This index enables us to calculate a single figure or score (between
0 and 1) to express the quality of life of a community or group of people (rather
than their standard of living). Different human and population attributes, or
characteristics, or measurable descriptors can be used to describe the level of
wellbeing in a community. The UN’s index uses a variety of descriptors, including
cultural development, social wellbeing, as well as economic criteria. Attributes such
as life expectancy, literacy, infant mortality, per capita income, gross domestic
product (GDP), political rights, representation in decision-making and governance,
freedom of speech, and many more, can be used to calculate a single figure, called
the human development index (HDI). The UN has, however, standardised on three
specific variables to be used to calculate a score (the HDI) for every country. These
three variables are: average life expectancy at birth, adult literacy rate (measured as
average number of years of schooling), and gross domestic product per capita
(person) converted to purchasing power parity dollars (PPP). The UN Development
Programme updates the published HDIs for all countries on an annual basis. The
UN’s annually published HDIs do not involve any political criteria such as individual
freedom and human rights.

Inkomba Yentuthuko Yabantu (HDI): Ithuluzi lokubala

elisetshenziswa yiNhlangano Yezizwe (UN) ukukala izinga lenhlalakahle
yabantu bomphakathi othile noma izinga lenhlalakahle yeqembu elithile
elihlala endaweni ethile ehlukanisiwe noma echaziwe, enjengedolobha,
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isifunda, noma izwe (kodwa-ke akuvamile ukuthi lokhu kube yizwekazi

eliphelele ngaphandle kwe-Australia ngoba phela yona iyizwe iphinde
futhi ibe yizwekazi). Le nkomba iyasilekelela ukuthi sikwazi ukubala
ngendlela ezokhipha umphumela onedijithi eyodwa (single figure)
(phakathi kuka-0 no-1) ukubonisa ikhwalithi yempilo yomphakathi
othile noma iqembu labantu (esikhundleni sokubonisa izinga lempilo
abayiphilayo [standard of living]). Izici zabantu noma zemiphakathi
ehlukahlukene, noma izinto ezibachazayo ezikalekayo
zingasetshenziswa ukuchaza izinga lenhlalakahle emphakathini.
Inkomba ye-UN isebenzisa izikali ezihlukahlukene ukuchaza
inhlalakahle yabantu, kubandakanya nentuthuko yezamasiko,
inhlalakahle yomphakathi kanye nezinto eziphathelene nezomnotho.
Izici zomphakathi ezinjengobude besikhathi esiphilwa ngabantu
emhlabeni, izinga labantu abakwaziyo ukubhala nokufunda, izinga
lokushona kwezinsana, imali engenayo kumuntu ngamunye, isamba
somkhiqizo wasekhaya (GDP), amalungelo ezepolitiki, ukumeleka
kwabantu ekuthathweni kwezinqumo kanye nakwezokuphatha,
ukukhuluma kwabantu ngokukhululeka, kanye nokunye okuningi,
kungasetshenziswa ukubala idijithi eyodwa ebizwa ngenkomba
yentuthuko yomphakathi (HDI). Kodwa-ke i-UN seyibeke izici
zomphakathi ezintathu okumele zisetshenziswe ukubala i-HDI yezwe
ngalinye. Izici zomphakathi ezibekiwe yilezi: isilinganiso sobude
besikhathi esiphilwa ngabantu emhlabeni, izinga lokukwazi kwabantu
abadala ukubhala nokufunda (elikalwa ngokubheka isilinganiso senani
leminyaka echithwe ngumuntu ngamunye esikoleni), kanye nesamba
somkhiqizo wasekhaya (ngokomuntu ngamunye) esiguquliwe saba
ngamandla okuthenga impahla abalwe ngokwamadola (purchasing
power parity dollars) (PPP). Njalo ngonyaka, i-UN Development
Programme ihlinzeka ngama-HDIs akamuva awo wonke amazwe. Ama-
HDIs e-UN njengoba eshicilelwa njalo ngonyaka, awabandakanyi
nanomi yiziphi izici zamazwe eziphathelene nezepolitiki,
ezinjengenkululeko kanye namalungelo esintu.
I
Incineration: A controlled combustion process to reduce the volume and/or
the mass of waste material. Two distinct types of waste material are routinely
incinerated, namely municipal solid waste and hazardous waste (see “hazardous
waste”). Remember that the most important rule of environmental management is
that “there is no away”, meaning that neither energy nor matter can be destroyed,
and incineration simply reduces the volume of the waste, and the residuals, namely
heat, gasses and ashes must still be disposed of. Incineration is a specialised, costly
waste reduction process, requiring special kilns and an expensive plant, a huge
input of energy to attain the optimum temperatures, special filters, scrubbers and
resins to prevent the release of toxic gasses into the atmosphere and avoid
poisonous air pollution, and special disposal facilities for the residual ash. In many
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developed countries, the waste heat of combustion is used for domestic heating.
Owing to a lack of the required expertise and the costs involved in the process,
incineration is far less often used in developing countries. Waste disposal is a
specialisation field in environmental management, and it is rarely completely
covered by the environmental management acts of any country. Even in South Africa
with its exemplary environmental management legislation, hazardous waste disposal
is covered by separate, very specific legislation.

Ukushiswa kwemfucuza: Inqubo yokushisa ngomlilo

ngenhloso yokunciphisa umthamo kanye/noma ubuningi bemfucuza.
Kunezinhlobo ezihlukene ezimbili zemfucuza evamise ukushiswa
ngomlilo, okuyimfucuza kamasipala eqoqwa amakhaya abantu
nasemabhizinisini kanye nemfucuza enobungozi (bheka i-“hazardous
waste”). Khumbula ukuthi umthetho osemqoka kakhulu wokuphathwa
kwemvelo uthi “there is no away”, okusho ukuthi iziphehlamandla
kanye nezinsalela zezinto ezishisiwe ngeke neze kuphele, futhi
ukushiswa kwemfucuza kuchaza nje kuphela ukuncishiswa komthamo
wemfucuza, futhi izinsalela zalokhu, okuyisivuvu sokushisa, imimoya
engcolile kanye nomlotha kuzomele nakho kulahlwe noma kususwe
ngendlela efanelekile. Ukushiswa kwemfucuza yinqubo edinga ubungoti
futhi emba eqolo yokuncishiswa kwemfucuza, edinga obhayela
abakhethekile kanye nesikhungo esimba eqolo sokwenza lo msebenzi,
nenqwaba yeziphehlamandla ukuze kufinyelelwe kwizingakushisa
eliphakeme kakhulu, ama-special filters, ama-scrubbers kanye nama-
resins ukuze kuvinjelwe ukukhiqizwa kwemimoya engcolile enobuthi
ingakhuphuki iye emkhathini futhi kugwenywe nokungcoliseka komoya
ngenxa yentuthu enoshevu, kanye nezindawo ezikhethekile okuzolahlwa
kuzona izinsalelo zomlotha. Emazweni amaningi esethuthukile, isivuvu
sokushisa esikhiqizwa yinqubo yokushisa imfucuza sisetshenziselwa
ukwenza ugesi osetshenziswa emakhaya. Ngenxa yokungabi nabo
ubungoti bokwenza lo msebenzi kanye nezindleko eziphezulu kakhulu
zalokhu, emazweni asathuthuka kuyinto engavamile neze ukushiswa
kwemfucuza. Ukulahlwa kwemfucuza kuwumkhakha okhethekile
ongaphansi kwezokuphathwa kwemvelo, futhi akuvamile ukuthi
kulawuleke ngokuphelele ngaphansi kwemithetho yezokuphathwa
kwemvelo yanoma iliphi izwe. Ngisho neNingizimu Afrika imbala, nakuba
inemithetho eyisibonelo esihle yezokuphathwa kwemvelo, ukulahlwa
kwemfucuza enobungozi kulawulwa ngaphansi komthetho ohlukile
oqondiswe ngqo kulokhu.
Industrial Revolution: The huge cultural shift in which manual labour was being
replaced by mechanised processes. It started in England in the mid-1700s and
spread to the (then) Northern Americas in the 1800s. By about 1850–1860 the (now)
United States of America (despite of – and as a result of – the American Civil War),
the United Kingdom and parts of Western Europe were all gripped in this massive
conversion to industrialised manufacturing. The industrial revolution had irreversibly
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changed the world and the entire global ecosystem. It spelled the end of the age of a
rural, localised, independent, subsistence and low-production commercial lifestyles
and hand-made tools in the (now) developed countries, and the emergence of the
reliance on non-renewable fossil fuels and machine-made goods in the largest
economies of the developed world. The environment was seriously degraded by this
dependence on coal, oil and gas to drive the machines in the centralised factories in
the industrialised towns especially those that quickly grew into large cities. In the
(now) developed countries, people moved from the rural areas to the cities to find
employment in the factories. This changed the provision of services since all these
newly urbanised people required religious, educational and medical services. And –
unfortunately – the concerning environmental issues of air pollution, water pollution,
waste management, infrastructure construction, and many more, were created. In
order to secure the necessary raw materials for the manufacturing industry, the rural
regions were also affected by increased mining, infrastructure, telecommunication
networks, water provision to the cities, industrial pollution in water sources and in the
atmosphere, acid rain, and many more. The developing countries were also affected
since many of the raw materials and the labour for the industries were obtained from
the (then) underdeveloped countries.

Uguquko Olukhulukazi Lwezezimboni (Industrial Revolution):

Uguquko olukhulu kwindlela okwakwenziwa ngayo izinto lapho
imisebenzi eyabe yenziwa ngezandla yaqala ukwenziwa yimishini. Lolu
guquko lwaqala eNgilandi maphakathi neminyaka yawo-1700 kanti
ngeminyaka yawo-1800 lwasabalala lwayofinyelela kwizwekazi elabe
libizwa nge-Northern Americas ngaleso sikhathi. Ngeminyaka yawo-
1850–1860 i-United States of America (njengoba seyibizwa kanjalo
namuhla), (nakuba yayikade ibandakanyeke empini, i-American Civil
War) ne-United Kingdom kanye nezingxenye ezithile ze-Western Europe
babematasa kakhulu futhi bephishekile ngalolu guquko olukhulukazi
lokuguqukela kule nqubo yokukhiqiza impahla ngemishini ezimbonini. I-
industrial revolution yawuguqula kakhulu umhlaba, kanye ne-
ekhosistimu yomhlaba yonkana, futhi lokhu kwenzeka ngendlela
eyayingeke neze ibuyiseleke emuva. Ukufika kwalolu guquko olukhulu
kwaphelisa isikhathi sokwenza izinto ngendlela egxile ezindaweni
zasemakhaya, yokusebenza ngokuzimela, futhi ehambisana nomkhiqizo
ophansi owenzelwe ikakhulukazi ukuziphilisa nokuzitholela okuya
ngasethunjini futhi kwaqeda nokusetshenziswa kwamathuluzi enziwe
ngesandla kulawo mazwe namuhla asebizwa ngamazwe asethuthukile,
futhi kwaqalisa ukuthembela kwiziphehlamandla ezimbiwa phansi,
ezingavuseleleki, kanye nezimpahla ezikhiqizwe ngomshini, emazweni
ayesethuthukile futhi ayeneminotho emikhulukazi emhlabeni. Imvelo
yacekeleka phansi kakhulu ngenxa yalokhu kuthembela emalahleni,
nowoyela kanye negesi yemvelo njengeziphahlamandla zokuqhuba
imishini emafemini abe akhiwe esizindeni esikhulu esisodwa
emadolobeni okwase kusungulwe kuwona izimboni eziningi,
ikakhulukazi lawo madolobha akhula ngokushesha agcina
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esengamadolobha amakhulukazi. Kulawo mazwe asebizwa ngamazwe

asethuthukile kulezi zinsuku, abantu bathutha ezindaweni zasemakhaya
bafudukela emadolobheni, ngenhloso yokuyozitholela amatoho
emafemini. Lokhu kwaletha uquguko ekuhlinzekweni kwezinsizakalo
zomphakathi ngoba phela bonke laba bantu ababesanda kufudukela
emadolobheni babedinga izinsizakalo ezihlukahlukene, njengezenkolo,
ezemfundo kanye nosizo lokwelashwa. Futhi-ke – ngelishwa – lokhu
kwadala izinkinga zemvelo ezinkulu impela, njengokungcoliseka
komoya, ukungcoliseka kwamanzi, ukuphathwa kwemfucuza,
ukwakhiwa kwengqalasizinda, kanye nokunye okuningi. Ngenxa yokuthi
kwakumele kutholakale ama-raw materials ayedingwa yimboni
yezokukhiqiza, izifunda ezithile ezindaweni zasemakhaya nazo zazithola
sezikhahlamezekile ngenxa yokukhula komsebenzi wezimayini,
ingqalasizinda, amanethiwekhi okuxhumana ngezingcingo,
ukuhlinzekwa kwamanzi emadolobheni, ukungcoliseka kwamanzi
nomoya ngenxa yezinsalela zemikhiqizo kanye nemfucuza ephuma
ezimbonini, imvula ene-asidi, kanye nokunye okuningi. Amazwe
asathuthuka nawo akhahlamezeka ngoba iningi lama-raw materials
kanye nabasebenzi bezimboni kwakulandwa emazweni ayethathwa
njengamazwe ayengakathuthuki, ngaleso sikhathi.
Infiltration capacity: The maximum rate at which water percolates downwards
into the soil and eventually into the underlying rockbed. The rate depends on the
shape of the grains (particles) in the soil and substrate. Rounded grains – like sand
grains on a beach – have a high infiltration capacity because there are large pores
between the grains. If the grains are angular, there is less pore-space available and
when the grains are flat, as in clay or silt, there is very little pore-space and the
infiltration capacity of the material is low. The term is also used to denote the rate at
which pollutants percolate into and contaminate a subsurface water source.

Umkhawulomthamo wokumunceka kwamanzi: Umkhawulosigcino

wezinga okumunceka ngalo amanzi ngenkathi engena emhlabathini ehle
aze ayofinyelela emadwaleni emajukujukwini omhlaba. Izinga
lokumunceka kwamanzi lincike kwisimo sokwakheka kwezinhlayiya
zomhlabathi kanye nezinto eziyingxenye yomhlabathi (substrate).
Izinhlayiya eziyimbulunga – njengezinhlayiya zesihlabathi ebhishi –
zinomkhawulomthamo wokumunceka kwamanzi ophakeme ngoba
zinezikhala ezinkulu phakathi kwazo. Uma izinhlayiya zitshekile
(angular), sincane isikhala esikhona phakathi kwazo futhi uma
izinhlayiya ziyisicaba, njengezinhlayiya zobumba noma zodaka, sincane
kakhulu isikhala esikhona phakathi kwazo futhi umkhawulomathamo
wokumunceka kwamanzi walezi zinhlayiya uphansi. Leli temu
lisetshenziselwa futhi nokubonisa izinga lokumunceka kwezinto
ezingcolisa imithombo yamanzi ngaphansi komhlaba, nokuthi lezi zinto
ziwangcolisa kangakanani amanzi.
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Infrastructure: The stock of fixed assets and capital equipment, including

factories, roads, schools, railways, water reticulation networks, landing strips,
communication networks, power lines, all manner of buildings and built structures,
and all the human-made (anthropogenic) assets in a country, region, city or area.
Infrastructure is considered as a determinant of economic growth. Economic growth
is positively correlated with human-made assets – the more assets (infrastructure)
there are in an area or place, the higher is its level of economic development.
Infrastructure is both a prerequisite for and a result of industrial and economic
development.

Ingqalasizinda: Isitokwe sempahlangcebo empilonde kanye nempahla

yokusebenza, kubandakanya amafemu, imigwaqo, izikole, ujantshi,
amanethiwekhi okuthunyelwa kwamanzi, imizila yokuhlalisa
amabhanoyi, amanethiwekhi ezokuxhumana, izintambo zikagesi, zonke
izinhlobo zezakhiwo kanye nayo yonke impahla eyakhiwe ngabantu
edolobheni noma endaweni ethile. Ingqalasizinda ithathwa njengento
eyisisekelo sokukhula komnotho. Ukukhula komnotho kunokuhambelana
okuhle nempahla eyakhiwe ngabantu – uma kukhona impahla
(ingqalasizinda) eningi endaweni ethile, leyo ndawo iba nentuthuko
ephakeme. Ingqalasizinda iyimfuneko edingeka kuqala iphinde futhi ibe
ngumphumela wentuthuko yezimboni kanye nomnotho.
International conventions: Strictly speaking the term refers to a large, formal
assembly (or conference) of a group of states with a common interest. The common
interest might be political, militaristic, economic, and so forth, and from the second
half of the 1900s the environment has become one of the most concerning interests
of all nations and states. Numerous international environmental conventions have
been assembled since then. The United Nations (UN) obviously plays a huge role in
organising and funding these conventions. At these events, high-level political and/or
scientific representatives of almost all the states in the world are mandated to convey
their respective states’ view on global environmental issues. In many cases the
heads of state themselves represent their states’ interests, but they are, of course,
advised by a panel of scientists and diplomats. Owing to the authority vested in the
representatives, all decisions made and ratified (that is, agreed and signed) are
legally binding on all the signatories. Some represented organisations or states
might decide not to ratify the decisions, and they are, of course, not compelled or
forced to do so. Environmental lobbies, power groups (or activist groups) and non-
governmental environmental organisations (NGOs) are regularly present in force at
these conventions, but their signing rights are often restricted and their ratification of
decisions cannot legally bind any state to the decisions made. These conventions
are extremely important opportunities for environmental lobbies, activists and NGOs
to lobby and propagate their viewpoints about the environmental issues they are
involved in. Some of the more well-known environmental or economic or political
organisations that never miss an international convention, are Green Peace, the
International Nuclear Event Organisation (INEO), the British Standards Institute
(BSI), Earth Life Africa, the European Union (EU), the Environmental Protection
Agency of the USA (EPA), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD), the International Standards Organisation (ISO), the
International Committee on Radiation Protection (ICRP), the International Maritime
Organisation (IMO), the Group of Seven (now Eight) which includes the seven (or
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eight) most powerful economies in the world, the BRICS countries (see ”developing
countries”), the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the
United Nations Environmental Protection Agency (UNEP or UNEPA), the World
Trade Organisation (WTO), the World Health Organisation (WHO), UNESCO, the
World Wildlife Fund (WWF), the International Convention on Trade in Endangered
Species (CITES), the Wildlife and Environmental Society of South Africa (WESSA),
and many, many more. Some of the most famous international environmental
conventions are the Stockholm Declaration of 1972 where it was decided that states
should co-operate to develop international law regarding liability and compensation
for environmental pollution; the Maastricht Treaty and the Lomé Conventions number
I to IV of the late 1980s which were attempts at advancing international co-operation
on environmental regulations; the Ramsar Convention of 1971 on the international
co-operation to protect (see “wetlands”); the Montreal Protocol of 1987, where the
industrial scale use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) was banned; and the Basel
Convention of 1989 which was an attempt to regulate the cross-border transport of
hazardous (especially radio-active) waste. The single most well-publicised (and
probably the largest) international environmental convention ever held was the UN
Conference on Environment and Development (colloquially known as the “Earth
Summit”) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (see “environmental justice”). The most
important resolution decided on at that conference was the Convention on the
Protection of Biodiversity, which was later refined and incorporated into a very
important document, called Agenda 21. At the Earth Summit serious discussions
commenced about limiting the volumes of carbon dioxides and other greenhouse
gasses the different economies (states and certain groups of states) may annually
release into the atmosphere. However, little progress was made since the poor,
developing countries and the rich, developed countries could not come to any
agreement. However, once aired, the issue could not be avoided or suppressed any
longer. It led to a conference in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997. There it was decided that
every state would be allowed a certain amount of air pollution in that each respective
state is allocated a specific volume of greenhouse gasses that may be released into
the atmosphere annually. The so-called “carbon quotas” allocated to a number of the
highly developed, industrial states were not acceptable to all of them, notably the
USA, Australia, China and India. Consequently, they did not ratify the protocol. The
10th anniversary of the Earth Summit took place in Johannesburg in 2002, but very
little was achieved at this occasion except for an acknowledgement that the carbon
quotas set in 1992 were probably unrealistic. From the examples listed above, it is
clear that the word “convention” is often replaced by “declaration”, “summit”,
“agreement”, “treaty” or “protocol”, so it could be somewhat confusing. It is advised
that the word “convention” be reserved to describe the actual meeting, debating and
decision-making, while the other terms are reserved to describe the records of
decisions made at the conventions. (See “international protocols”.)

Imibuthano yamazwe ngamazwe: Uma sikubeka ngendlela

eqondile nje, leli temu lisho umbuthano noma ingqungquthela enkulu
ehlelekile, yeqembu lamazwe anezimfuno nenzinjongo ezifanayo.
Izinjongo ezifanayo kungaba yizinto eziphathelene nezepolitiki, ezempi,
ezomnotho, njalo njalo, futhi kusukela ngesigamu sesibili seminyaka
yawo-1900 ezemvelo zaba ngenye yezinto ezadala ukukhathazeka
kakhulu kuwo wonke amazwe omhlaba. Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi,
miningi impela imibuthano yezemvelo yamazwe wonke omhlaba
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esibanjiwe. Ngokucacile, iNhlangano Yezizwe (UN) idlala indima

esemqoka kakhulu ekuhleleni lemi buthano nokuyixhasa ngezimali. Kule
mibuthano, abameleli bezepolitiki kanye/noma bezesayensi
abasezikhundleni eziphakeme abavela cishe kuwona wonke amazwe
emhlabeni jikelele banikezwe igunya lokudlulisa imibono yamazwe abo
mayelana nezindaba zemvelo emhlabeni wonkana. Esikhathini esiningi
kuba yizinhloko zemibuso ngokwazo ezimele izimfuno zamazwe azo,
kodwa-ke phela lokho zikwenza ngokwelulekwa yithimba lososayensi
kanye nosomaqhinga. Ngenxa yamandla negunya elinikezwe abameleli
bamazwe, zonke izinqumo ezenziwe futhi zagunyazwa (okusho ukuthi,
okuvunyelwane ngazo futhi zasayinwa) ziyisibopho esisemthethweni
kuwo wonke amazwe asayine isivumelwano. Ezinye izinhlangano noma
amazwe ayingxenye yombuthano kuyenzeka anqume ukungazigunyazi
izinqumo ezithathwe kulowo mbuthano futhi-ke, awaphoqelekile
ukugunyaza nokwamukela lezo zinqumo. Izinhlangano ezigqugquzela
ukuvikelwa nokulondolozwa kwemvelo, amaqembu ezishoshovu
zemvelo kanye nezinhlangano ezingekho ngaphansi kohulumeni
(NGOs) zivamise ukuphuma ngobuningi ziyokwethamela le mibuthano,
kodwa-ke amalungelo azo okusayina izivumelwano anemikhawulo futhi
ukugunyaza kwazo izinqumo akusona isibopho kunoma yiliphi izwe
sokuzibophezela kulezo zinqumo ezithathiwe. Le mibuthano isemqoka
kakhulu ezinhlanganweni ezigqugquzela ukuvikelwa nokulondolozwa
kwemvelo, nasemaqenjini ezishoshovu zemvelo kanye nakuma-NGO
ngoba zihlinzeka ngethuba lokwazisa kanye nokunxenxa ukusekelwa
kwemibono yawo mayelana nezindaba zemvelo ababandakanyeka
kuzona. Ezinye zezinhlangano zemvelo noma zomnotho noma zepolitiki
ezidumile ezingaphuthelwa neze yimibuthano yamazwe ngamazwe yi-
Green Peace, International Nuclear Event Organisation (INEO), British
Standards Institute (BSI), Earth Life Africa, European Union (EU),
Environmental Protection Agency of the USA (EPA), Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), International
Standards Organisation (ISO), International Committee on Radiation
Protection (ICRP), International Maritime Organisation (IMO), Group of
Seven (okuyiqembu njengamanje eselinamazwe ayisiShiyagalombili)
elibandakanya amazwe ayisikhombisa (noma ayisishiyagalombili)
aneminotho emikhulukazi emhlabeni, amazwe e-BRICS (bheka ama-
”developing countries”), United Nations Convention of the Law of the
Sea (UNCLOS), United Nations Environmental Protection Agency
(UNEP noma UNEPA), World Trade Organisation (WTO), World Health
Organisation (WHO), UNESCO, World Wildlife Fund (WWF),
International Convention on Trade in Endangered Species (CITES),
Wildlife and Environmental Society of South Africa (WESSA), kanye
nezinye izinhlangano eziningi impela. Eminye yemibuthano edume
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kakhulu yamazwe ngamazwe yezemvelo yi-Stockholm Declaration

yowe-1972 lapho kwathathwa khona isinqumo sokuthi amazwe kumele
abambisane ukuthuthukisa umthetho wamazwe omhlaba mayelana
nokuthweswa icala nokukhokhwa kwesinxephezelo esiphathelene
nokungcoliseka kwemvelo; i-Maastricht Treaty kanye nemiButhano
yase-Lomé, unombolo I kuya ku-IV eyabanjwa ngasekupheleni
kweminyaka yawo-1980 okwabe kuyimizamo yokuqhubekisela phambili
ukubambisana kwamazwe omhlaba mayelana nemithethonqubo
yezemvelo; i-Ramsar Convention yowe-1971 mayelana nokubambisana
kwamazwe omhlaba ekuvikelweni kwamaxhaphozi (bheka ama-
“wetlands”); i-Montreal Protocol yowe-1987, lapho kwathathwa khona
isinqumo sokwenqabela ukusetshenziswa kwe-chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) ngokomthamo okhiqizwa ezimbonini; kanye ne-Basel
Convention yowe-1989 eyabe ingumzamo wokulawula ukuthuthwa
kwemfucuza enobungozi (ikakhulukazi leyo esabalalisa imisebe
enobuthi [radio-active]) inqamule imingcele yamazwe ngamazwe.
Umbuthano owodwa owaduma kakhulu, mhlawumbe futhi okwaba
wumbuthano omkhulu kunayo yonke imibuthano yamazwe ngamazwe
yezemvelo eyake yabanjwa, yi-UN Conference on Environment and
Development (ngolimi lwasemgwaqeni okuthiwa yi-“Earth Summit”)
eyabanjelwa e-Rio de Janeiro ngowe-1992 (bheka i-“environmental
justice”). Isinqumo esibaluleke kunazo zonke esathathwa kuleyo
ngqungquthela yisivumelwano sokuvikelwa kwemvelo esibizwa nge-
Convention on the Protection of Biodiversity, esathuthukiswa futhi
senziwa ngcono ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, emva kwalokho sabe
sesifakwa embhalweni osemqoka kakhulu obizwa nge-Agenda 21. Ku-
Earth Summit kwaqaliswa izingxoxo ezinohlonze mayelana nokubekwa
komkhawulo nokunciphisa umthamo we-carbon dioxide kanye namanye
ama-greenhouse gasses angakhiqizwa yiminotho (amazwe kanye
namaqembu athile) ehlukahlukene ngonyaka, akhuphukela emkhathini.
Kodwa-ke, incane inqubekelaphambili eyenziwa mayelana nalokhu
ngoba amazwe asathuthuka ahlwempu kanye namazwe asethuthukile
acebile awakwazanga ukufinyelela esivumelwaneni. Kepha-ke, emva
kokubekwa kwalolu daba esidlangalaleni, kwaba nzima ukulugwema
noma ukulucindezela. Lokhu kwaholela engqungqutheleni eyabanjelwa
e-Kyoto, kwelase-Japan, ngowe-1997. Kuleyo ngqungquthela
kwathathwa isinqumo sokuthi wonke amazwe ayezovunyelwa
ukukhiqiza umthamo othile wentuthu engcolisa umoya, njengoba izwe
ngalinye labekelwa umthamo othile wama-greenhouse gasses
elingawakhiqiza ayongena emkhathini njalo ngonyaka. Ama-“carbon
quotas” ayenikezwe amazwe amaningana asethuthukile, awazange
amukeleke kwamanye alawo mazwe, ikakhulukazi i-USA, Australia,
China kanye ne-India. Ngenxa yalokho-ke lawa mazwe awazange
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asisayine isivumelwano. Ingqungquthela yomgubho we-10 we-Earth

Summit yabanjelwa eGoli ngowezi-2002, kodwa kuncane kakhulu
okwazuzwa kuleyo ngqungquthela ngaphandle kokuvuma kwezithunywa
ukuthi ama-carbon quotas ayebekwe ngowe-1992 mhlawumbe
ayeyiphupho nje elalingeke lifinyeleleke. Uma kubhekwa izibonelo
ezihlinzekwe lapha ngenhla kuyacaca ukuthi kwesinye isikhathi
kunamanye amagama avamise ukusetshenziswa esikhundleni segama
elithi “umbuthano” (“convention”), okuyilawa alandelayo, “isimemezelo”
(“declaration”), “ingqungquthela” (“summit”), “isivumelwano”
(“agreement”), noma “iprothokholi”, ngakho-ke kwesinye isikhathi lokhu
kungadala ukudideka. Kungaba ngcono ukuthi igama elithi “umbuthano”
(“convention”) lisetshenziswe kuphela maqondana nomhlangano,
ukuxoxisana kanye nokuthathwa kwezinqumo, bese kuthi lawa amanye
asetshenziselwe ukuchaza amarekhodi ezinqumo ezithathwe
embuthanweni. (Bheka ama-“international protocols”.)
International protocols: The official, authoritative memorandums or records of the
agreements reached at international environmental conventions (see “international
convention”). These documents stipulate the actions or steps that every signatory
state has to execute to reach the benchmarks agreed upon at the negotiations (the
states that have not ratified a protocol, need not strive to attain the benchmarks).
See “international conventions” for examples.

Amaprothokholi amazwe ngamazwe: Amamemorandamu

asemthethweni futhi agunyaziwe noma amarekhodi ezivumelwano
okufinyelelwe kuzona emibuthanweni yamazwe ngamazwe yezemvelo
(bheka i-“international convention”). Le mibhalo ibeka izinyathelo
okumele zithathwe yizwe ngalinye elisayine isivumelwano ukuze
kufinyelelwe emaqophelweni abekiwe okuvunyelwane ngawo ngenkathi
kubanjwe izingxoxo (asikho isidingo sokuthi lawo mazwe
angasisayinanga isivumelwano azabalazele ukufinyelela
emaqophelweni abekiwe). Bheka ama-“international conventions” ukuze
uthole izibonelo.
Intervening opportunity: The existence of a place, entity or a condition which
influences the spatial interaction between two places that are situated some distance
apart. Interaction is always influenced by the distance between two places and the
rule of thumb is that interaction is inversely proportional to the distance between
them. The longer the distance between two places, the higher is the distance decay
which limits interaction between them, and consequently the less interaction will
occur. However, distance decay between two places might be greatly influenced or
overcome by the occurrence of a desirable place or entity between the two places.
Such a place is called an intervening opportunity and it might be anything from a
mine, town, game reserve, cultural or religious site, place of exceptional natural
beauty or any other place that people would want to visit or do business in. It is an
extremely important principle in the geography of economics and the geography of
tourism, because a tourist site located somewhere near or between two or more
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important cities would definitely be visited by more people than one which far away
from the main transport networks. In essence an intervening site is just another site
for doing business in the near vicinity of existing main business sites or tourist
destinations. However, entrepreneurs who wish to establish tourist destinations
would be well advised to seek out localities that would benefit from the vicinity of
other major attractions. The Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site is fortunate in
that it is located in Gauteng near both Pretoria and Johannesburg, while tourist
destinations such as Dullstroom, Sabie and Graskop could all be seen as intervening
opportunities between Johannesburg (and Pretoria) and the Kruger National Park.

I-intervening opportunity: Ukuba khona kwendawo, isikhungo esithile

noma isimo esinomthelela ekuxhumaneni phakathi kwezindawo ezimbili
eziqhelelene. Ibanga phakathi kwezindawo ezimbili lihlala njalo
linomthelela ekuxhumaneni kwalezo zindawo futhi into ejwayelekile
wukuthi ukuxhumana phakathi kwalezo zindawo kunciphe noma
kuphuke ngokusondela noma ngokuqhela kwebanga elisuka
endaweni ethile liya kwenye (inversely proportional). Uma lilide
ibanga phakathi kwezindawo ezimbili lokho kukhuphula amathuba
okuncipha kokuxhumana (distance decay) ngenxa yokuqhelelana
kwezindawo, futhi ngenxa yalokho kugcina sekunciphile ukuxhumana
phakathi kwezindawo ezimbili. Kodwa-ke, ukuncipha kwamathuba
okuxhumana phakathi kwezindawo ezimbili kungavimbeleka noma
kugwemeke ngokuba khona kwendawo noma isizinda esithandekayo
futhi esihehayo esitholakala phakathi kwalezo zindawo ezimbili
eziqhelelene. Indawo enjalo ibizwa nge-intervening opportunity, futhi
leyo ndawo kungaba yimayini, idolobha, isiqiwu, isizinda sendabuko
noma sezenkolo, noma indawo enobuhle bemvelo obumangalisayo,
kanye nanoma iyiphi enye indawo abantu abangathanda ukuyivakashela
noma ukwenza ibhizinisi kuyona. Lona wumgomo osemqoka kakhulu
kwijografi yezomnotho noma kwijografi yezokuvakasha, ngoba isizinda
esiheha abavakashi esisendaweni ethile eseduze noma ephakathi
kwamadolobha asemqoka amabili noma ngaphezulu, nakanjani
sizovakashelwa ngabantu abaningi kunesikhungo esikude kakhulu
nezizinda ezigcwele izinto zokuthutha nemigwaqo emikhulu. Empeleni
isizinda esiphakathi kwezinye (intervening site) sithathwa njengesinye
nje isizinda sokwenza ibhizinisi esiseduze kwezizinda zebhizinisi
ezikhona ezinkulu noma izizinda zabavakashi. Kodwa-ke,
osomabhizinisi abafisa ukusungula izizinda zabavakashi kungaba
wumqondo omuhle ukuthi bazisungule endaweni lapho bezokwazi
khona ukuhlomula ngokuba seduze kwezinye izikhungo ezinkulu
eziheha abavakashi. I-Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site yona
inenhlanhla ngoba itholakala e-Gauteng phakathi kwawo womabili
amadolobha amakhulu iPitoli neGoli, futhi kusenjalo izindawo eziheha
abavakashi ezinjenge-Dullstroom, Sabie kanye ne-Graskop
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zingathathwa njengezindawo ezingama-intervening opportunities

eziphakathi kwe-Goli (noma iPitoli) ne-Kruger National Park.
ISO 14000: The internationally accepted environmental management
standards and best practice environmental benchmarks that guide all environmental
management, decision-making and environmentally sustainable development
actions. All developed states and many developing ones have some standards body
or other. All national standards bodies, however, defer to the International Standards
Organisation (ISO) and in many cases simply use the ISO’s standards. As far as
environmental management standards in the current globalised world are concerned,
the ISO’s standards are universally used. The South African Bureau of Standards
(SABS) is a highly acclaimed institution that has independently set numerous
standards over many decades, but when it comes to standards for environmental
decision-making, it – too – simply applies the ISO’s standards. The ISO’s
environmental standards series is the ISO 14000 programme which is underpinned
by the somewhat older ISO 9000 series for best-practice. Since the entire world uses
the ISO 14000 (and the newer ISO 14001) series for environmental decision-making,
it simplifies international co-operation, cross-border activities or trans-boundary
developments to a great extent. Had this not been the case, the proliferating trans-
boundary natural wilderness areas and game reserves that are fast becoming true
money-spinners for the world-wide tourism industry, would hardly have been a
feasible option.

ISO 14000: Amazinga okuphathwa kwemvelo amukelekile

emhlabeni jikelele kanye nezindlela zokusebenza ngemvelo eziphuma
phambili, ezihola futhi ziqondise konke okuphathelene nokuphathwa
kwemvelo, ukuthathwa kwezinqumo kanye nemisebenzi yentuthuko
eqondene nokusimama kwemvelo. Wonke amazwe asethuthukile kanye
namanye amaningi asathuthuka anezinhlangano zokuqinisekisa
ukuthotshelwa kwamazinga, noma-ke ezinye izinhlangano ezenza into
enjengaleyo. Kepha-ke, zonke izinhlangano zikazwelonke
zokuqinisekiswa kwamazinga zinomkhuba wokudlulisela amagunya azo
ku-International Standards Organisation (ISO) futhi esikhathini esiningi
izinhlangano zisebenzisa amazinga e-ISO. Mayelana namazinga
okuphathwa kwemvelo, kulo mhlaba oxhumene kakhulu esiphila kuwona
njengamanje futhi njengoba kunokusebenzisana okukhulu kwamazwe
omhlaba, amazinga e-ISO asetshenziswa emhlabeni wonkana. I-South
African Bureau of Standards (SABS) yisikhungo esihlonishwa kakhulu
esibeke, ngokuzimela, amazinga amaningi impela kule minyaka
engamashumi-shumi sisebenza, kepha uma sekuza odabeni
lokuthathwa kwezinqumo mayelana namazinga emvelo, naso lesi
sikhungo imbala, sisebenzisa amazinga e-ISO. Uchungechunge
lwamazinga emvelo e-ISO wuhlelo lwe-ISO 14000 olusekelwe
wuchungechunge oseluthanda ukuba ludadlana i-ISO 9000
lokuqinisekisa ukulandelwa kwezindlela zokusebenza eziphuma
phambili. Njengoba umhlaba wonkana usebenzisa uchungechunge
lokuthathwa kwezinqumo eziphathelene nemvelo i-ISO 14000 (kanye
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ne-ISO 14001 entsha), lokho kwenza lula ukubambisana kwamazwe

omhlaba, nemisebenzi eyenziwa phakathi kwemingcele yamazwe
ngamazwe futhi ikakhulukazi nemiklamo yokusebenzisana kwamazwe,
egxamalazele imingcele yezifunda ezihlukahlukene. Ukuba
bekungenjalo, bekungeke neze kwenzeke lokhu kusabalala nokukhula
kwesibalo sezindawo zemvelo neziqiwu ezigxamalazele imingcele
yamazwe amabili noma ngaphezulu eseziqala ukungenisa imali enkulu
impela embonini yezokuvakasha emhlabeni wonke jikelele.
Isometric line (isoline): A line drawn on a map to connect the points with
equal values for a certain variable in a specific study area. The underlying
assumption is that all the points on that line have the same value for that particular
variable. Altitude (height above sea-level) may serve as a variable for explanation.
No area on the Earth’s surface is as flat as a table top; even the “flattest areas” on
the surface (such as the Springbokvlakte on the boundary between Gauteng and
Limpopo Provinces) which seems to be as even and flat as anything could be, is
uneven and some places (areas) are higher above sea-level than others, albeit by
only a few centimetres. Land surveyors use navigational instruments (which
nowadays are very sophisticated) to measure the altitude at a number of points in
the relevant area. The height above sea-level (altitude) of the prominent high points
(called spot heights when they are plotted on a map) and the lowest points are
always measured (or surveyed) and the surveyors cover the area with as many
measured points as necessary for their triangulations or whatever other objectives
they might have (and their budget would allow). From their field survey they have
produced a map with a collection of plotted points and their heights above sea-level,
but no spatial pattern can be detected on such a map and no three dimensional
visualization of the area is possible. However, geographers always study spatial
patterns, and they need to visualize the Earth’s surface in three dimensions. Adding
isometric lines to the aforementioned map produced by the surveyors, makes
geographical study of the area possible. When altitude is the variable under
investigation, the isolines are called contour lines and the map is called a contour
map; ioshyets are lines that connect points with equal rainfall on a rainfall map,
and isotherms are lines of equal temperature on any climatic map, and so forth.
Contour maps form the basic working maps for just about any empirical geographical
investigation because a geographer has a practised eye and immediately “reads” the
area on a contour map in three dimensions. It is, however, rather tricky to convert a
map with spot heights into a contour map, that is, to derive line data (linear data)
from point data. It requires familiarity with the process of interpolation which is
something one learns from hours and hours of practise. Yet, experienced
geographers do it amazingly fast; in fact, it becomes a geographer’s second nature.
(See “interpolation” and “spatial interpolation”.)

I-isometric line (isoline): Umugqa odwetshwa kwibalazwe

oxhumanisa amaphoyinti amabili anamanani alinganayo, ento ethile,
endaweni ethile okwenziwa kuyona ucwaningo. Umbono oyisisekelo
mayelana nalokhu wukuthi wonke amaphoyinti kulowo mugqa anenani
elifanayo laleyonto ecwaningwayo. Ukuphakama kwendawo ethile
kusuka olwandle kungasetshenziswa njengento ecwaningwayo okumele
ichazwe. Ayikho ingxenye yomhlaba eyisicaba njengengxenye yetafula
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engaphezulu (table top); ngisho nezingxenye “eziyithafa kakhulu”

emhlabeni (njengamathafa ase-Springbokvlakte emngceleni ophakathi
kwesifundazwe sase-Gauteng kanye ne-Limpopo) ezibonakala
ziyisicaba noma ziyithafa kakhulu, zinakho ukungalingani okuthile futhi
izindawo ezithile ziphakeme kakhudlwana kusuka olwandle uma
ziqhathaniswa nezinye, nakuba umehluko ungaba ngamasentimitha
ambadlwana nje. Abacwaningi bomhlaba (land surveyors) basebenzisa
amathuluzi okufuna nokuthola indawo ethile ukuthi ikuphi emhlabeni
(okungamathuluzi anobuxhakaxhaka besimanjemanje obukwazi
ukwenza imigilingwane eminingi kulezi zinsuku) ukukala ukuphakama
kwendawo kusuka olwandle, emaphoyintini amaningana kuleyo ndawo
ekalwayo. Ukuphakama kusuka olwandle kwezindawo ezithile
eziphakeme ngokuphawulekayo futhi ezigqamile (ezibizwa ngama-spot
heights uma ziboniswa ebalazweni) kanye nezindawo eziphansi
kakhulu, kuyakalwa ngaso sonke isikhathi uma kucwaningwa indawo
futhi abacwaningi bomhlaba bagcwalisa indawo ethile ngamaphoyinti
akaliwe amaningi ngokudingekayo ukuze bakwazi ukwenza izilinganiso
zabo zobude nesimo sendawo (triangulations) noma ukufezekisa ezinye
izinjongo zabo (futhi uma ibhajethi ibavumela). Ngokususela
ocwaningweni lwendawo abalwenzile, sebekhiqize ibalazwe
elineqoqwana lamaphoyinti abawabonisile ebalazweni kanye nobungako
bokuphakama kwawo kusuka olwandle, kodwa ayikho iphethini yesimo
sendawo engabonakala kwibalazwe elinjalo futhi awukho umfanekiso
ongenzeka onhlangothi-ntathu (three dimensional visualization) waleyo
ndawo. Kepha-ke, izazi zejografi ziyawacwaninga ngaso sonke isikhathi
amaphethini esimo sendawo futhi-ke kuyadingeka ukuthi zenze
umfanekiso onhlangothi-ntathu wobuso bomhlaba. Ukwengeza ama-
isometric lines kuleli balazwe elishiwo ngenhla elikhiqizwe
ngabacwaningi bomhlaba, kwenza ukuthi leyo ndawo icwaningeke
ngokwejografi. Uma into ecwaningwayo kuwukuphakama kwendawo
kusuka olwandle, ama-isolines abizwa ngokuthi ngama-contour lines
futhi ibalazwe libizwa nge-contour map; ama-ioshyets yimigqa
exhumanisa amaphoyinti anezinga lemvula elilinganayo ebalazweni
elibonisa imvula, futhi ama-isotherms yimigqa ebonisa izingakushisa
elilinganayo kunoma iliphi ibalazwe lesimo sezulu, njalo njalo. Ama-
contour maps ngamabalazwe okusebenza ayisisekelo
angasetshenziselwa nanoma yiluphi ucwaningo lwejografi oluphathelene
nezinto ezibonakele ngamehlo ngoba phela izazi zejografi zinamehlo
anobungoti futhi akwaziyo “ukufunda” ngokushesha indawo ku-contour
map ngokwesimo sayo esiwunhlangothi-ntathu. Kepha-ke, kuyinto
ethanda ukuba nzima ukuguqula ibalazwe elinama-spot heights libe yi-
contour map, okusho, ukuthola nokutomula idatha yomugqa (line data)
kwidatha yephoyinti (point data). Lokhu kudinga ulwazi olunzulu
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lwenqubo ye-interpolation, okuyinto umuntu ayifunda emva kwesikhathi

eside eyizama. Kepha, izazi zejografi ezinesipiliyoni lokhu zikwenza
ngokushesha okumangalisayo; empeleni lokhu kugcina sekuyinto
ejwayelekile futhi ezenzekelayo nje kwizazi zejografi. (Bheka i-
“interpolation” kanye ne-“spatial interpolation”.)
Interpolation: In Geography this entails the process of inserting a justifiable
value or values between already established or accurately measured values plotted
on a map. It is basically a process of making educated guesses. Geographers take
all the already measured values, empirically determined measurements and all other
spatial information about the mapped area into account and make scientifically
responsible estimations of what the unmeasured values might be. Interpolation and
estimation lies at the very core of spatial research. Despite the fact that interpolation
inevitably includes a certain degree of generalisation, interpolation does not at all
negate the results of a geographical investigation. It would not be an overstatement
to say that “this is what geographers do”. However, that is not all geographers do.
Based on the results of a successful study in one or more study areas, predictions or
estimations could be made about other areas. While interpolation entails
generalisation within one study area, the results could perhaps be extrapolated to
other comparable areas (see “extrapolation”.)

I-interpolation: Ku-Jografi loku kusho inqubo yokufaka inani elithile

elifakazelekayo phakathi kwamanani aziwayo noma akalwe ngendlela
enembayo aboniswe ebalazweni. Lena yinqubo yokuqagela
ngobuhlakani. Izazi zejografi kumele ziwabhekisise futhi ziwacubungule
wonke amanani asekaliwe, nezilinganiso ezihlonzwe ngamehlo emva
kokwenza ucwaningo olunohlonze kanye nalo lonke olunye ulwazi
oluphathelene nendawo eboniswe ebalazweni futhi emva kwalokho
zenze izilinganiso (estimations) ezingafakazeleka ngokwesayensi,
ukuveza lawo manani angakalwanga. I-interpolation kanye nokwenziwa
kwezilinganiso kuwumongo nomgogodla wocwaningo lwendawo.
Nakuba i-interpolation ibangakanya ukucabangela nokuqagela okuthile,
lokho akusho neze ukuthi imiphumela yocwaningo lwejografi ayishayi
emhlolweni. Ngeke neze kube yisitatimende esiyihaba uma kuthiwa
“lokhu yiyonanto eyenziwa yizazi zejografi”. Kepha-ke, azigcini lapho
izinto ezenziwa yijografi. Ngokususela kwimiphumela yocwaningo olube
yimpumelelo emkhakheni owodwa noma ngaphezulu, kungenziwa
izibikezelo noma izilinganiso mayelana nezinye izindawo. Nakuba i-
interpolation ibandakanya ukucabangela mayelana nomkhakha owodwa
othile, imiphumela yalokho ingadluliswa ukuze isetshenziswe
(extrapolated) nakweminye imikhakha efanayo (bheka i-
“extrapolation”.)
J
K
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L
Land use (land-use): Any purpose for which land is used for human activity.
Two distinct types of land use are recognised, namely rural and urban. Rural land
use includes agriculture in the form of animal husbandry and/or crop cultivation, and
recreation in many different forms such as hiking, skiing, cycling, safaris, game
viewing, bird watching, ecotourism, and a totally unspecific thing called “getting away
from it all”. Urban land use includes residential, educational, industrial, commercial,
and professional activities and services.

Ukusetshenziswa komhlaba (land-use): Noma iyiphi inhloso

yokusetshenziswa komhlaba ukufezekisa izidingo yabantu. Zimbili
izinhlobo zokusetshenziswa komhlaba ezihlonziwe, okusho,
ukusetshenziswa komhlaba ezindaweni zasemakhaya kanye
nokusetshenziswa komhlaba ezindaweni zasemadolobheni.
Ukusetshenziswa komhlaba ezindaweni zasemakhaya kubandakanya
ezolimo, okusho, ukufuywa kwemfuyo kanye/noma ukulinywa
kwezitshalo, kanye nezokungcebeleka, okwenzeka ngezindlela
ezihlukahlukene, njengokuqwala izintaba nokuhamba ngezinyawo
ehlane, ukushushuluza emanzini noma eqhweni (skiing), ukuhamba
ngamabhayisikili, izinkambo zokuya endle ukuyobuka izinto zemvelo
noma ukuyozingela (safaris), ukubukela izinyamazane, ukubukela
izinyoni, uvakashelomvelo (ecotourism), kanye nokunye okungagxilile
endaweni ethile kuphela okubizwa “ngokuphuma ushaywe umoya,
uyopholisa ikhanda” (“getting away from it all”). Ukusetshenziswa
komhlaba ezindaweni ezisemadolobheni kubandakanya ukwakhiwa
kwamakhaya abantu, izinsizakalo nemisebenzi yezemfundo, izimboni,
amabhizinisi kanye nemisebenzi yobungoti.
Local community: A group of people who share some common factor that
binds them together or gives them a sense of belonging to one another and/or to a
certain place. In a geographical sense, a specific shared space or place is a
prerequisite for identifying a local community. Groups of people who share a
common cause, such as the right to possess a fire-arm or people living with HIV,
form interest groups, not communities; there is no spatial bond that “binds” these
people. However, a local community shares one very special attribute, namely a
certain sense of belonging to a specific place, and – for them – that place has a
specific sense of place. These people either live, or work, or come from one
definable space that ties them together into a close or not so close community. The
children of people living in a certain area often attend the same schools, the whole
community buys at the same stores, visits one another at home, belongs to the same
churches, knows a lot about one another, and supports one another through difficult
times. People who grew up in such a local community, might leave the area to live
somewhere else, but they retain a sense of belonging to the place where they grew
up. This applies to the rich as well as the poor, to the affluent as well as the needy.
The people and the places form an intricate whole that cannot be broken, even when
the people move away and the places are destroyed. In South Africa there are
poignant examples of local communities that were torn apart by Apartheid politics,
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and the places where they lived were bulldozed. District Six in Cape Town, Sophia
Town and Triomf in Johannesburg, and Lady Selbourne in Pretoria are examples
from the past. Currently examples of typical local communities are found in Diepsloot
north of Johannesburg, Cross Roads and Gugulethu near Cape Town, Mandela City
near Pretoria, and many more. Local communities need not be urbanised and there
are innumerable rural communities that display the same sense of belonging to place
and people. The communities of Kwadlangezwa, Nkandla, Mier, Elim and Pniel
serve as examples. The phenomenon of close, stable, local community bonds to
place and people, occurs everywhere in the world. In the USA “the hoods” and “the
Projects” are typical examples of sub-economical local communities, while Staten
Island and Long Island represent affluent local communities. The people in the slums
and shanty towns of Kolkota (formerly Culcutta) and Mumbai (formerly Bombay) form
very strong, exclusive local communities and those in the favelas (shanty towns) of
Rio de Janeiro often do not even tolerate the presence of strangers.

Umphakathi wendawo: Iqembu labantu abanento ethile

efanayo, ebenza bahlangane babe yimbumba noma ebanikeza umuzwa
wokuba yingxenye yeqembu labantu kanye/noma wokuba yingxenye
yendawo ethile. Ngokwejografi, indawo ethile okuphila kuyona iqembu
labantu ndawonye iyisidingo sokuhlonzwa komphakathi wendawo.
Amaqembu abantu anenjongo nentshisekelo efanayo, njengelungelo
lokuba ngumnikazi wesibhamu noma abantu abaphila ne-HIV,
bangamaqembu abantu abanezinjongo nezimfuno ezifanayo, hhayi
imiphakathi; laba bantu “abahlanganiswa” yindawo ethile abaphila
kuyona. Kodwa-ke, umphakathi wendawo unento eyodwa ebaluleke
kakhulu, okungukuthi, banomuzwa ofanayo wokuba yingxenye
yendawo ethile, futhi – kubona – leyo ndawo inomuzwa othile
oqondene nayo njengendawo okuhlala kuyona abantu. Laba bantu
ngabantu abahlala noma abasebenza noma abavela endaweni eyodwa
echazekayo futhi ebahlanganisayo babe ngumphakathi osondelene
kakhulu, kodwa-ke futhi kungenzeka babe ngumphakathi
ongasondelene kakhulu. Izingane zabantu abahlala endaweni ethile
zivamise ukufunda ezikoleni ezifanayo, umphakathi wonke uthenga
ezitolo ezifanayo, bayavakashelana emakhaya, bakhonza ezinkonzweni
ezifanayo, bayazana kakhulu, futhi bayasekelana ngezikhathi ezinzima.
Abantu abakhule ndawonye emphakathini onjalo, kungenzeka bayishiye
leyo ndawo bayohlala kwenye, kodwa nakuba kunjalo bazibona
beseyingxenye yendawo abakhulele kuyona. Labo kungaba abantu
abacebile kanye nabantu abahlwempu, abantu abanethezekile
abangomacaphuna kusale kanye nabantu abantulayo. Abantu kanye
nezindawo abaphila kuzona baba yinto eyodwa eyimbumba engeke
ihlukaniswe lutho, ngisho abanye bangathutha endaweni futhi nendawo
yabo icekeleke phansi. ENingizimu Afrika kunezibonelo eziletha umunyu
nezinyembezi zemiphakathi yendawo eyahlukaniswa wubandlululo, futhi
izindawo okwakuhlala kuzona imiphakathi zacekelwa phansi
ngogandaganda. Izibonelo zemiphakathi yendawo yesikhathi esidlule yi-
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District Six eKapa, i-Sophia Town ne-Triomf eGoli, kanye ne-Lady

Selbourne ePitoli. Kulezi zinsuku izibonelo ezinhle zemiphakathi
yendawo yi-Diepsloot enyakatho ye eGoli, i-Cross Roads kanye ne-
Gugulethu eduze kwaseKapa, i-Mandela City eduze kwasePitoli, kanye
nezinye eziningi. Imiphakathi yendawo akuyona imiphakathi ehlala
emadolobheni kuphela njengoba kunemiphakathi eminingi impela
esezindaweni zasemakhaya ebonisa umuzwa wokuba yingxenye
yendawo ethile kanye neqembu labantu elithile. Imiphakathi
yaKwadlangezwa, eNkandla, e-Mier, e-Elim nase-Pniel iyizibonelo
ezinhle zalokhu. Kuyinto etholakala emhlabeni wonke jikelele ukuba
khona kwezindawo namaqembu abantu abonisa ubumbano lomphakathi
wendawo oluqinile futhi olunozinzo nokuphilisana ngokuzwana.
Kwelase-USA izindawo ezibizwa ngama-“hoods” kanye nama-“Projects”
ziyizibonelo zemiphakathi yendawo ehlwempu, bese kuthi izindawo
ezinjenge-Staten Island kanye ne-Long Island kube yizindawo
ezinemiphakathi yendawo edla izambane likapondo. Abantu abahlala
emijondolo emadolobheni anjenge-Kolkota (phambilini eyayibizwa nge-
Culcutta) kanye ne-Mumbai (phambilini eyayibizwa nge-Bombay) bakha
imiphakathi yendawo enohlonze futhi ekhethekile, bese kuthi ama-
favelas (amadolobha ayimijondolo) ase-Rio de Janeiro kube
yimiphakathi ekhethekile futhi engakunambithisisi kahle ukuba khona
kwezihambi endaweni yabo.
Location: The location of a phenomenon is the place or point on the Earth’s
surface where this phenomenon is situated or occurs. There are various ways to
describe the location of any place. The two most commonly used ways are to
describe either the relative or the absolute location of the place. Using the Cradle of
Humankind world heritage site as example, we may describe its location as
Gauteng, South Africa. This is a very vague description of relative location. It can
be made more specific by adding that the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site
is approximately 35 kilometres north-west of Johannesburg and can easily be
reached from the N14 highway. With this description, people can find the site, but the
location can be even more specifically described by means of the absolute
location. The absolute location is the exact point or place, expressed in degrees,
minutes and seconds of latitude and the degrees, minutes and seconds of longitude,
where a phenomenon is situated or occurs on the surface of the Earth. The absolute
location of the Cradle of Humankind is 25˚58’02” south and 27˚39’45” east.
Nowadays absolute location is very often used since global positioning systems
(GPSs) are commonly used in vehicles.

I-location):I-location yento ethile yindawo noma iphoyinti emhlabeni

lapho kutholakala khona leyonto okukhulunywa ngayo. Kunezindlela
ezihlukahlukene zokuchaza ukuthi itholakala kuphi indawo ethile.
Izindlela ezimbili ezisetshenziswa kakhulu yi-relative location noma i-
absolute location yendawo ethile. Uma singasebenzisa i-Cradle of
Humankind World Heritage Site njengesibonelo, lesi sizinda esiyigugu
lomhlaba singathi sitholakala e-Gauteng, eNingizimu Afrika. Lena
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yincazelo engacacile neze ye-relative location (ukuhlonza ukuthi

ikuphi indawo ethile ngokuyiqhathanisa nenye indawo edumile). Le
ncazelo singayicacisa kakhudlwana ngokwengeza ukuthi i-Cradle of
Humankind World Heritage Site itholakala cishe ebangeni
elingamakhilomitha angama-35 enyakatho-ntshonalanga yeGoli futhi
kufinyeleleka kalula kule ndawo ngomgwaqo onguthelawayeka u-N14.
Ngale ncazelo, abantu bangayithola le ndawo, kodwa futhi-ke i-location
yale ndawo ingachazwa ngendlela enembayo ngokusebenzisa i-
absolute location (isimo soqobo futhi esinembayo sokuthi indawo
ethile ikuphi). I-absolute location yiphoyinti eliqonde ngqo futhi
elinembayo elibonisa amazinga (degrees), amaminithi kanye
namasekhondi elathithudi kanye namazinga, amaminithi kanye
namasekhondi elongithudi, lapho kutholakala khona into noma indawo
ethile emhlabeni. I-absolute location ye-Cradle of Humankind ithi
25˚58’02” eningizimu kanye no-27˚39’45” empumulanga. Kulezi zinsuku
i-absolute location isetshenziswa kakhulu njengoba sekuvamise
ukusetshenziswa ama-global positioning systems (GPSs) ezimotweni.
M
Magnetic declination: The angular distance between the geographic north pole
and the Earth’s magnetic north pole. The magnetic north pole moves about over a
relatively small area on the Earth’s surface in a process called “pole wandering”,
while the geographic north pole remains in one and the same position. A compass
needle will always point to the magnetic north pole, not the geographic one.
Consequently, a bearing taken by means of a compass has to be “corrected” to
know where true north is. In order to make the correction, one has to know what the
magnetic declination is (see “bearing”). To complicate matters, polar wandering is a
relatively fast process and the magnetic pole perpetually shifts its location. To make
it even more complicated, magnetic declination differs from place to place because
the direction to the magnetic pole as measured at one place on the Earth’s surface
will differ from that measured from another place. Fortunately, all official, published
maps (such as the 1:50 000 topocadastral series of South Africa) display a little
diagram on it margin to indicate the declination from that area at the time of the
publication of the map. With this information it is easy enough to establish where true
north is (see “bearing”), but without this information we could not establish exactly
where true north is. Modern day navigation instruments (such as GPSs) provide this
information, but when you are lost somewhere in the wide outdoors with a compass
as your only navigational tool, you will only be able to establish a general north
direction, not an exact one.

I-magnetic declination: I-angular distance phakathi kwe-geographic

north pole kanye ne-magnetic north pole yomhlaba. I-magnetic north
pole iyahambahamba endaweni encanyana yomhlaba futhi lokhu
kubizwa nge-“pole wandering” (“ukuzulazulu kwepholi yomhlaba”), kanti
i-geographic north pole ilokhu ime endaweni eyodwa, okusho ukuthi
ayizulazuli. Inaliti yekhampasi ihlala njalo ikhombe ku-magnetic north
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pole, hhayi ku-geographic north pole. Ngenxa yalokho-ke, i-bearing

(inkomba yendawo) ethathwe ngokusebenzisa ikhampasi kumele
“ilungiswe” ukuze umuntu akwazi ukuthola ukuthi ikuphi inyakatho
yoqobo. Ukuze kwenziwe lesi silungiso, umuntu kumele azi ukuthi kahle-
kahle yini i-magnetic declination (bheka i-“bearing”). Okwenza izinto zibe
nzima wukuthi ukuzulazula kwepholi yomhlaba kwenzeka ngokushesha
futhi i-magnetic pole ayimi neze ndawonye, okusho ukuthi ilokhu
igudluka futhi izulazula njalo. Futhi okunye okwenza izinto zibe nzima
kakhulu wukuthi i-magnetic declination iyahlukahluka ngokwezindawo
ezihlukahlukene ngoba i-direction ebheke ku-magnetic pole ekalwe
endaweni ethile emhlabeni ngeke neze ifane ne-direction ekalwe
kwenye indawo. Ngenhlanhla, wonke amabalazwe asemthethweni,
ashicileliwe (njenge-1:50 000 topocadastral series yaseNingizimu Afrika)
abonisa umfanekiso omncane ngasonqenqemeni (margin) lwekhasi
ukubonisa i-declination yaleyo ndawo ngesikhathi sokushicilelwa
kwebalazwe. Lolu lwazi lwenza kube lula kakhulu ukuthola ukuthi ikuphi
inyakatho yoqobo (bheka i-“bearing”), kodwa ngaphandle kwalolu lwazi
ngeke sikwazi ukuthola ukuthi kahle-kahle ikuphi inyakatho yoqobo.
Ama-navigation instruments esetshenziswa kulezi zinsuku (njengama-
GPS) ayahlinzeka ngalolu lwazi, kodwa uma ulahlekile usendaweni
ethile, ehlane noma esigangeni, uphethe ikhampasi kuphela
njengethuluzi othembele kulona ukuze ubone indlela, uyokwazi kuphela
ukuthola ulwazi oluhlawumbiselayo olubonisa indlela ebheke enyakatho,
hhayi ulwazi olunembayo.
Macro environment: The term refers to a large study area which might even
be as large as the entire globe. When the global environment constitutes the study
area, it means that data from the whole world is used in the investigation.
Geographers study the environment over large (macro-scale), medium-sized (meso-
scale) and small (micro-scale) areas. When the focus is on the entire global
environment it constitutes a macro-scale environmental investigation. Owing to the
size of the investigation, a significant amount of generalisation is unavoidable since it
simply is impossible to collect data from thousands and thousands of data collection
points all over the globe. Consequently, macro-environmental research uses as
many data collections points as feasible, but inevitably also has to rely on a lot of
generalisation. When smaller areas are focussed on, less generalisation is
necessary as the data collection points could be more densely dispersed. When
micro-environmental research is done, the same number of data collection points
would provide a huge amount of data about a relatively small area, so the data
should be of a high quality since it pertains to a small area. Less generalisation is,
therefore, required. In some specialisation fields of Geography (eg the geography of
health) this type of data is essential since generalisation leads to unreliable results.
(See “meta data”.)

I-macro environment: Leli temu lisho indawo enkulu okwenziwa kuyona

ucwaningo, okungaba yindawo enkulu ngangomhlaba wonke imbala.
Uma ucwaningo lugxile kwimvelo yomhlaba wonke, lokho kusho ukuthi
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ocwaningweni kusetshenziswa idatha eqoqwe emhlabeni wonke jikelele.

Izazi zeJografi zicwaninga imvelo endaweni enkulu (macro-scale),
endaweni emaphakathi ngobukhulu (meso-scale) kanye nasendaweni
encane (micro-scale). Uma kugxilwe kwimvelo yomhlaba wonke lokho
kusho ukuthi kwenziwa ucwaningo lwemvelo oluku-macro-scale. Ngenxa
yobukhulu bocwaningo okumele lwenziwe, kuyinto engeke igwemeke
ukuthi kugcinwe sekusetshenziswa inqubo yokucabangela noma
ukuhlawumbisela ngobuhlakani ngoba phela ucwaningo ngeke neze
lukwazi ukuqoqa idatha ezindaweni eziyizinkulungwane
ngezinkulungwane emhlabeni wonke jikelele. Ngenxa yalokho-ke, i-
macro-environmental research isebenzisa izindawo okuqoqwa kuzona
idatha eziningi ngokunokwenzeka, kodwa futhi lolu cwaningi luthembela
kakhulu nakwinqubo yokucabangela ngokuhlawumbisela ngobuhlakani.
Uma ucwaningo lugxile ezindaweni ezincane, kuncane ukuhlawumbisela
okudingekayo njengoba izindawo okuqoqwa kuzona idatha zisondelene
kakhulu. Uma kwenziwa i-micro-environmental research, inani elifanayo
lezindawo okuqoqwa kuzona idatha lihlinzeka ngenqwaba yedatha
yendawo encane nje, ngakho-ke leyo kumele kube yidatha esezingeni
eliphezulu kakhulu ngoba phela kusuke kuyidatha eqondene nendawo
encane. Kuleso simo-ke kuncane kakhulu ukucabangela
nokuhlawumbisela okudingekayo. Kweminye imikhakha ekhethekile ye-
Jografi (isibonelo, ijografi yezempilo) lolu hlobo lwedatha lusemqoka
kakhulu ngoba ukucabangela nokuhlawumbisela kuholela ekutholakaleni
kwemiphumela engathembakali. (Bheka i-“meta data”.)
Mass movement (gravity displacement): The down-slope falling, sliding or
creeping of lose weathering products or debris (see “erosion”). There are numerous
ways and reasons for this to happen, but the most important causative factors are
gravity, exceeding the angle of repose, loading and water saturation. A pile of
debris – which might be sorted material, as in the case of mine dumps, or unsorted
materials as in the case of a mass of glacial debris will heap-up and come to rest
with the side-slopes of the heap forming a certain angle to the horizontal. This angle
is the angle of repose. For natural materials (such as weathering debris) the angle
of repose is normally less than 35˚. Should the sides slope at a steeper angle, the
pile will collapse and come to rest with the sides sloping at a lesser degree. Water
saturation of the material is, of course, crucial. Compare a sand heap built with
relatively dry sand on the beach, to one built with wet sand – the former would be a
steeper heap than the latter. A small child would probably be able to sit on the heap
of dry sand without causing it to collapse, but the same child will cause the collapse
of the heap built with the wet sand. The child is the “load”, that is the mass (weight)
that the heap can withstand without collapsing. A larger child will cause the collapse
of the heap of dry sand. Water poured on the heap of dry sand will also cause the
heap to collapse into a much flatter heap, proving that water saturation is an
extremely important factor in slope stability. While gravity remains the same, a
change in either the level of saturation or the load placed upon the material, will
cause a change in the angle of repose of the pile resulting in the pile of material to
slip, creep or instantaneously collapse. Rock falls, landslides and mud flows are
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dramatic, sudden occurrences which often cause lives to be lost and property to be
irreversibly altered. In our modern, engineered and economical form of life, the
relentlessness of the natural processes of mass movement is often disregarded, and
always to the detriment of the ordinary people. Probably the most well-known
example of mass movement that caused a terrible loss of life is the Aberfan incident
in Wales, Great Britain, when a mine dump collapsed in 1966 and a mass of
oversaturated mine waste simply covered a nearby school burying all the pupils and
teachers in one fell swoop. South Africa too has its examples of dramatic, costly and
often tragic anthropogenic (human-induced) mass movement. One of the most well-
known scenic roads in the world is Chapman’s Peak Drive around the peninsula just
south of Cape Town. The road was built by undercutting the steep slopes of the
peninsula, thus disturbing the natural stability of the slopes and consequently rock
falls are common occurrences all along the route. Enormous amounts have recently
been spent to prevent rocks from tumbling onto the road, and after heavy rains the
road is often closed for a few days in order to avoid calamities and remove debris
from the road surface. An ever-present form of mass wasting is soil creep which is
the slow, continual creeping of soil downwards over a shallow slope of as low as
three degrees (3˚). This is a completely natural process, but human activities such as
animal husbandry and crop production might accelerate the process and render vast
tracts of fertile land unproductive.

Ukudilika nokubhidlika kwezingqumbi (gravity displacement):

Ukudilika endaweni eyehlelayo kwezimvithi zokukhumuzeka kwezinto
zemvelo (bheka i-“erosion”). Kunezindlela nezizathu eziningi
zokwenzeka kwalokhu, kodwa izimbangela ezinkulu zalokhu yi-gravity
(amandla omhlaba adonsela izinto phansi), ukweqiwa kwesimo
sokutsheka (angle of repose) sengqumbi yemvelo, i-loading
(umthalo) kanye ne-water saturation (izinga lokumunceka
kwamanzi). Ingqumbi yezimvithi – okungenzeka kube yizinto
ezihlungiwe, njengezingqumbi zemfucuza yasemayini, noma izinto
ezingahlungiwe njengezingqumbi zeqhwa eziqoqanayo zigcine sezakhe
intatshana enesimo sokutsheka esibonisa i-angle to the horizontal ethile.
Le engela ibizwa nge-angle of repose. Ezintweni zemvelo
(njengezimvithi zokukhumuzeka) i-angle of repose ivamise ukuba
ngaphansi kuka-35˚. Uma kwenzeka izinhlangothi zengqumbi zitsheke
kakhudlwana, ingqumbi iyadilika, okwenza izinhlangothi zigcine sezime
esimweni sokutsheka esiphansi, okusho ukuthi ingqumbi ayisatshekile
kakhulu. Izinga lokumunceka kwamanzi lento yemvelo nalo lisemqoka
kakhulu impela. Qhathanisa ingqumbi yesihlabathi eyakhiwe
ngesihlabathi esomile ebhishi nengqumbi yesihlabathi eyakhiwe
ngesihlabathi esimanzi – ingqumbi enesihlabathi esomile iyakwazi
ukuba nesimo esitsheke kakhulu kunengqumbi enesihlabathi esimanzi.
Ingane encane mhlawumbe ingahlala nokuhlala phezu kwengqumbi
enesihlabathi esomile, ingabhidliki ingqumbi, kodwa leyo ngane
ingayibhidliza ingqumbi eyakhiwe ngesihlabathi esimanzi uma ingazama
ukuhlala phezu kwayo. Ingane “iwumthwalo” (“load”), okusho, isisindo
engamelana naso ingqumbi yesihlabathi ngaphandle kokubhidlika.
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Ingane enesisindo esikhudlwana ingayibhidliza ingqumbi yesihlabathi

esomile. Uma kuthelwa amanzi phezu kwengqumbi yesihlabathi esomile
lokho kungayibhidliza leyo ngqumbi, igcine isiyingqumbi ecishe ibe
yisicaba, okubonisa ukuthi ukumunceka kwamanzi kuyinto esemqoka
kakhulu ekuzinzeni kwendawo etshekile. Amandla omhlaba okudonsela
phansi izinto, ahlala enjalo engaguquki, kodwa uguquko olwenzeka
ezingeni lokumunceka kwamanzi, noma uguquko emthwalweni obekwe
phezu kwengqumbi, luyayiguqula i-angle of repose yengqumbi,
okuholela ekutheni ingqumbi idilike noma ibhidlike ngokushesha.
Izinguzunga zamatshe ezigingqikayo, ukugidlika komhlaba kanye
nezikhukhula zodaka olugelezayo yizehlakalo ezishaqisayo ezenzeka
ngokushesha okukhulu, futhi ezivamise ukudlula nezimpilo zabantu
zicekele phansi nempahla ngendlela engeke neze iphinde ibuyiseleke
esimweni sayo sangaphambilini. Kule mpilo yethu esiyiphilayo
yesimanjemanje ehlelwe ngokwezimo ezithile futhi egxile kwezomnotho,
zishaywa indiva izehlakalo eziphindaphindekayo noma ezenzeka
ngokulandelana zokudilika kwezinto zemvelo, futhi njalo lokhu kubeka
izimpilo zabantu engozini. Isibonelo sokudilika kwezinto zemvelo
okudume kakhulu okwadlula nezimpilo zabantu abaningi yinhlekelele
yase-Aberfan e-Wales, kwelase-Great Britain, lapho kwabhidlika khona
ingqumbi yemfucuza yasemayini ngowe-1966 ngenxa yokungamunceki
kahle kwamanzi, okwaholela ekutheni iguguleke imboze isikole
esiseduzane lapho kwangcwabeka khona zonke izingane zesikole
kanye nothisha ngokushesha okukhulu. INingizimu Afrika nayo inazo
ezayo izibonelo zezigameko ezishaqisayo zokudilika komhlaba ezidala
umonakalo omkhulu futhi ezivamise ukuthatha imiphefumulo yabantu
ezibangelwa yizenzo zabantu. Omunye wemigwaqo edumile emhlabeni
jikelele onobuhle bendalo obumangalisayo yi-Chapman’s Peak Drive
enqamula eningizimu yenhlonhlo (peninsula) ye-Kapa. Lo mgwaqo
wakhiwa ngokuthi kumbiwe futhi kusikwe ingxenye eyehlelayo
yenhlonhlo yeKapa futhi ngenxa yalokho-ke kuvamise ukuba
nezigameko zokuwa kwezinguzunga zamatshe kuwo wonke lo mzila.
Kamuva nje kuchithwe izimali ezinkulu kwenziwa imizamo yokuvimbela
amatshe adilikayo ukuze angafinyeleli emgwaqeni, futhi lo mgwaqo
uvamise ukuvalwa izinsuku ezimbalwa emva kwezimvula ezinkulu ukuze
kugwenywe izinhlekelele nesibhicongo sokulimala noma ukufa kwabantu
futhi ukuze kususwe izimvithi eziwele emgwaqeni. Okunye ukudilika
kwezinto zemvelo okuhlala kukhona njalo yi-soil creep okuyisigameko
sokunyibilika kancane kancane komhlabathi usondela endaweni
engatshekile kakhulu, enokutsheka okuphansi okungafinyelela ku-
degrees amathathu (3˚). Lena yinqubo eyenzeka ngokwemvelo
ngokuphelele, kepha izenzo zabantu nemisebenzi yabo
enjengokufunywa kwemfunyo kanye nokukhiqizwa kwezitshalo
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kungayisheshisa le nqubo futhi lokho kungaholela ekutheni

odedangendlale bomhlabathi ovundile bagcine bengasakhiqizi lutho.
Malnutrition: A long-term human condition when people do not consume
adequate volumes (amounts) of all the different nutrients that a healthy body
requires. It is critically important in small children since they require a wide variety of
nutrients to develop a normal physiology as well as a normal intellectual capacity.
Unlike under-nutrition which is a condition found only in the developing countries,
malnutrition occurs in both the developed and the developing countries (see
“development” and “developing countries”). In the developing world, the traditional
wide variety of nutritional food sources on offer in nature is no more available owing
to over exploitation by a too large population. Consequently, people eat a very
restricted diet consisting mostly of a carbohydrate staple substance such as rice,
maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava (yam) or wheat. In the nearly forgotten
past, these people’s ancestors would have consumed a far greater variety of
foodstuffs, and would have had a far higher nutritional status than their current day
offspring. Nowadays protein-deficiency characterises the diets of billions of people
all over the developing world. Apart from the unmistakable physical handicap of the
youngsters who have grown up in such conditions, they might also display an
intellectual handicap. These people might never have experienced hunger or
starvation as such, but they might simply not have received all the protein, vitamins,
minerals and other essential components of a properly balanced diet. Nutrient
deficiencies suffered during the early years of life, are unfortunately not reversible in
later life. On the other side of the continuum, we find the overfed, but undernourished
youngsters of the affluent, developed world. These children grow up on very
unhealthy, fattening diets (“junk food” or “take-aways”), nearly devoid of the
indispensible vitamins and minerals of a proper diet. In the rich, developed countries,
the staple diets of many people are rich in carbohydrates and proteins, but more or
less devoid of essential vitamins and minerals. A good example of this is the
Chinese experience which resulted from the one child policy. In 1979 China
introduced a rigorous policy that each married couple may have only one child. Apart
from all the other negative ramifications of this short-sighted policy (now defunct), it
resulted in obesity which had never been a trait of the Chinese population before.
When the single child generation emerged, they were simply overfed as all attention
and resources were lavished on them. While starvation is literally threatening billions
of people in the developing world, morbid (deadly) obesity is threatening millions of
people in the developed world. From a humanitarian and a geographical point of
view, the numbers of both the starving and the obese are extremely concerning, and
the countries where both of these population characteristics are common, have a
very serious problem on hand. South Africa is an excellent example of such a
country.

Ukungondleki kahle emzimbeni: Isimo sokudlula kwesikhathi

eside abantu bengatholi umthamo owanele wazo zonke izondlamzimba
ezidingwa ngumzimba ukuze wondleke futhi ube ngumqemane. Lokhu
kusemqoka kakhulu ezinganeni ezincane njengoba zidinga
izondlamzimba ezinhlobonhlobo ukuze imizimba yazo ikhule ngendlela
efanele futhi zikhule kahle nangokwengqondo. Ukungondleki kahle
emzimbeni (malnutrition) akufani nokungakhuli kahle komzimba ngenxa
yokushoda kokudla (under-nutrition) ngoba i-under-nutrition ithokala
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kuphela emazweni asathuthuka kanti i-malnutrition yona itholakala

kukona kokubili, amazwe asethuthukile kanye namazwe asathuthuka
(bheka i-“development” kanye nama-“developing countries”). Emazweni
asathuthuka, akusatholakali ukudla kwendabuko okunomsoco
okunhlobonhlobo obekutholakala ngokwemvelo, ngenxa yesibalo
esikhulu ngokweqile sabantu abahlala kulawo mazwe, asebekudle baze
bakuqeda konke ukudla kwemvelo. Ngenxa yalokho-ke, abantu bathola
izinhlobo zokudla ezimbalwa kakhulu, okuwudla okuyisisekelo
okuqukethe ikakhulukazi isitashi noma ama-carbohydrate njengelayisi,
ummbila, amazambane, ubhatata, amabhoqongwane (yam) noma
ukolweni. Ezikhathini zasemandulo esezithanda ukulibaleka
ezingqondweni zabantu, okhokho balaba bantu babedla ukudla
okunhlobonhlobo, futhi ukudla kwabo kwakunomsoco omningi uma
kuqhathaniswa nokudla okudliwa yizizukulwane zabo eziphila esikhathini
samanje. Kulezi zinsuku izigidi ngezigidi zabantu emazweni wonke
asathuthuka sebedla ikakhuluzi ukudla okungenawo amaphrotheyini.
Ngaphandle nje kokukhubazeka emzimbeni okubonakala ngokusobala
ezinganeni ezikhule ngaphansi kwezimo ezinjalo, ezinye zalezo zingane
zibonisa futhi nezimpawu zokukhubazeka ngokwengqondo. Laba bantu
kungenzeka babe ngabantu abangazange bahlangabezane nezimo
zendlala nokuntuleka kokudla, kepha kungenzeka ukuthi abakutholanga
ukudla okuqukethe wonke amaphrotheyini, amavithamini, amaminerali
kanye nezinye izinhlobo zokudla okuyingxenye yokudla
okunezondlamzimba ezanele futhi ezifanele. Uma umuntu edla
ukudla okungenazo izondlamzimba ezanele ngenkathi esemncane,
ngelishwa lokho kungadala umonakalo oyohlala unomphela futhi ongeke
ulungiseke ngokuhamba kwesikhathi. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, emazweni
asethuthukile futhi okungamazwe acebile, sithola izingane ezidla ukudla
okuningi ngokweqile kodwa okungenazo izondlamzimba ezidingekayo
emzimbeni. Lezi zingane zikhuliswa ngokudla okungenampilo
okugcwele amafutha (i-“junk food” noma ama-“take-aways”), futhi
okungenawo kahle amavithamini namaminerali ayingxenye esemqoka
kakhulu yokudla okunomsoco. Emazweni asethuthukile, acebile, ukudla
okuyisisekelo okudliwa ngabantu abaningi kuqukethe ama-
carbohydrates namaphrotheyini, kodwa akunawo kahle amavithamini
namaminerali. Isibonelo esihle salokhu yisimo esenzeka ezweni lase-
China esiwumphumela womthetho owabe uthi umndeni ngamunye
kumele ube ngengane eyodwa nje vo. Ngowe-1979 i-China yethula
inqubomgomo enzima kakhulu ethi abashadikazi bavumeleke ukuthola
ingane eyodwa nje vo. Ngaphandle kweminye imithelela emibi yale
nqubomgomo ebonisa ukungacabangisisi kahle (kodwa esiphelisiwe
futhi engasasebenzi kulezi zinsuku), yaholela ekutheni kube nabantu
abakhuluphele ngokweqile kwelase-China, okuyinto eyayingavamisile
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neze ukubonakala kubantu bakulelo lizwe esikhathini esidlule.

Ngesikhathi sesizukulwane sengane eyodwa ekhaya, izingane
zaziphakelwa ngokweqile ngoba lonke uthando nokunakekelwa
kwakuqondene nengane eyodwa nje kuphela. Njengoba indlala nobubha
kubeke engcupheni izigidigidi zabantu emazweni asathuthuka,
ukukhuluphala ngokweqile (okuyinto ebulalayo) kubeke engcupheni
izigidi ngezigidi zabantu emazweni asethuthukile. Ngasohlangothini
lokunakekelwa nokubhekelelwa kwenhlalakahle yabantu kanye
nasohlangothini lwezejografi, ziyinto ekhathazayo kakhulu lezi zibalo
eziphakeme kangaka zabantu ababhuqwa yindlala kanye nabantu
abakhuluphele ngokweqile, futhi amazwe lapho kuvamise ukutholakala
khona zombili lezi zinhlobo zemikhakha namazinga empilo yabantu,
abhekene nenkinga enkulu impela. INingizimu Afrika iyisibonelo esihle
kakhulu selizwe elinjalo.
Map projection: A method by which the curved surface of the Earth is
represented on a flat sheet of paper. We call such a representation of reality a map.
The most important characteristic of a map is that each point on the map
corresponds to only one point of the reality (that is, a specific point in the area that is
represented on the map). Map projection involves the construction of a grid of two
sets of intersecting lines. These lines represent the imaginary grid of latitudinal lines
(called parallels) and longitudinal lines (called meridians) on the Earth’s surface.
Another way of explaining what map projection is, is that it is a method of transferring
the grid system from the Earth’s curved surface to the flat surface of a map. The
process of representing a curved shape on a flat plane, demands that either the
shapes of the objects or the directions among them, are distorted. This implies that
when a sizable portion of the Earth’s surface is mapped, a choice has to be made:
should the map be true in terms of the shapes of the objects (such as continents or
water bodies), or should it be true in terms of the directions. It is impossible to
represent a curved surface on a flat plane without some distortion, and the type of
projection used, determines whether the shapes or the directions are distorted.
There are many different types of projections in use today and the map-maker has to
choose which type of distortion is more acceptable for the purposes of the map user.
There is a third way to approach the choice of the map projection to use, namely the
decision that neither the shape nor the direction is perfectly correct, both are
somewhat distorted, but the final product satisfies the purpose for which the map is
made. The most well-known example of such a “projection of convenience” is the
Robinson projection that is used by the National Geographic Society. All the global
maps in the National Geographic Magazine are based on the Robinson projection. It
distorts both shape and direction, but to a relatively small degree, and that is why the
National Geographic Society selected this projection.

Ukuboniswa kwesimo sendawo ebalazweni: Indlela yokubonisa

isimo somhlaba esimazombezombe ephepheni eliyisicaba. Lokhu
kuboniswa kwesimo esikhona ngempela kubizwa ngebalazwe. Into
esemqoka kakhulu ebalazweni wukuthi iphoyinti ngalinye elisebalazweni
lihambelana nephoyinti elilodwa kuphela lento ekhona ngempela
emhlabeni (okusho, iphoyinti elithile endaweni ethile eliboniswa
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ebalazweni). Ukuboniswa kwesimo sendawo ebalazweni kubandakanya

ukwakhiwa kwegridi enamaqoqwana amabili emigqa ephambanayo. Le
migqa ibonisa igridi ebonakala ngamehlo engqondo yama-latitudinal
lines (abizwa ngama-parallels) kanye nama-longitudinal lines (abizwa
ngama-meridians) engxenyeni engaphezulu yomhlaba. Enye indlela
yokuchaza ukuboniswa kwesimo sendawo ebalazweni wukuthi lokhu
kuyindlela yokudlulisa i-grid system isuka kwingxenye engaphezulu
yomhlaba emazombezombe iye kwingxenye eyisicaba yebalazwe.
Inqubo yokubonisa into enesimo sokwakheka esimazombezombe
entweni eyisicaba, idinga ukuthi izimo zokwakheka kwezinto noma
ama-directions phakathi kwalezo zinto, kube yizimo eziphambene
noma eziphaphalazayo. Lokhu kusho ukuthi uma ingxenye enkulu
yobuso bomhlaba iboniswa ebalazweni, kumele kukhethwe phakathi
kwezimo ezimbili: ingabe ibalazwe kumele libonise isimo soqobo futhi
esinembayo sezinto ezithile ezisemhlabeni (njengamazwekazi kanye
namachibi amanzi nemifula nezilwandle), noma-ke kumele libonise isimo
soqobo mayelana nama-directions. Kuyinto engenakwenzeka neze
ukubonisa indawo emazombezombe entweni eqondile ngaphandle
kokuphaphalaza okuthile, futhi kuzoya ngokohlobo lokuboniswa
kwesimo sendawo ukuthi yizimo zokwakheka kwezinto noma ngama-
directions azophambana noma aphaphalaze. Kunezinhlobo eziningi
zokuboniswa kwezimo zendawo ezisetshenziswayo kulezi zinsuku futhi
umakhi webalazwe kumele akhethe ukuthi ngokunjani ukuphaphalaza
okwamukeleke kangconywana kunokunye, aqoke lokho okuzofeza
izinjongo zomsebenzisi webalazwe. Kunendlela yesithathu yokuqoka
uhlobo lokuboniswa kwesimo sendawo oluzosetshenziswa, okusho,
isinqumo sokuthi kokubili, uhlobo olubonisa isimo sokwakheka
kwendawo kanye nohlobo olubonisa i-direction kuthanda ukuphaphalaza
kancane, kodwa umkhiqizo wokugcina uyayenelisa inhloso noma
isizathu esenze ukuthi kudingeke ukuba kwenziwe ibalazwe. Isibonelo
esaziwa kakhulu se-“projection of convenience” enjalo yi-Robinson
projection esetshenziswa yi-National Geographic Society. Wonke
amabalazwe omhlaba aqukethwe ku-National Geographic Magazine
asuselwe kwi-Robinson projection. Iyaphaphalaza kancane kukho
kokubili isimo sokwakheka kanye ne-direction, kodwa lokhu
kuphaphalaza kuncane kakhulu, yingakho-ke i-National Geographic
Society yaqoka le ndlela yokubonisa isimo sendawo.
Meta data: This is data and information about data. In any empirical study or
investigation data is collected, but all the data collected might not be of the same
quality or type. Some data is qualitative and some is quantitative. Qualitative and
quantitative data require different analytical methods. A researcher always has to
analyse the nature, accuracy and reliability of the data that he/she has collected. In
any research report it is essential to describe the quality of the data (see “primary
data”). The researcher also has to admit to it when some of the data is not very
 165

reliable, explain why it is less reliable and justify why it has nonetheless been used.
All results obtained from the analysis of less reliable data have to be evaluated very
carefully. In certain types of research one might collect a lot of very reliable data as
well as some less reliable data. In such a case the credibility of the results is
diminished to the level of the least reliable data, although most of the data might be
of the highest possible reliability. If all the data used in an analysis is of a low quality
(a low level of reliability) the results are, of course, questionable and findings or
conclusions must be made with the greatest care possible. There are myriads of
reasons why data could be of a poor quality, and it might occur in any type of
empirical research. In all empirical research, the meta data is indispensable since it
determines the credibility of the conclusions. (See “primary data”.)

I-meta data: Lena idatha kanye nolwazi oluphathelene nedatha.

Kunoma iluphi ucwaningo olwenziwa ngokubheka izinto ngamehlo noma
ngokwenza i-eksperimenti (empirical) kuqoqwa idatha, kodwa-ke
akuyona yonke idatha eqoqiwe ezoba nekhwalithi efanayo noma uhlobo
olufanayo. Enye yale datha izogxila kwikhwalithi (qualitative) kanti enye
izogxila ebuningini bezinto ezicwaningwayo (quantitative). I-qualitative
kanye ne-quantitative data kudinga izindlela zokuhlaziya ezihlukene.
Umcwaningi kumele ngaso sonke isikhathi ahlaziye ubunjalo, ukunemba
kanye nokuthembakala kwedatha ayiqoqile. Kunoma imuphi umbiko
wocwaningo kusemqoka ukuchaza ikhwalithi yedatha (bheka i-“primary
data”). Umcwaningi kumele futhi avume futhi akuveze uma kukhona
idatha engathembakali kahle, achaze ukuthi kungani ingathembakali
futhi anikeze isizathu esizwakalayo sokuthi kungani eyisebenzisile
nakuba ingathembakali. Yonke imiphumela etholakale ekuhlaziyweni
kwedatha enokungathembakali okuthile kumele ihlolisiswe
ngokucophelela. Kwezinye izinhlobo zocwaningo umuntu angaqoqa
idatha eningi ethembakalayo kakhulu kanye nedatha
enokungathembakali okuthile. Kuleso simo-ke, kuyancipha ukwethenjwa
kwemiphumela yocwaningo kulingane nezinga laleyo datha
enokungathembakali okukhulu, nakuba idatha eningi eqoqiwe iyidatha
enokuthembakala okuphakeme impela. Uma yonke idatha
esetshenzisiwe ocwaningweni kuyidatha enekhwalithi ephansi (ebonisa
ukuthembakala okusezingeni eliphansi) nemiphumela yayo izoletha
ungabazane futhi umbiko walokho okutholwe wucwaningo noma
iziphetho zocwaningo kumele kwenziwe ngokucophelela okukhulu.
Kunenqwaba yezizathu ezihlukahlukene zokuthi kungani idatha ethile
ingeyekhwalithi ephansi futhi lokhu kungenzeka kunoma yilupho uhlobo
lwe-empirical research. Kuwo wonke ama-empirical research, i-meta
data isemqoka kakhulu ngoba phela iyona ebonisayo ukuthi imiphumela
yezinto ezitholwe wucwaningo iyathembakala noma cha. (Bheka i-
“primary data”.)
Metropolitan area: An urban area that is under the control of a local
authority which might be either elected by the people living there (see “local
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community”), or appointed by a higher authority. The local authority controls the area
by means of enforcing a set of by-laws and regulations which apply to that specific,
well demarcated area (see “demarcation”), but have no authority beyond the
geographical limits of that area. When an urban-rural boundary is sharp and definite,
it is obvious where the jurisdiction of the local authority begins and ends, but often
urban and rural areas are not clearly separated and tend to merge over a broad
semi-rural, semi-urban mixed type of land-use (see “land-use”) and the settlement
pattern is rather blurred. In all cases the area of jurisdiction of a metropolitan
authority has to be clearly defined or numerous disputes and local disturbances
might arise. In South Africa, where local authorities are elected bodies, numerous
different metropolitan areas were amalgamated into larger metropolitan areas after
the 1994 regime change. Initially this caused quite a bit of uncertainty for both the
inhabitants and the authorities, but many of those teething problems have now been
overcome.

Indawo ewumkhandlu-dolobha (Metropolitan area): Indawo

esedolobheni elawulwa yiziphathimandla zendawo okungenzeka
kube ngabantu abaqokwe ngabahlali bakuleyo ndawo (bheka i-“local
community”), noma abaqashwe yisiphathimandla esinegunya
eliphakeme. Iziphathimandla zendawo zilawula leyo ndawo
ngokuqinisekisa ukuthotshelwa kwemithetho nemithethonqubo
kamasipala esebenza kuleyo ndawo eklanywe ngokucacile (bheka i-
“demarcation”), kodwa-ke azinalo igunya namandla ngale kwemingcele
yaleyo ndawo. Uma umngcele phakathi kwendawo esedolobheni kanye
nendawo esemakhaya ubekwe ngokucacile, kuba lula ukubona ukuthi
aqala kuphi futhi aphelela kuphi amandla eziphathimandla zendawo
okuphatha nokwengamela, kodwa-ke esikhathini esiningi izindawo
ezisemadolobheni azihlukanisiwe ngokucacile ezindaweni
ezisemakhaya futhi zivamise ukuba nokuxhumana okuthile ezingxenyeni
ezibanzi lapho kunokusetshenziswa komhlaba okuxubile, phakathi
kwabantu abahlala ezindaweni ezisemaphethelweni ezindawo
ezisemakhaya (semi-rural) kanye nezindawo ezisadolobhana (semi-
urban) (bheka i-“land-use”) futhi amaphethini okuhlaliswa kwabantu
awacacile neze kahle kulezi zindawo. Kuzo zonke izimo, amandla
negunya lokwengamela lomkhandludolobha (metropolitan authority)
kumele kuchazwe ngendlela ecacile futhi uma kungenjalo kungaqubuka
imibango nezinxushunxushu eziningi endaweni. ENingizimu Afrika,
lapho iziphathimandla zendawo zikhethwa ngabahlali, izindawo eziningi
ezisemadolobheni zahlanganiswa kwakhiwa izindawo ezingama-
metropolitan areas ezinkundlwana emva koguquko lombuso olwenzeka
emva kowe-1994. Ngasekuqaleni, lokhu kwathanda ukudala
ungabazane nokudideka okuncane kubahlali nakwiziphathimandla,
kodwa-ke njengamanje sezaxazululeka zonke lezo zinkinga ezazikhona
kuqala.
Migration: The movement of people from one place to another. There are many
different types of migration and one should distinguish the one from the other in
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order to assess the potential short and long term effects of the process. Normally
migration means that people shift their abode (the place where they live) from one
place to another in order to live there for a long period. But it is also common for
people to go and live in another place for a relatively short period such as a few
years. Some people move to other places for an undetermined time and they would
move back to their original home regions at the end of a stint in another place. Even
very short-term movement, such as a tourist’s visit, is sometimes regarded as
“migration”, although tourism is mostly not regarded as migration. One type of
movement which is seldom regarded as migration, is the cross-border movement of
one member of a family to work for 11 months per year in another country, and
returning to their home countries for a month or two, before going back to the host
country (see “refugee”) to earn money. The reason why this type of movement is
seldom regarded as migration is the fact that those worker’s family stays behind and
the worker him/herself does not intend to live in the host country permanently. An
example of this type of human movement is the large numbers of migrant workers
from Zimbabwe, Malawi, Mozambique, Angola, Kenya, the Democratic Republic of
the Congo, Somalia and a number of other African states who annually move to
South Africa because there are no employment opportunities in their home countries.
Migration might be internal, that is, people move from one area in their own country
to another region in the same country. Urbanisation belongs to this category of
migration. In other cases, people move to another country with the full intention of
never returning to their country of origin; this is called external migration (or
emigration). There are numerous reasons why people migrate, and two distinct
types of reasons are distinguished, namely push factors and pull factors. The
former include war, famine and starvation, tribalism, religious intolerance, racism,
political factionalism, poverty and the inability to make a living. When migrants move
as family groups in order to save life or limb, they are in fact fleeing, often do not
carry any documentation, have no possessions and are regarded as refugees.
Migration because of pull factors is usually financially motivated. If their home
country does not offer its citizens the opportunity to make a proper living or find paid
employment, the people migrate to another country. “Push” and “pull” factors are not
always easy to distinguish. Currently, innumerable people from a variety of African
states flock to South Africa and enter the country – legally or illegally – for either
economical and/or political reasons (see “refugee”). Here they find employment or at
least a way to make a living, which was impossible to do in their home countries.
Thus their migration is caused by both “push” factors and “pull” factors and it is really
impossible to identify which of the two is actually responsible. Immigration (“in-
migration”) could have an enormous effect on the demographic structure (see
“demographic data” and “population pyramids”) of a population. Although the crude
birth rate in the United States of America is nearly as low as in the affluent, Western
European nations, the annual population growth rate for the USA is the highest in the
world. The reason is that people from all over the world attempt to, and often
succeed in, moving into the USA for the economical and financial opportunities it
presents.

Ukufuduka: Ukufuduka kwabantu besuka endaweni ethile beya

kwenye. Ziningi izinhlobo zokufuduka, futhi umuntu kumele akwazi
ukuhlukanisa phakathi kwalokhu ukuze akwazi ukuhlola imithelela
engaba khona, yesikhathi eside kanye neyesikhathi esifushane,
ebangelwa wukufuduka. Ngokujwayelekile ukufuduka kuchaza ukuthi
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abantu bayathutha endaweni abahlala kuyona bayohlala isikhathi eside

kwenye indawo. Kodwa futhi kuyinto evamile ukuthi basuke endaweni
yabo bayohlala kwenye indawo isikhashana, okungaba yiminyaka
embadlwana nje. Abanye abantu bayasuka endaweni yabo bayohlala
kwenye indawo isikhathi esingaziwa futhi baphinde babuyele emuva
ezifundeni abadabuka kuzona. Kwesinye isikhathi ukusuka kwabantu
endaweni yabo isikhashana esincane nje, njengohambo lwabavakashi,
kuthathwa “njengokufuduka”, nakuba ukuvakasha kungavamile
ukubonakala njengokufuduka. Ukuhamba kwabantu okungavamile
ukuthathwa njengokufuduka wuhambo olunqamula imingcele yamazwe
olwenziwa yilungu elilodwa lomndeni elingena kwelinye izwe
liyosebenza isikhathi esiyizinyanga eziyi-11 ngonyaka, futhi emva
kwalokho libuyele emuva ezweni elidabuka kuloba, lapho lifika lihlale
khona inyanga eyodwa noma ezimbili ngaphambi kokuthi liphinde futhi
libuyele ezweni langaphandle (bheka i-“refugee”) liyosebenza ngenhloso
yokuthola imali. Isizathu esenza ukuthi lolu hlobo lokuhamba kwabantu,
esikhathini esiningi, lungathathwa njengokufuduka, wukuthi umndeni
waleso sisebenzi usala emuva ezweni okudabuka kulona isisebenzi futhi
nesisebenzi ngokwaso sisuke singazimisele neze ukuhlala unomphela
kulelo lizwe esisebenza kulona. Isibonelo salolu hlobo lokuhamba
kwabantu yinani elikhulu labasebenzi abadabuka kwelase-Zimbabwe,
Malawi, Mozambique, Angola, Kenya, Democratic Republic of the
Congo, Somalia kanye namanye amazwe ase-Afrika, abangena
eNingizimu Afrika minyaka yonke ngoba engekho amathuba omsebenzi
emazweni abo. Ukufuduka kuyenzeka ngaphakathi ezweni, okusho
ukuthi, abantu basuka endaweni ethile ngaphakathi ezweni labo
bayohlala kwesinye isifunda ngaphakathi ezweni labo. Ukufudukela
kwabantu emadolobheni kungena ngaphansi kwalolu hlobo lokufuduka.
Kwezinye izimo, abantu bayathutha ezweni labo bayohlala unomphela
kwelinye izwe, futhi bengazimisele neze ukubuyela emazweni
abadabuka kuwona; lokhu kubizwa ngofuduko lwangaphandle (noma
ukuthuthela kwelinye izwe, i-emigration). Kunezizathu eziningi
ezenza ukuthi abantu bafuduke, futhi zimbili izizathu ezicacile
ezaziwayo, okungama-push factors (izinto ezidudula abantu) kanye
nama-pull factors (izinto ezidonsa abantu). Izinto ezidudula abantu
yizimo ezinjengempi, indlala nokuntuleka kokudla, ukucwasana
kwezizwe, ukungabekezelani kwezenkolo, ubuhlanga, ubuqembuqembu
bezepolitiki, ububha kanye nokungakwazi ukuziphilisa. Uma abafuduki
befuduka njengamaqembu emindeni ngenhloso yokusindisa impilo
noma isitho somzimba, empeleni basuke bebaleka, futhi abavamisile
ukuphatha izincwadi ezibazisayo ukuthi bangobani, abanazo nezimpahla
futhi bathathwa njengababaleki. Ukufuduka ngenxa yezimo ezidonsa
abantu kuvamise ukwenzeka ngenxa yezimo eziphathelene nezimali.
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Uma izwe abadabuka kulona lingazihlinzeki izakhamuzi ngethuba

elikahle lokuziphilisa noma lokuthola umsebenzi okhokhelwayo, abathu
bafudukela kwelinye izwe. Kwesinye isikhathi akuyona neze into elula
ukuhlukanisa phakathi kwama-“push” factors nama-“pull” factors.
Njengamanje, kunezindimbane zabantu abadabuka emazweni ase-
Afrika ahlukahlukene abathutheleka eNingizimu Afrika, abangena kuleli
– ngokusemthethweni noma ngokungekho emthethweni – ngenxa
yezizathu eziphathelene nomnotho kanye/noma izizathu eziphathelene
nepolitiki (bheka i-“refugee”). Kuleli lizwe bathola umsebenzi noma-ke
indlela yokuziphilisa, okuyinto ebingenakwenzeka emazweni abo.
Ngakho-ke ukufuduka kwabo kubangelwe yikona kokubili, ama-“push”
factors kanye bama-“pull” factors futhi kunzima ukuhlonza ukuthi yisiphi
kulezi isizathu esibangele ukufuduka kwabo. Ukuthutheleka nokungena
kwabantu abavela kwamanye amazwe (“in-migration”) kungaba
nomthelela omkhulu esimweni sokwakheka komphakathi wabantu
(bheka i-“demographic data” kanye nama-“population pyramids”).
Nakuba izinga lenzalo e-United States of America liphansi futhi licishe
lilingane nelamazwe acebile ase-Western Europe, izinga lokukhula
kwenani labantu e-USA liphakeme kunawo wonke amanye amazwe
emhlabeni jikelele. Isizathu salokhu wukuthi abantu abadabuka
kwamanye amazwe emhlabeni jikelele, bafudukela kwelase-USA
ngenxa yamathuba ezomnotho nawezimali ahlinzekwa yi-USA.
Modernisation paradigm: A set of economic theories which indicate that
technological development results in economic development, increased well-being,
higher literacy rates and levels of education, and lower population growth and
improved quality of life. This paradigm hypothesises that mechanisation of the
agricultural and industrial industries, the strengthening of the secondary positive and
tertiary sectors of the economy (by means of financial incentives), the availability of
better health care, an increased level of education, an increase in the per capita
financial wealth of the population and a decrease in population growth are all related
in a network of positive correlations. It is a concept dating from at least 50 years ago
so there has been ample time to test the hypotheses underpinning the theories that
constitute the paradigm. Yet, no totally convincing proof has been found. In some
countries, these positive correlations have actually been recorded, but in others not.
In most of the African states, nothing to support the theories has occurred. In the so-
called BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa; see
“economic development”) some of the positive correlations have been detected, but
mostly only in certain pockets of the country and by no means all over the country.
There are so many exceptions that the paradigm could not be accepted as a
universal truth. To mention only one discrepancy to the theories of the paradigm, the
case of the USA might be studied. The USA’s modernisation and economic
development have followed most of the rules of the modernisation paradigm, but its
economic development has led to an unexpected fast population growth rate as a
result of immigration. Another discrepancy is that in most African states the birth
rates and population growth rates have remained high despite increased economic
development and the provision of better health care services. The modernisation
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paradigm is important as it provides a framework for scientific thinking (that is, a

paradigm), but not all predictions made on the basis of this paradigm have been
proven correct. (See “economic development”, “human development index”,
“economic growth”, “development”, “developed countries” and “developing
countries”.)

I-modernisation paradigm: Iqoqwana lamathiyori ezomnotho

abonisa ukuthi intuthuko yezobuchwepheshe iholela entuthukweni
yezomnotho, nokukhula kwenhlalakahle yabantu, namazinga aphakeme
okubhala nokufunda kanye namazinga aphakeme emfundo, ukwehla
kwezinga lokukhula kwenani labantu ezweni kanye nezinga lempilo
elingcono kubantu. Le modeli inombono wokuthi ukusetshenziswa
kwemishini embonini yezolimo kanye neyezimboni, ukuqiniswa kwama-
secondary positive nama-tertiary sectors omnotho (ngokusebenzisa
izibonelelo-nkuthazo), ukutholakala kosizo lwezempilo olungcono,
amazinga emfundo aphakeme, ukukhuliswa kwemali engenayo kumuntu
ngamunye emphakathini kanye nokwehla kwezinga lokukhula kwenani
labantu ezweni, konke kuhlobene futhi kuletha impumelelo. Le modeli
iwumqondo owaqala ukuvela okungenani eminyakeni engama-50
eyadlula, ngakho-ke sekube nesikhathi esanele sokuhlola nokuhlaziya lo
mbono osekelwe phezu kwamathiyori ayingxenye yale modeli. Kepha-
ke, kuze kube manje abukatholakali ubufakazi obuqanda ikhanda
obusekela lo mbono. Kwamanye amazwe, lobu budlelwano obuhle
bubonakalile okwempela, kepha abukabonakali neze kwamanye.
Emazweni amaningi ase-Afrika, abukho ubufakazi obuvelayo obusekela
lawa mathiyori. Emazweni ombimbi lwe-BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India,
China kanye South Africa; bheka i-“economic development”) bukhona
ubudlelwano obuhle obuke babonakala, kodwa kuphela ezingxenyeni
zezwe ezithile, hhayi ezweni lonkana. Ziningi kakhulu izindawo lapho
bungabonakalanga neze ubufakazi bale modeli, kangangokuthi ngeke
yamukeleke njengeqiniso eliphelele. Kunesigameko esisodwa
esiphathelene ne-USA esingasihlaziya ukubonisa ukuthi kukhona
okushaya amanzi ngamathiyori ale modeli. Ukwenziwa isimanjemanje
kwesimo se-USA kanye nentuthuko yezomnotho kulandele cishe yonke
imithetho ye-modernisation paradigm, kodwa intuthuko yezomnotho
yaleliya lizwe seyiholele ekukhuleni ngendlela engalindelekile kwezinga
lokukhula kwenani labantu ezweni ngenxa yokuthutheleka kwabantu
kwelase-USA abavela kwamanye amazwe. Okunye okubonisa inkinga
ngale modeli wukuthi emazweni amaningi ase-Afrika izinga lenzalo
kanye nezinga lokukhula kwenani labantu lisalokhu liphezulu nakuba
sekunentuthuko yezomnotho engconywana kanye nokuhlinzekwa
kwezinsizakalo zosizo lwezempilo ezingcono. I-modernisation paradigm
isemqoka ngoba ihlinzeka ngohlaka lokucabanga kwezesayensi
(okusho, i-paradigm), kodwa akuzona zonke izibikezelo ezenziwe
ngaphansi kwale modeli ezishaya emhlolweni noma eziyiqiniso
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ngokuphelele. (Bheka i-“economic development”, “human development

index”, “economic growth”, “development”, “developed countries” kanye
nama-“developing countries”.)
Morbidity: The state of ill-health or disease in a community. Since absolute figures
of ill people are not really helpful and cannot form a base for comparison with other
areas or communities, a morbidity rate is usually calculated to describe the state of
ill-health in a community. Many different morbidity rates can be calculated, and
health authorities have to select the one that best suits their purpose. If 10 out of
every 1 000 people in a certain community, are ill, while 25 out of every 1 000 in
another community are ill, we can make valid inferences about the health status of
these communities. But there are numerous complicating factors, for instance
whether all the people are equally ill, whether they have been ill for comparable
periods, and whether all the diagnoses are equally reliable. Consequently,
comparisons must be made with caution. In the geography of health (or medical
geography) the collection of data is extremely difficult, and medical geographers
often share a well-known jocular saying, namely “eye-ball your data real close”.

Izinga lokusabalala kwezifo emphakathini: Isimo sokugula noma

sokukhahlanyezwa kwabantu yizifo emphakathini. Njengoba izibalo,
zoqobo, zabantu abagulayo zingelona usizo futhi zingeke zakhe
isisekelo sokuqhathanisa umphakathi othile nezinye izindawo kanye
neminye imiphakathi, kuvamise ukuthi kubalwe izinga lokusabalala
kwezifo emphakathini (morbidity rate) ngenhloso yokuchaza isimo
sokugula nokukhahlanyezwa kwabantu yizifo emphakathini. Maningi
impela amazinga okusabalala kwezifo emphakathini angabalwa futhi
asetshenziswe, futhi iziphathimandla zezempilo kumele zikhethe izinga
elilodwa elihambelana kakhulu nenjongo ezifuna ukuyifezekisa. Uma
kugula abantu abayi-10 kwiqoqwana ngalinye labantu abayi-1 000
emphakathini othile, futhi uma komunye umphakathi kugula abantu
abangama-25 kwiqoqwana labantu abayi-1000, singakhipha umbono
oqinile impela kanye nesiphetho esinohlonze mayelana nesimo
sokugula kule miphakathi. Kodwa-ke kukhona izimo ezenza ukuthi lokhu
kungabi lula neze; isibonelo, akulula neze ukuthola ukuthi abantu
bebegula ngendlela efanayo, nokuthi sebegule isikhathi esilinganayo
kanye nokuthi ukuhlonzwa kwesifo emizimbeni yabo kunokuthembakala
okulinganayo nom cha. Ngenxa yalokho-ke, ukuqhathaniswa kwezimo
zokugula emiphakathini kumele kwenziwe ngokucophelela okukhulu.
Emkhakheni wejografi yezempilo (noma ijografi yezokwelapha)
ukuqoqwa kwedatha kunzima kakhulu, futhi izazi zejografi
yezokwelapha zivamise ukwabelana ngehlaya elidumile elithi “eye-ball
your data real close” (“uyibheke ngeso elibukhali idatha yakho”).
Multiplier effect: An economic concept which basically means that success
breeds success. One successful retail outlet in an area will lead to other businesses
being established nearby which will attract even more businesses, and so forth. One
farmer starts to plant canola (from which canola cooking oil is extracted) instead of
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wheat which has traditionally been grown in the region. He/she gets a very good
price for the canola and next year a few other farmers will also start to grow canola
and then the multiplier effect really kicks in and soon all the farmers are planting
canola (as in the Overberg region in South Africa). However, wheat production has
been shrinking at an increased rate and soon wheat production is so low that wheat
has to be imported. The feedback loops (see “feedback loop”) in an economic
system will assure that growth continues to grow exponentially. What has often been
called “the eight wonder of the world”, namely compound interest, demonstrates
this multiplier effect perfectly. Invested money grows and earns interest and the
larger amount of money grows even faster and earns even more interest. Now the
investor is receiving interest on interest and his/her money is making money which
makes more money, and so it goes on and on. A billionaire can easily make another
million Rand and that is why the richest people in the world are simply getting richer
and richer while the poor are getting poorer and poorer. This is how a classic
capitalist, totally free-market economic system works. In such a system economic
and industrial growth take place at an exponential rate, not a geometric one. Of
course, it cannot continue ad infinitum, but no one knows when the system will break
down. In this respect, natural and human-made systems behave exactly the same.
Exponential growth in a natural system also results in break-down of the system, but
we are not able to predict when the break-down point would be reached.

Ukuphindaphindeka kwempumelelo (Multiplier effect): Leli yitemu

lezomnotho, uma libekwa ngendlela elula nje, elichaza ukuthi
impumelelo izala impumelelo. Ukuphumelela kwesitolo esisodwa
endaweni ethile kuholela ekutheni kusungulwe amanye amabhizinisi
eduze kwaso, okuyinto ezoheha amanye futhi amabhizinisi, njalo njalo.
Isibonelo, umlimi othile uqala ukutshala i-canola (okuyisitshalo
okukhishwa kusona uwoyela wokupheka, i-canola cooking oil)
esikhundleni sikakolweni, okuyisitshalo esivamise ukutshalwa kuleso
sifunda. Umlimi uthola inzuzo enhle kakhulu nge-canola yakhe futhi
ngonyaka olandelayo abanye abalimi abambalwa nabo sebetshala i-
canola futhi ngalokho-ke i-multiplier effect ithola umfutho omkhulu, futhi
ngokushesha emva kwalokho bonke abalimi bendawo bagcina
sebetshala i-canola (njengoba kwenzeka esifundeni sase-Overberg
eNingizimu Afrika). Kodwa-ke, umkhiqizo kakolweni usuqale ukuncipha
ngesivinini esikhulu futhi khona maduze nje umkhiqizo kakolweni
uzokwehla kakhulu kangangokuthi ukolweni uzogcina usuthengwa
emazweni angaphandle. Umjikelezo webuyisambiko (bheka i-
“feedback loop”) ohlelweni lwezomnotho uzoqinisekisa ukuthi ukukhula
komnotho kuqhubeka ngomdlandla omkhulu. Lokho okubizwa
“ngesimangaliso sesishiyagalombili emhlabeni”, okusho, inzalo
engezwa phezu kwenzalo (compound interest), kuyibonisa kahle
kakhulu le-multiplier effect okukhulunywa ngayo lapha. Imali etshaliwe
(invested) iyakhula bese ithola inzalo futhi uma kuyisigaxa esikhulu
semali sikhula ngokushesha okukhulu futhi sizuza inzalo ephakeme.
Manje umtshali-mali uthola inzalo phezu kwenzalo futhi imali yakhe
yenza imali ethe xaxa, futhi lokhu kuyaziphindaphinda ngokuqhubekayo.
 173

Umuntu oyi-billionaire kulula kakhulu ukuthi enze esiye isigidi samarandi

futhi yilokho okwenza ukuthi abantu abacebe kakhulu emhlabeni
baqhubeke nokuzuza umcebo omningi, kanti-ke labo abahlwempu bona
bayaqhubeka nokuba hlwempu kakhulu kunakuqala. Lusebenza kanjalo-
ke uhlelohwebelwano logombelakwesakhe loqobo, olukhululeke
ngokuphelele (classic capitalist, totally free-market economic system).
Ohlelweni olunjalo, ukukhula komnotho kanye nokukhula kwezimboni
kwenzeka ngokwe-exponential rate, hhayi ngokwe-geometric rate.
Kepha-ke lokhu ngeke kuqhubeke unomphela, kodwa akekho owaziyo
ukuthi uhlelo luyofadalala nini. Mayelana nalokhu, izinhlelo zemvelo
kanye nezinhlelo ezakhiwe ngabantu zenza into efana ncamashi. I-
exponential growth wuhlelo lwemvelo futhi nalo luholela ekufadalaleni
kohlelo, kodwa-ke asikwazi ukubikezela ukuthi kuyofinyelelwa nini
eqophelweni lokufadalala kohlelo.
N
Natural selection: The natural process by which a specific population (group
of individuals) within a species changes its characteristics over a long period to be
better adapted to a particular stress presented by its environment. The term “natural
selection” has a long and unpleasant history. It was first used by Charles Darwin
when he published his theory of evolution in his famous book On the Origin of
Species in 1859. His theory was misconstrued, especially by the clergy, to imply that
humans stem from monkeys, which is definately not what the theory posits. The
entire theory and its adherents were vilified. However, so many examples of natural
selection and evolution have been recorded over the intervening years that it simply
cannot be disregarded anymore. All species respond in one way or another to new
challenges in their environment. One such reponse is to change its genetic make-up
to be better adapted to its environment. The genetic change is achieved by the
survival of those individuals in a population who happen to be better equipped to
survive, and matings between the more resistant members of the population. Note
that individuals do not evolve, populations do. Perhaps it is best explained by one
indisputable example. A certain species of white coloured moth occurs in New York
City. It was very well camouflaged in the light coloured city environment. But
increasing air pollution after the Industrial Revolution (see “Industrial Revolution”)
resulted in heavy sedimentation of black soot on the buildings and the white moths
were easily seen and caught by birds and other predators. The darker coloured
individuals in the population were the only ones to survive and breed. Eventually the
entire population consisted of darker coloured individuals and that is why the New
York City population of that species is dark coloured, while the species is actually
white.

I-natural selection: Inqubo yemvelo eyenza ukuthi umphakathi

wezinto eziphilayo (iqembu lezinto ezithile eziphilayo) uguqule izici
zobunjalo bawo (characteristics) ezithile, esikhathini eside, ukuze isimo
sokwakheka kwalezo zinto eziphilayo sihambelane kahle nengcindezi
ezithile ezihlinzekwa yimvelo eziphila kuyona. Itemu elithi “natural
selection” linomlando omude, futhi ongathandeki kahle. Lwaqala
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ukusetshenziswa ngu-Charles Darwin ngenkathi eshicilela ithiyori

yakhe yoguqukosimo (theory of evolution) encwadini yakhe yodumo
esihloko sithi On the Origin of Species ngowe-1859. Abantu
bayayihlanakezela le thiyori, futhi abayiqondi kahle, ikakhulukazi abaholi
bezenkolo, ngoba phela babona sengathi ithi abantu baphuma
ezinkawini, okungeyona neze into eshiwo yile thiyori. Yathola
ukugxekwa nokuhlanjalazwa okukhulu le thiyori kanye nabalandeli bayo.
Kodwa-ke, ziningi izibonelo ezaziwayo ze-natural selection
nogugukosimo eziqoshwe phansi kule minyaka edlule, okungafanele
neze zishaywe indiva. Zonke izinto eziphilayo kuba nendlela ezibhekana
ngayo nezinselele ezintsha ezilethwa yimvelo eziphila kuyona. Enye
yalezo zindlela wukuguquka kwesimo sofuzo sezinto eziphilayo ukuze
zikwazi ukumelana nesimo semvelo. Lolu guquko lofuzo lwenzeka
kulezo zinto eziphilayo ezikwazile ukuphunyula esimweni esingesihle
esibangelwa yimvelo, ngenxa yokuthi isimo sazo siyakwazi ukumelana
nesimo semvelo, kanye nokuzalana phakathi kwalawo malungu
omphakathi wezinto eziphilayo akwazile ukumelana nezinselele
zemvelo. Qaphela ukuthi asiguquki isimo sento ephilayo ngayinye
kepha kuguquka umphakathi wonkana wezinto eziphilayo. Mhlawumbe
lokhu kungachazeka kahle ngokuhlinzeka isibonelo esisodwa
esingenakuphikiswa. Kunohlobo oluthile lwesinambuzane esibizwa
ngelibhu (moth) elimhlophe esitholakala e-New York City. Lesi
sinambuzane sasikwazi ukuzifihla ngempumelelo ngaphansi kwesimo
semvelo esikhanyayo sakuleli dolobha, kodwa-ke ukukhula
kokungcoliseka komoya emva kwe-Industrial Revolution (bheka i-
“Industrial Revolution”) kwaholela ekutheni kugcwale izinsalela zomule
nensizi emnyama ezakhiweni, futhi lokhu kwaholela ekutheni amabhu
amhlophe abonakale kalula bese ebanjwa yizinyoni kanye nezinye
izilwane ezidla amabhu. Kwasala kuphela amabhu anombala omnyama,
futhi wona aqhubeka nokuphila nokuzalana. Ekugcineni umphakathi
wonke wamabhu wabe usuwakhiwe ngamabhu amnyama, yingakho-ke
e-New York City kutholakla umphakathi wamabhu amnyama, ekubeni
empeleni lezi zinambuzane zimhlophe ngokombala.
Nuclear energy: During the 1950s, nuclear energy emerged in the public
awareness as an alternative form of energy, which is both sustainable and clean
(that is, it does not cause the air pollution associated with the combustion of fossil
fuels [see “fossil fuels” and “air pollution”]) and the application was – erroneously –
regarded as inexpensive. (Bear in mind that massive progress in nuclear energy
application was made during the Second World War [1939-1945] and after the war
the research in this field continued. At that time, nuclear energy was very much a
solution or a tool looking for a problem.) Nuclear energy generation uses uranium as
raw material. A very small amount of uranium is required to generate an immense
amount of energy. It soon became clear that the construction of nuclear powered
energy plants plus all the necessary safety measures, is an exorbitantly expensive
pursuit. Getting rid of the radio-active waste material presents an equally serious and
 175

very expensive problem. The necessary safety measures cost a fortune, and the
problem of financially affordable storage of large amounts of generated energy is still
largely beyond our capability. Owing to the financial investment, the development of
nuclear power plants is restricted to the affluent developed states, such as the USA,
Canada, the Scandinavian countries, France, Russia and some other Western
European countries, as well as Japan invested in the construction and operation of
nuclear plants. The first serious warning that these plants might pose a serious
threat to the local people as well as the environment was the incident at the Three
Mile Nuclear Plant in Pennsylvania, USA, in 1979 when a malfunction caused the
release of radio-active substances into the immediate environment of the plant. The
second highly disconcerting incident happened in 1986 when a major malfunction
and partial meltdown in the old, rather obsolete Chernobyl nuclear plant in the
Ukraine (then still part of the USSR) released an enormous amount of radiation into
the environment. The investigation into this nuclear accident revealed that the
amount of radiation released was ten times (10 times) more than that of the nuclear
bomb which destroyed the city of Hiroshima, Japan, at the end of the Second World
War. In 2011 a seismic incident once again brought the dangers associated with
nuclear plants to the fore. A powerful earthquake in Japan caused a “leakage” of
radio-activity from the Fukushima nuclear electricity plant. Although it was a very
serious situation it was soon brought under control because Japan had the
necessary modern technology and know-how to deal with the matter. It did, however,
stress the dangers associated with nuclear energy. If accidents can be completely
prevented, safe disposal of radio-active waste can be guaranteed and the enormous
amounts of cash to build the plants are available, nuclear energy might prove to be
the preferred alternative to fossil fuels for generating electricity and the entire world
might be able to use nuclear power, but we are still far short of that target.

Amandla enuzi (nuclear energy): Ngeminyaka yawo-1950 amandla

enuzi aqala ukubonakala emehlweni abantu njengohlobo olwehlukile
lwamandla kagesi, okuwuhlobo olusimeme futhi oluhlanzekile (okusho
ukuthi, lolu hlobo lwamandla wuhlobo olungawungcolisi umoya
njengezinye izinhlobo zamandla ezihlobene nokushiswa
kweziphehlamandla ezimbiwa phansi [bheka ama-“fossil fuels” kanye
ne-“air pollution”]) futhi kwakucatshangwa ukuthi amandla enuzi wuhlobo
lwamandla olushibhile, okuyinto eyabe iyiphutha elikhulu. (Khumbula
ukuthi inqubekelaphambili enkulu ekusetshenzisweni kwamandla enuzi
yenzeka ngesikhathi seMpi Yesibili Yomhlaba [1939-1945] futhi emva
kwempi lwaqhubeka ucwaningo kulo mkhakha. Ngaleso sikhathi,
amandla enuzi ayebonakala njengesixazululo noma ithuluzi elabe
lithungatha inkinga okumele ixazululwe). Ukuphehlwa kwamandla enuzi
kusebenzisa i-uranium. Kudingeka umthamo omncane kakhulu we-
uranium ukuphehla amandla kagesi omningi kakhulu. Kwasheshe
kwacaca ukuthi ukwakhiwa kwezikhungo zikagesi wenuzi kanye nazo
zonke izinhlelo ezidingekayo zokuqinisekisa ukuphepha,
kwakuwumsebenzi omba eqolo. Ukulahlwa kwemfucuza equkethe
imisebe enobuthi (radio-active waste material) nakho kwaba yinkinga
enkulu impela futhi edinga izimali ezishisiwe. Izinyathelo zokuphepha
ezidingekayo zibiza imali enkulu futhi namanje ayikaxazululeki inkinga
 176

yokuthola indawo engambi eqolo okuzogcinwa kuyona umthamo

omkhulukazi wamandla aphehliwe. Ngenxa yotshalomali oludingekayo,
ukuthuthukiswa kwezikhungo zamandla enuzi kuseyinto eyenziwa
kuphela emazweni acebile, futhi asethuthukile, anjenge-USA, Canada,
amazwe ase-Scandinavia, France, Russia kanye namanye amazwe
ase-Western European, ne-Japan, okungamazwe anayo imali yokwakha
nokuqhuba umsebenzi wezikhungo zenuzi. Isixwayiso sokuqala esiqinile
esabonisa ukuthi lezi zikhungo zinobungozi obukhulu kubantu bendawo
kanye nemvelo yisigameko esenzeka e-Three Mile Nuclear Plant e-
Pennsylvania, kwelase-USA, ngowe-1979 lapho kwaba nenkinga
yokuputshuka kwemisebe enobuthi eyasabalala ezindaweni ezakhelene
nesikhungo. Isigameko sesibili futhi esithusayo kakhulu senzeka ngowe-
1986 lapho kwaba nenkinga enkulukazi eyabangela ukucekeleka phansi
kwengxenye yesikhungo senuzi esidala futhi esingasasetshenziswa
sase-Chernobyl kwelase-Ukraine (ngaleso sikhathi eyayisengaphansi
kwe-USSR) okwabangela ukuputshuka komthamo omkhulukazi
wemisebe enobuthi, eyaphuma yasabalala kwimvelo. Ucwaningo
olwenziwa, oluphathelene nale ngozi yenuzi, lwabonisa ukuthi umthamo
wemisebe enobuthi eyaputshuka wawuphindaphindeke kashumi
(izikhathi eziyi-10) ngaphezu kwesigameko sebhomu lenuzi elacekela
phansi idolobha lase-Hiroshima, kwelase-Japan, ngasekupheleni
kweMpi Yesibili Yomhlaba. Ngowezi-2011 kwaba nesigameko
sokuzamazama komhlaba esabonisa ubungozi obuphathelene
nezikhungo zenuzi. Ukuzamazama komhlaba okukhulu, okwenzeka
kwelase-Japan, kwadala “ukuputshuka” kwemisebe enobuthi
esikhungweni sikagesi wenuzi sase-Fukushima. Nakuba lesi
kwakuyisimo esibucayi kakhulu, salawuleka ngoba i-Japan yayinabo
ubuchwepheshe besimanje manje kanye nolwazi olunzulu lokubhekana
naleso simo. Kepha-ke nakuba kunjalo, lesi sigameko sabubonisa
ngokucacile ubungozi obuphathelene namandla enuzi. Uma izingozi
zingagwemeka ngokuphelele, kuqinisekiswe ukulahlwa ngendlela
ephephile kwemfucuza yemisebe enobuthi futhi kutholakale izindodla
zemali yokwakha izikhungo zenuzi, mhlawumbe amandla enuzi angaba
wuhlobo lwamandla olwehlukile, olungafani neziphehlamandla ezimbiwa
phansi, olungaba yintandokazi futhi lusetshenziswe kakhulu ekuphehleni
ugesi futhi uma kunjalo umhlaba wonkana uyokwazi ukusebenzisa
amandla enuzi, kodwa-ke kusekude kakhulu ukuthi sifinyelele kulelo
qophelo.
O
Orthophoto map: A vertical aerial photograph (see “airphoto”) of a part of
the Earth’s surface that has been specially processed to become a most useful type
of topographical map. They are large scale photographic maps (1:2 500, 1:5 000,
1:10 000 and 1:15 000) to which contour lines, spot heights and annotations have
 177

been added (see “contour maps”, “isometric lines” and “interpolation”). In South
Africa the official series is on a scale of 1:10 000, but only the major urban
complexes have been covered. Orthophoto maps have one major advantage over
topographical maps, namely that they are actual photographs with all the information
about that part of the surface captured exactly as it would be seen by the eye. One
characteristic of these maps is that – owing to the large scale – it would require 15 or
20 or even more sheets to cover an urban complex like Durban, whereas the entire
area could be covered by one 1:50 000 topocadastral map sheet. Under certain
circumstances it is more advantageous to use a topocadastral map, but under
different circumstances the orthophoto maps cannot be surpassed for the specific
detail it provides. It might come as a surprise that orthophoto maps are cheaper to
produce than conventional topocadastral maps and therefore easier to update. (See
“topographical map”, “cadastral map” and “topocadastral map”.)

I-orthophoto map: Lesi yisithombe sasemoyeni esibheke

phansi (bheka i-“airphoto”) esibonisa ingxenye yomhlaba, okuyisithombe
esilungiswe ngendlela ekhethekile ukuze sibe wuhlobo lwe-
topographical map olunosizo kakhulu. Lawa ngamabalazwe ezithombe
anesilinganiso sebalazwe (scale) esikhulu impela (1:2 500, 1:5 000, 1:10
000 kanye no-1:15 000) lapho kwengezwe khona ama-contour lines,
spot heights kanye nezichasiselo zebalazwe (bheka ama-“contour
maps”, “isometric lines” kanye ne-“interpolation”). ENingizimu Afrika,
uchungechunge lwamabalazwe olusemthethweni lubekwe kwisilinganiso
sebalazwe esingu-1:10 000, kodwa-ke yizizinda ezisemadolobheni
(urban complexes) ezinkulu kuphela eziboniswayo kuwo. Ama-
orthophoto maps anobuhle (adavantage) obubodwa obukhulu uma
eqhathaniswa nama-topographical maps, okuwukuthi ayizithombe
zoqobo eziqukethe lonke ulwazi mayelana naleyo ngxenye yomhlaba
ethwetshuliwe, futhi iboniswa njengoba injalo futhi ngendlela ebukeka
ngayo uma ibukwa ngamehlo. Esinye isici esibonisa ubunjalo balawa
mabalazwe wukuthi – ngenxa yesilinganiso esikhulu – kungadingeka
amaheheba ebalazwe ayi-15 noma angama-20 noma ngaphezulu
ukubonisa isizinda esisedolobheni esinjengedolobha laseThekwini, kanti
iheheba elilodwa nje le-topocadastral map elingu-1:50 000 libonisa
ngokuphelele yonke leyo indawo ebalazweni. Ngaphansi kwezimo
ezithile, kuwusizo olukhulu ukusebenzisa i-topocadastral map, kepha
ngaphansi kwezimo ezihlukile alukho uhlobo lwebalazwe olungenza
umsebenzi omuhle ngaphezu kwama-orthophoto maps ngenxa
yemininingwane eqondile ehlinzekwa yilolu hlobo lwebalazwe. Kuyinto
emangalisayo futhi ukubona ukuthi kushibhile ukukhiqiza ama-
orthophoto, futhi ngalokho kulula ukufaka ulwazi lwakamuva kuwona.
(Bheka i-“topographical map”, “cadastral map” kanye ne-“topocadastral
map”.)
Ozone: Triatomic oxygen (O3) which forms in the upper atmosphere at about
20-25 kilometres above the surface of the Earth. (Note that the oxygen we breath is
molecular oxygen, that is O2). Ozone forms as a result of the dissociation of some
 178

molecular oxygen and the “loose” atoms then combine with proper oxygen molecules
to form triatomic oxygen. Below the level where ozone is formed, it gradually
disperses toward ground level and on the way down the triatomic ozone quickly
changes to normal oxygen molecules. Ozone is important to us because it readily
absorbs ultra-violet radiation and thus prevents a large amount of the ultra-violet rays
from the sun to reach the Eearth’s surface. Ozone actually protects us from recieving
too much ultra-violet radiation (which could cause skin cancers and eye cataracts).
During the late 1960s and early 1970s, we detected a dramatic reduction of the
ozone in the upper atmosphere. Since we were releasing large volumes of
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) into the atmosphere and knew that CFCs dissociate
ozone, we deduced that air pollution was causing this reduction in atmospheric
ozone. Realising the consequences of too little ozone in the atmosphere, an
international convention (see “international convention”) was held in Montreal,
Canada. The Montreal Protocol was ratified in 1987 which immediately placed a total
ban on the release of CFCs. Even before all the stipulations of the Montreal Protocol
(Accord) could be implemented, the depleted ozone layer started returning to its
former condition. Since then we have discovered that the ozone concentration in the
atmosphere increases and decreases as a result of currently unexplained natural
causes. We do not know what effect the Montreal Accord had on the ozone layer,
but we have at least succeeded in reducing the amount of CFCs released into the
atmosphere and learnt that humans could act together to achieve some
environmental goal, provided the alternative is too serious to risk.

Umoyamkhathi (i-ozoni): Lena yi-triatomic oxygen (O3) eyakheka

kwingxenye ephezulu yomkhathi, cishe ebangeni elingamakhilomitha
angama 20-25 kusuka phansi emhlabeni. (Qaphela ukuthi i-oksijini
esiyiphefumulayo yi-oksijini engama molekhyuli, okusho i-O2).
Umoyamkhathi wakheka ngenxa yokuhlakazeka kwamanye
amamolekhyuli e-oksijini bese kuthi ama-athomi “ahlakazekile noma
awuvanzi” ahlangane namamolekhyuli e-oksijini yoqobo ukuze
kwakheke i-triatomic oxygen. Ngaphansi kwenzinga okwakheka kulona
umoyamkhathi, i-triatomic ozone iyehla kancane kancane iye phansi
futhi endleleni ebheke ezansi iyaguquka ngokushesha ibe
ngamamolekhyuli e-oksijini ajwayelekile. Umoyamkhathi usemqoka
kithina ngoba umunca imisebe enobungozi futhi ngalokho-ke uvimbela
umthamo omkhulukazi wemisebe evela elangeni ingakwazi ukufinyelela
phansi emhlabeni. Empeleni umoyamkhathi usivikela emisebenzi
yelanga eshisa ngokweqile (engabangela umdlavuza kwesikhumba
kanye nongwengwezi olwenza amehlo angaboni kahle). Ngasekupheleni
kweminyaka yawo-1960 nasekuqaleni kweminyaka yawo-1970,
kwatholakala ukuthi kunokuncipha okukhulu komoyamkhathi engxenyeni
ephezulu yomkhathi. Ngenxa yokuthi sasikhiqiza umthamo omkhulu
wama-chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) akhuphukayo aye phezulu
emkhathini futhi sinolwazi lokuthi ama-CFCs ahlukanisa futhi ahlakaze
umoyamkhathi, lokho kwasibonisa ukuthi kusho ukuthi ukungcoliseka
komoya yikona okuyimbangela yokuncipha komoyamkhathi. Ngokubona
imiphumela yokuba nomoyamkhathi omncane kakhulu, kwabanjwa
 179

ingqungquthela yamazwe omhlaba (bheka i-“international convention”)

e-Montreal, kwelase-Canada. Lapho kwagunyazwa ukwamukelwa kwe-
Montreal Protocol ngowe-1987, okuyisivumelwano esanqabela
ngokuphelele futhi ngokushesha konke ukukhiqizwa kwama-CFCs.
Ngisho nangaphambi kokuba kuqaliswe ukusebenza kwemigomo ye-
Montreal Protocol (isiVumelwano), unqenqema lomoyamkhathi olwase
lucekeleke phansi lwaqala ukubuyela esimweni salo saphambili.
Kusukela lapho-ke, sesitholile ukuthi umthamo womoyamkhathi
uyakhuphuka noma unciphe ngenxa yezimbangela zemvelo
ezingakaziwa kahle kuze kube manje. Asazi-ke ukuthi isiVumelwano
sase-Montreal saba nomthelela ongakanani ongwengwezini
lomoyamkhathi, kodwa okungenani sikwazile ukunciphisa umthamo
wama-CFC akhiqizwayo, angena emkhathini, futhi sifundile ukuthi
abantu bayakwazi ukuthatha izinyathelo ngokubambisana ukufezekisa
injongo ethile yezemvelo, uma nje isimo okubhekenwe naso sinobungozi
obukhulu.
P
Physical accessibility: See “accessibility”.

Physical accessibility: Bheka i-“accessibility”.

Polarisation: Parties who have the same viewpoint about any important
matter will band together to form polarised pressure groups who could oppose one
another more effectively. In any international gathering of interested parties,
polarisation inevitably happens. Whether it is a political, economical or environmental
issues that is at stake, it is a given that the role players will not all share the same
opinion. Each party will in the first place want to protect its own interests. It would
join the group that holds opinions most compatible with its own. The gathering will
inevitably become polarised, and two or more powergroups will then face it off. In the
political and economical environments, formal agreements might be reached by like-
minded parties. Some of these agreements might stand for many years and might
even survive wars, terrorism and enemy aggression. A typical example is the Allied
Forces of the Second World War who opposed the Axis States, but in that instance
many of the allegiances changed after the war and new animosities surfaced in what
became a 40-year Cold War. The African Union which originated from the
Organisation for African Unity has survived despite a number of wars between the
member nations themselves, but both of these organisations have been remarkably
ineffective in establishing peace and development in Africa. Since politics and
economics are often intertwined, political and economical polarisations are also
intertwined. Some authors regard the world as being polarised between an
economically developed grouping and an economically developing (or
underdeveloped) grouping of states (see “economic development”, “developed
North” and “developing states”). However, nowadays the most prominent economical
groupings are the Group of Eight, the developing states and the BRICS countries
(see “economic development”, “developed states” and “developing nations”). In the
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environmental sphere, polarisations are very common, but they tend to be loose,
self-serving and changeable. Some countries might band together during one Cites
meeting (see “international conventions”) and oppose all others in order to sell-off
their stock-piles of ivory or rhino horn, and be completely opposed about the very
same issue at the next Cites meeting. At the so-called “Earth Summit” (see
“environmental justice”) the developing (poor) nations and the developed (rich)
nations opposed each other vigorously in unpremeditated polarisation about
environmental responsibility and air pollution. But on the whole, environmental
polarisations tend to be fluid, opportunistic and issue-bound.

Ukuhlukana phakathi ngokwemibono: Amaqembu anombono ofanayo

mayelana nodaba oluthile olusemqoka asebenza ngokubambisana futhi
akhe inguyazana eshabashekela udaba lolo, ukuze akwazi ukuphikisana
ngomdlandla omkhulu nalawo maqembu anombono ohlukile kowabo.
Emibuthanweni yamazwe ngamazwe ethanyelwe ngamaqembu
anezimfuno ezihlukahlukene, kuyinto engenakugwemeka neze
ukuhlukana phakathi kwamaqembu ngokwemibono. Kungakhathalekile
ukuthi kudingidwa izindaba eziphathelene nezepolitiki, ezomnotho noma
ezemvelo, kuyiqiniso elimsulwa ukuthi ngeke bonke ababambiqhaza
babe nombono ofanayo. Iqembu ngalinye libeka izimfuno zalo eqhulwini
futhi lizame ukuzivikela, futhi lihlanganyele namanye amaqembu
anombono osondelene kakhulu nowalo. Ngenxa yalokho-ke nakanjani
umbuthano ugcina usuhlukene phakathi ngokwemibono, bese kuba
namaqembu amabili noma ngaphezulu amakhulu adlana imilala,
ephikisana ngodaba oluthile olusezithebeni zomhlangano. Ngaphansi
kwesimo sezepolitiki noma sezemvelo, kungenzeka ukuthi amaqembu
anemibono ehambelanayo asayine izivumelwano ezisemthethweni.
Ezinye zalezi zivumelwano kuyenzeka ziqhubeke iminyaka ngeminyaka
futhi zingaqhubeka zisebenze ngisho emva kwezimpi, noma emva
kwezigameko zobushokobezi nokuhlaselwa yizitha. Isibonelo esihle
kakhulu salokhu ngamazwe ayengaphansi kombimbi lwama-Allied
Forces ngesikhathi seMpi Yesibili Yomhlaba ayembambene ngezihluthu
namazwe ombimbi lwama-Axis States, kepha into eyenzeka lapho
wukuthi emva kwempi baguquka ubuhlobo bamazwe, futhi kwaqala
ubutha obusha nenzondo phakathi kwamazwe athile okwaholela empini
yomshoshaphansi eyabe ibizwa nge-Cold War, eyadonsa iminyaka
engama-40. INhlangano Yamazwe ase-Afrika, edabuka kwi-
Organisation for African Unity ayikahlakazeki futhi iyakwazi ukuqhubeka
nomsebenzi wayo nakuba sekube nezimpi eziningana phakathi
kwamazwe angamalungu ayo, kodwa-ke kuze kube manje zihlulekile
zombili lezi zinhlangano ukuletha ukuthula nentuthuko enohlonze e-
Afrika. Njengoba ezepolitiki nezomnotho zivamise ukuxhumana,
ukuhlukana phakathi ngokwemibono kwezepolitiki nakwezomnotho
nakho kunokuxhumana okuthile. Abanye ababhali babona umhlaba
njengendawo ehlukene phakathi ngokwamazwe asethuthukile
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kwezomnotho kanye namazwe asathuthuka kwezomnotho (noma

amazwe angakathuthuki) (bheka i-“economic development”, “developed
North” kanye nama-“developing states”). Kodwa-ke, kulezi zinsuku
amazwe avelele kwezomnotho ngamazwe azibiza nge-Group of Eight,
namazwe asathuthuka kanye namazwe ombimbi lwe-BRICS (bheka i-
“economic development”, “developed states” kanye nama-“developing
nations”). Emkhakheni wezemvelo, ukuhlukana phakathi ngokwemibono
kuyinto evamile impela, kodwa leyo mibono ivamise ukungabi
nezimpande eziqinile, futhi ihambisana nobugovu bogombela kwesabo,
futhi iyaguquguquka. Amanye amazwe kuyenzeka abambane ngezandla
futhi avumelane ngazwi linye emhlanganweni othile we-Cites (bheka
ama-“international conventions”) lapho ephikisana khona nawo wonke
amanye amazwe, ukuze akwazi ukudayisa inqwaba yamazinyo endlovu
nezimpondo zobhejane ezigciniwe kulawo mazwe, kodwa
emhlanganweni olandelayo we-Cites kube yiwona futhi lawo mazwe
asephikisana nento efanayo abeyilwela emhlanganweni odlule.
Engqungqutheleni ebizwa nge-“Earth Summit” (bheka i-“environmental
justice”) amazwe asathuthuka (ahlwempu) kanye namazwe
asethuthukile (acebile) aphikisana kakhulu futhi abonisa ukuhlukana
phakathi kwemibono ngendlela eyabe ingalindelekile neze mayelana
nokuziphatha kwamazwe kwezemvelo nokungcoliseka komoya. Kodwa-
ke esikhathini esiningi, ukuhlukana phakathi kwemibono yamazwe
mayelana nezemvelo kuvamise ukubonisa ubuphixiphixi bemibono
yamazwe, ubuqili, kanye nokugxila kwamazwe ezindabeni ezithile
ezidala impikiswano.
Political instability: A condition of uncertainty about the jurisdiction or control
in a certain, definable area of the world. Politically the world is organised into
demarcated (see “demarcation”) states or countries, that is, political units. A state is
theoretically an independent (autonomous), territorial, political entity under the
jurisdiction of a recognised authority. (Note: do not confuse the different states of the
United States of America with the USA as a nation.) In theory, each politic unit is
under the jurisdiction of a recognised authority which might be a single ruler (such as
a king, queen, dictator, or leader), or a ruling group who have taken control, or a
democratically elected person and his/her party. There are, however, so many
different types of government or jurisdiction or control, that it is often impossible to
describe the jurisdiction or authority in a specific political unit. Moreover, the
territories of the individual political units are often not even clearly defined. The
geopolitical map of the world is a representation of a fluid pattern of jurisdiction,
which changes all the time, because the geopolitical spatial pattern of the world
changes all the time. There are numerous border disputes among the global political
units, for instance the border between North Korea and South Korea, where the 38˚N
parallel (line of latitude) currently serves as the international border, with wide strips
of no-man’s land on either side. The border disputes between Israel and Palestine
are so complicated that it simply cannot be described in a few simple sentences.
Many other examples can be named, but the essence of it all is that the geopolitical
pattern is never a fixed certainty. Every geopolitical map of the world is probably “out
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of date” the moment it is drawn! To complicate an already complicated issue, there is

often political turmoil within many of the global political units. In some countries
jurisdiction continually shifts from one political party to another or from one military
faction to another. Hence, political instability occurs between as well as within
political units. Apart from the difficulties ordinary citizens of a country, state, or
regions might have to face because of political instability, it has a huge impact on
global as well as regional and even national economic activity. It stands to reason
that investors are not readily going to invest money in the form of foreign direct
investment (FDI) in politically unstable countries or regions because they might lose
their money when the regime (the authority) changes. Political instability is rife in
Africa, and foreign investors such as the European Union, the USA and China, the
World Bank (WB), the International Monitory Fund (IMF) as well as the really big
investors like the multinational corporations (MNCs) are hesitant and cautious to
invest in countries typified by political instability (such as many of the African states
and regions like the Middle East). If the developing countries wish to attract foreign
investment they have to be politically stable enough to reassure the investors of
making money, rather than losing it.

Ukungabi khona kozinzo lwezepolitiki: Isimo esibonisa ungabazane

mayelana nokuthi ngubani onamandla negunya lokuphatha nokulawula
endaweni ethile emhlabeni, echazeka ngokucacile. Ngokwezepolitiki, lo
mhlaba esiphila kuwona uhlukaniswe waba ngamazwe ahlukahlukene
anemingcele eklanyiwe (bheka i-“demarcation”), okusho, amayunithi
ezepolitiki (political units). Ngokuvamile, izwe lithathwa njengendawo
ezimele engaphansi kolawulo lwesiphathimandla esinegunya. (Qaphela:
ungaphambanisi izifundazwe ezihlukahlukene zase-United States of
America nezwe lonkana elibumbene lase-USA). Esimweni
esijwayelekile, izwe ngalinye lingaphansi kolawulo lwesiphathimandla
esinegunya, okungenzeka kube ngumbusi oyedwa (njengenkosi,
indlovukazi, undlovukayiphikiswa, noma umholi), noma iqembu
elibusayo elithathe izintambo zokwengamela, noma umuntu okhethwe
ngokwentando yabantu kanye neqembu lakhe. Kodwa-ke, kunezinhlobo
ezihlukahlukene zohulumeni noma amagunya okuphatha nokulawula,
kangangokuthi esikhathini esiningi kuyinto engenakwenzeka ukuchaza
wonke amagunya okulawula noma amandla okwengamela ezweni
elithile. Ngaphezu kwalokho, umhlaba wezwe ngalinye uvamise
ukungachazwa ngendlela ecacile. I-geopolitical map yomhlaba
iwumfanekiso obonisa isimo esiguquguqukayo segunya lokwengamela,
ngenxa yoguquko olwenzeka ngaso sonke isikhathi kwezepolitiki
yendawo okuhlala kuyona abantu. Kunemibango yemingcele
eminingana impela eyenzekayo phakathi kwamazwe omhlaba, isibonelo,
umngcele phakathi kwe-North Korea ne-South Korea, lapho
njengamanje i-38˚N parallel (umugqa we-latitude) ithathwa
njengomngcele ohlukanisa lawa mazwe amabili, futhi phakathi kwawo
kunodedangendlale womhlaba othathwa njengomhlaba ongenamnikazi,
okusho ukutho akuwona umhlaba we-North Korea futhi akuwona
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umhlaba we-South Korea. Imibango yemingcele phakathi kwezwe

lakwa-Israel ne-Palestine iyinzukazikeyi eyindida kakhulu, kangangoba
ngeke neze umuntu akwazi ukuyichaza ngemisho embalwa nje. Ziningi
ezinye izibonelo esingazibala lapha, kodwa umongo wakho konke lokhu
wukuthi isimo sepolitiki yezindawo okuhlala kuzona abantu ngeke neze
sibe yinto umuntu angaba nesiqiniseko esiphelele ukuthi sime kanjani. I-
geopolitical map ngayinye yomhlaba kungenzeka ukuthi ibonise
imifanekiso “esiphelelwe yisikhathi” ngenxa yokuguquka ngokushesha
kwesimo sepolitiki yendawo emva kokudwetshwa komfanekiso
kwebalazwe! Into eyenza futhi ukuthi sixake kakhudlwana lesi simo
esiyindida kakade, wukuthi emazweni omhlaba amaningi kuvamise
ukuthi kube nezinxushunxushu zepolitiki zangaphakathi. Kwamanye
amazwe, igunya lokuphatha nokwengamela liyashintsha-shintsha lisuka
eqenjini lezepolitiki elithile liye ezandleni zelinye, noma lisuke
embuthweni wezempi omunye liye komunye. Yingakho-ke, ukungabi
khona kozinzo lwezepolitiki kwenzeka phakathi kwamazwe ahlukene,
futhi kwenzeke nangaphakathi ezweni ngalinye. Ngaphandle nje
kobunzima ezihlangabezana nabo izakhamizi zezwe elithile noma
zesifunda esithile ngenxa yokungabi khona kozinzo lwezepolitiki, lokhu
kunomthelela omkhulu esimweni sesifunda sonkana noma somhlaba
wonkana, futhi kunomthelela nakwezomnotho wezwe imbala. Kuyinto
esobala ukuthi abatshalimali ngeke neze batshale izimali zabo
emazweni noma ezifundeni ezingenalo uzinzo lwezepolitiki,
okuwutshalomali oluqondile oluvela emazweni angaphandle (FDI),
ngoba phela kungenzeka balahlelekwe yizimali zabo uma kwenzeka
uguquko lombuso. Ukungabi khona kozinzo lwezepolitiki kuyinto
edlangile impela kwelase-Afrika, futhi abatshalimali bamazwe
aphesheya kwezilwandle njenge-European Union, i-USA, i-China, i-
World Bank (WB), i-International Monitory Fund (IMF) kanye
nabatshalimali abakhulukazi abanjengezinkampani
eziyizikhondlakhondla ezinamagatsha emazweni amaningi (MNCs)
bamanqikanqika futhi bayakwexwaya ukutshala izimali zabo emazweni
avamise ukuba nenkinga yokungabi khona kozinzo lwezepolitiki
(njengamazwe amaningi ase-Afrika nezifunda ezinjenge-Middle East)
futhi uma kwenzeka benquma ukutshala izimali zabo kulawa mazwe,
lokho bakwenza ngokucophelela okukhulu. Uma amazwe asathuthuka
efisa ukuheha abatshalimali bamazwe angaphandle kumele abe nozinzo
ngokwanele kwezepolitiki oluzoqinisekisa abatshalimali ukuthi bazothola
inzuzo ngezimali zabo abazitshalile, esikhundleni sokulahlekelwa yilezo
zimali zabo.
Population density: The number of individuals that occur within a specified
portion of landsurface, expressed as “x” individuals per “y’” square kilometre (or
metres or miles). The index might apply to the concentration of humans, animals,
 184

insects or microbes or anything non-organic. In this context the term “population” is

used in the statistical sense, which means that any type of phenomenon might
constitute the population referred to. In Geography and all other environmental
sciences, it often refers to human beings, but that might not necessarily be the case,
since shops, schools, trees, mammals, reptiles or microbes could constitute a
“population”. Therefore, the entire concept is a statistical one. Whatever the nature of
the population, the statistical index applies. In Geography one could usually take
population density as referring to human beings, but that is not always the case. A
very easy comparative variable to explain the term is to use the number of individual
human beings who live within a defined area. In an Indian slum 700 000 or more
human individuals (people) might live within one square kilometre of land. The
population density is extremely high since there is far less than one square metre of
landsurface available for every human being in the population. On the other hand,
less than one human being lives within an area of many square kilometres of land in
the Sahara desert. The population density in any urban area is always higher than
that of the surrounding rural area.

Ubuningi bezinto zemvelo endaweni ethile: Inani lezinto zemvelo

ezitholakala engxenyeni ethile yomhlaba, eliboniswa ngaloku hlobo:
izinto zemvelo eziphilayo eziyinani elingu “x” zitholakala endaweni
engama-square kilometre (noma amamitha noma amamayela) angu “y”.
Le nkomba ingasebenza futhi mayelana nobuningi babantu, izilwane,
izinambuzane noma amagciwane noma okunye okungeyona into
ephilayo. Ngaphansi kwalesi simo-ke itemu elithi “population”
lisetshenziselwa ukwenza izibalo zokukala ubuningi, okusho ukuthi lisho
noma iyiphi into yemvelo okuqondiswe kuyona. KuJografi kanye nakuwo
wonke amanye amasayensi ezemvelo, leli temu elithi “population”
livamise ukusetshenziswa maqondana nabantu, kodwa-ke lokho akuhlali
kunjalo ngaso sonke isikhathi, njengoba kwesinye isikhathi
lingasetshenziswa maqondana nenani lezitolo, izikole, izihlahla, izilwane
ezincelisayo, izilwane ezihuquzelayo noma amagciwane. Ngakho-ke,
umqondo ophelele ophathelene naleli temu uhlobene nezibalo
namanani. KuJografi, esikhathini esiningi ungathatha ngokuthi ubuningi
bezinto zemvelo endaweni ethile buphathelene nabantu, kodwa-ke lokho
akuhlali kunjalo ngaso sonke isikhathi. Isimo esilula nje
esiqhathanisekayo sokuchaza leli temu wukusebenzisa inani labantu
abahlala endaweni ethile echaziwe. Endaweni eyimijondolo kwelase-
India ungathola ukuthi abantu abayizi-700 000 noma ngaphezulu bahlala
kwindawana elingana ne-square kilometre somhlaba esisodwa. Inani
labantu abahlala lapho liphakeme kakhulu ngoba kunomhlaba
ongaphansi kakhulu kwe-square kilometre esisodwa okumele kuhlale
kuwona bonke abantu bakuleyo ndawo. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, e-
Sahara Desert, emhlabeni ongama-square kilometre amaningi kuhlala
abantu abangaphansi komuntu oyedwa. Inani labantu abahlala
endaweni ethile esedolobheni lihlala liphakeme njalo uma liqhathaniswa
 185

nenani labantu abahlala ezindaweni zasemakhaya, ezakhelene nalelo

dolobha.
Population growth: An increase in the number of individuals in a definable
group. In a statistical sense a population could consist of non-living objects (such as
motor cars) or living individuals (such as elephants or fruitflies) (see “population
density”). Since Geography concerns itself primarily with the spatial relationships
between human beings and their environment, we normally think of human beings
when we read the term “population”. The number of people in a specific group within
a definable space, may increase by means of migration (see “migration”), or by the
birth of new individuals. The latter is called natural population increase, and
different populations increase at different rates (see “fertility”). In some cities,
countries, regions or nations more individuals (babies) are born than in others,
consequently the natural population growth rate in the first-mentioned population is
higher than in the others. Since human populations differ greatly in terms of size and
characteristics, it is difficult to compare and make scientific defensible inferences
about the population growth rate in vastly different populations. To overcome these
problems, certain standardised statistics and indeces (indexes) are used to express
population growth rate. Crude natural birth rate (the actual number of babies
born to each 1 000 people in the population) is one such statistic and it is probably
the most commonly used statistic to express population growth. Annual growth rate
is another, but that includes migrants. A number of other statistics could also be
used to describe population growth, so we must carefully select the most appropriate
statistic or index to express population growth rate. There are many different factors
that might influence population growth rate: culture, religion, health status, medical
facilities, governmental actions and laws on the number of children per married
couple, financial considerations, migration, internal political instability (see “political
instability” and “malnutrition”), war, disease, and many more. Many African states
have high annual birth rates, but owing to some of the mentioned factors their
population growth rates might be relatively low (see “fertility”). When more people
move away from a place than those who are born or into it or migrate towards it, the
population growth might even be negative. Some of the Western European
countries (eg Norway, Sweden, Denmark and France) and even Russia, have
negative population growth rates and their populations are in fact declining! The
United States of America is always an interesting and rather surprising example of a
country with a high population growth rate: the natural population increase in the
USA is low, but the medical facilities are excellent, no famines or uncontrolled
diseases occur, more than enough food is available for every member of the
population, the human development index (HDI) is relatively high, and so forth, but
the reason why the USA has the highest annual population growth rate in the entire
world is inward migration of people from all over the world. So while some Western
European countries and Russia have declining populations, the USA has a
ballooning population!

Ukukhula kwenani lezinto zemvelo: Ukukhula kwenani lezinto

zemvelo zeqembu elithile elichazekayo. Ngokwezibalo namanani,
umphakathi wezinto ezithokala endaweni ethile, ubandakanya izinto
ezingaphili (njengezimoto) noma izinto eziphilayo (njengezindlovu noma
izimpukane ezidla izithelo) (bheka “population density”). Njengoba
iJografi iphathelene kakhulu nobudlelwano ngokwendawo phakathi
 186

kwabantu nemvelo abaphila kuyona, sivamise ukucabanga ngabantu

uma sibona itemu elithi “population”. Inani labantu beqembu elithile
abahlala endaweni ethile echaziwe, kungenzeka likhuphuke ngenxa
yokufuduka kwabantu (bheka i-“migration”), noma ngenxa yokuzalwa
kwabantu abasha. Ukufuduka kwabantu kubizwa ngokukhula
ngokwemvelo kwenani lomphakathi wabantu abaphila endaweni
ethile, futhi imiphakathi ehlukahlukene ikhula ngokwamazinga
ahlukahlukene (bheka i-“fertility”). Kwamanye amadolobha, amazwe,
izifunda noma izizwe kuzalwa abantu (izingane) abaningi uma
kuqhathaniswa nakwamanye amazwe, ngenxa yalokho-ke izinga lokhula
ngokwemvelo kwenani labantu emphakathini oshiwo kuqala liphakeme
kunenani leminye imiphakathi. Njengoba imiphakathi yabantu abaphila
endaweni ethile ihlukile kakhulu ngokobungakho bomphakathi kanye
nezici zobunjalo bomphakathi, kunzima ukuqhathanisa nokwenza
imibono esekelwa wubufakazi bezesayensi mayelana nezinga lokukhula
kwenani labantu abahlala emiphakathini ehlukene kakhulu. Ukuze
kunqotshwe le nkinga, kusetshenziswa izibalo nezinkomba ezimisiwe
ukubonisa izingakukhula lenani labantu. Izingakuzala lemvelo
elingakahlungwa (inani loqobo lezingane ezizalwayo emphakathini
ngamunye wabantu abayi-1 000) ngenye yezindlela zalolo hlobo
zokubala inani labantu, futhi cishe iyona ndlela esetshenziswa kakhulu
ukubonisa izingakukhula kwenani labantu. Izingakukhula lenani
labantu ngonyaka ngenye indlela esetshenziswayo, kodwa-ke yona
ibandakanya nabantu abadabuka kwamanye amazwe. Kunezinye
izindlela zokubala ezingasetshenziselwa ukuchaza izinga lokukhula
kwenani labantu, ngakho-ke kumele sikhethe ngokucophelela leyo
ndlela yokubala noma inkomba efaneleke kakhulu esizoyisebenzisa
ukubonisa izinga lokukhula kwenani labantu. Kunezinto eziningi futhi
ezihlukahlukene ezingaba nomthelela kwizinga lokukhula kwenani
labantu: isiko, inkolo, isimo sempilo, izikhungo nezinsizakalo zosizo
lokwelashwa, izinyathelo zikahulumeni kanye nemithetho ephathelene
nenani lezingane okumele litholwe ngabantu ababili abashadile, izimo
zezimali, ukufuduka kwabantu, ukungabi khona kozinzo lwezepolitiki
ngaphakathi ezweni (bheka i-“political instability” kanye ne-
“malnutrition”), izimpi, izifo, kanye nokunye okuningi. Amazwe amaningi
ase-Afrika anamazingakuzala aphezulu ngonyaka, kodwa-ke ngenxa
yezimo ezibalwe ngenhla kungenzeka ukuthi izingakukhula labantu libe
phansi kakhulu (bheka i-“fertility”). Uma liphakeme inani labantu
abathuthayo endaweni ethile uma kuqhathaniswa nenani labantu
abazalwayo noma abantu abafudukela kuleyo ndawo, izingakukhula
labantu kungenzeka libonise ukushoda kwabantu. Amanye amazwe
ase-Western European (isib. Norway, Sweden, Denmark kanye ne-
France) ne-Russia, anamazingakukhula abonisa ukushoda kwabantu
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futhi ayancipha impela amanani abantu kulawa mazwe! I-United States

of America ihlala iyisibonelo esixakayo futhi esimangalisayo impela
ngoba iyizwe elinezingakukhula kwabantu eliphakeme: izinga
lokukhula ngokwemvelo komphakathi wabantu liphansi e-USA,
kodwa inezikhungo nezinsizakalo zosizo lokwelashwa eziseqophelweni
eliphezulu, ayikho indlala kanye nezifo ezingalawuleki, bonke abantu
banokudla okungaphezulu kwalokho abakudingayo, inkomba yentuthuko
yabantu (HDI) iphakeme impela, njalo njalo, kodwa isizathu esenza
ukuthi i-USA ibe nezingakukhula kwabantu lonyaka eliphakeme
kunawo wonke emhlabeni yizindimbane zabantu abafudukela kuleliya
lizwe, abavela kwamanye amazwe emhlabeni jikelele. Ngakho-ke
ngenkathi amanye amazwe ase-Western Europe kanye ne-Russia
ebonisa ukwehla kwamanani abantu abahlala kulawo mazwe, i-USA
yona ibhekene nengwadla yesibalo sabantu esikhula ngamandla!
Population pyramid: A graphic representation of the structure of a specific
human population. Only two population variables (characteristics, properties) are
used to construct (draw) such a population pyramid, namely gender and age.
Although a population pyramid is a relatively simple representation, it carries a
myriad of crucially important information (see “population growth”). So from very
basic, easily obtainable demographic data extremely important information about
a population can be conveyed and deduced. Perhaps it is even more important that
population pyramids afford scientists an easy, visual basis for comparisons between
the main characteristics of different populations. From a population pyramid one can
immediately read both absolute numbers as well as proportional figures and
calculate indices (indexes). Absolute numbers such as of individuals in the different
age or gender groups of the population, and the proportions of the economically
dependent population (see “development” and “developing countries”), the age
distribution of the population, the gender composition of the population, the infant
mortality, the life expectancy of the population, and a number of other variables
(characteristics) of the specific population can be deduced from a population
pyramid. It is one of the most commonly used and useful geographical
representations on which to base comparisons between different populations (see
“demographic data”). Even popular lay publications like Time often use it.

I-population pyramid: Umdwebo obonisa uhlaka lwesimo somphakathi

othile ohlala. Zimbili kuphela izici zomphakathi ezenza ukuba
umphakathi othile wehluke kweminye, okuyizici ezisetshenziselwa
ukwakha (ukudweba) i-population pyramid, futhi lezo zici wubulili
neminyaka yobudala. Nakuba i-population pyramid kungumdwebo
olula nje obonisa isimo sohlaka lomphakathi, iqukethe ulwazi oluningi
impela futhi olusemqoka kakhulu (bheka i-“population growth”). Ngakho-
ke, kwi-demographic data eyisisekelo, futhi etholakala kalula,
kungatholakala nolwazi olubaluleke kakhulu. Mhlawumbe kubaluleke
kakhudlwana impela ukuthi ama-population pyramids ahlinzeke
ososayensi ngomfanekiso olula ozosetshenziselwa ukuqhathanisa izici
zemiphakathi ehlukahlukene ephila ezindaweni ezihlukahlukene.
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Ngokubheka i-population pyramid umuntu angafunda ngokushesha

izinombolo zoqobo (absolute numbers) kanye nezinombolo
eziyisilinganiso sobungakho (proportional figures) bese ebala izinkomba.
Izinombolo zoqobo, njengalezo ezibonisa abantu emaqenjini
aneminyaka yobudala ehlukahlukene noma ubulili obuhlukene, kanye
nesilinganisonani somphakathi othembele kwabanye ngokwezomnotho
(bheka i-“development” kanye nama-“developing countries”),
ukuhlukahlukana komphakathi ngokweminyaka yobudala, isimo
somphakathi ngokobulili, isilinganiso sokushona kwezinsana, isilinganiso
sobude besikhathi esiphilwa ngabantu emhlabeni, kanye nezinye izici
ezihlukahlukene kungatholakala ngokuhlaziya nokucubungula i-
population pyramid. I-population pyramid ingenye yemifanekiso yejografi
ewusizo kakhulu esetshenziselwa ukuqhathanisa imiphakathi
ehlukahlukene (bheka i-“demographic data”). Ngisho namaphephabhuku
ajwayelekile imbala, anjenge-Time, avamisile ukuyisebenzisa.
Precautionary principle: There is no standard definition for this term. It is a term
that scientists should handle with the greatest of care. It is actually an intuitive
sense of caution or doubt or uncertainty, stemming from both a certain ethical
code and a mount of empirical evidence. The precautionary principle forms one of
the basic tenets underpinning the entire pluri-disciplinary field of environmental
management. The ethical code in which modern day environmental management is
embedded, is that we should do nothing that might cause irreversible harm, alter or
destroy the natural environmental heritage which future generation would inheret
from us, and that we must endeavour to use nature’s resources in a sustainable way
(see “sustainability”, “ecocentrism” and “environmentalist”). This ethical code differs
totally from the prevailing environmental ethics during certain periods of human
history. During the Industrial Revolution (see “Industrial Revolution”), the
environment was regarded as nothing more than a supplier of resources and a
receptacal of things we no longer needed. Sustainability of ecosystems and
sustainable resource use were not part of that ethic. Empirical evidence later
disclosed how severely we had impacted the environment and revealed the
irreparable harm and destruction we had wrought. At that stage (more or less the
1950s and early 1960s) the Environmental Movement was born and started gaining
momentum (see “environmentalist” and “ecocentrism”). After another three to four
decades, the environment has become one of humankind’s most important
considerations in managing our actions and activities (see “ecocentrism” and
“greening mainstream politics”) – a completely different environmental ethic had
replaced the previous one of non-sustainability. Based on the precautionary
principle, we have developed sophisticated systems of institutional caution to
regulate human actions and prevent irreparable harm to the environment. Owing to
the precautionary principle, we now manage the environment in such a way that we
must carefully consider our actions and their potential impacts on the environment
before we embark on any activity involving the environment, and our aim is to
prevent environmental destruction rather than rehabilitate a destroyed environment –
prevention is cheaper than cure! The predictive and preventative nature of
environmental management is founded in the precautionary principle. Environmental
management is constructed around a goal of preventing, rather than reacting to,
undesirable environmental impact.
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Umgomo wokuqaphela nokucophelela: Ayikho incazelo eqondile

yaleli temu. Liyitemu okumele balisebenzise ngokucophelela okukhulu
ososayensi. Empeleni, liwumuzwa ozifikela ngokwawo,
wokucophelela noma wokungabaza noma wokuba nokungaqiniseki
kahle, osukela kukho khokubili umgomo wokuziphatha othile kanye
nobufakazi obuningi obuphathekayo noma obubonakala ngamehlo
(empirical evidence). Umgomo wokuqaphela nokucophelela ngomunye
wemigomo eyisisekelo yomkhakha wezokuphathwa kwemvelo
wonkana, okuwumkhakha onemikhakha eminingi futhi ehlukahlukene
ngaphansi kwawo. Umgomo wokuziphatha oyingxenye enkulu
yokuphathwa kwemvelo kwesimanjemanje, wukuthi akumele neze
senze noma yini ezodala umonakalo wemvelo ongeke usalungiseka,
noma siguqule, noma sicekele phansi ifa lemvelo esiyolishiyela
izizukulwane zangomuso, futhi kumele sizame ukusebenzisa imithombo
yemvelo ngendlela esimeme (bheka i-“sustainability”, “ecocentrism”
kanye ne-“environmentalist”). Lo mgomo wokuziphatha wehlukile
emigomweni yokuziphatha ephathelene nemvelo eyabe ikhona noma
eyabe isetshenziswa ngezikhathi ezithile emlandweni wesintu.
Ngesikhathi se-Industrial Revolution (bheka i-“Industrial Revolution”),
imvelo yayithathwa njengento ewumthombo wokuhlinzeka izidingo
zabantu nje kuphela, futhi yamukele zonke izinto esingasazidingi.
Ukusimama kwama-ekhosistimu kanye nokusetshenziswa kwezinsiza
zemvelo ngendlela esimeme kwakungeyona neze into eyingxenye
yalowo mgomo wokuziphatha. Ubufakazi obuphathekayo babonisa,
ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, ukuthi abantu babeyikhahlameze
kangakanani imvelo futhi babonisa umonakalo ongeke usalungiseka
kanye nokucekelwa phansi kwemvelo okungumphumela wezenzo
zabantu. Ngaleso sikhathi (cishe eminyakeni yawo-1950 kuya ekuqaleni
kweminyaka yawo-1960) kwazalwa uMbutho Wokuvikelwa
Nokulondolozwa Kwemvelo, futhi lo mbutho wakhula ngamandla
nomfutho omkhulu (bheka i-“environmentalist” kanye ne-“ecocentrism”).
Emva kwamashuminyaka amathathu noma amane, imvelo sekuyinto
ebekwe eqhulwini kubantu ukuze kulawulwe izenzo nemisebenzi yethu
(bheka i-“ecocentrism” kanye ne-“greening mainstream politics”) –
okuyindlela yokuziphatha ehluke kakhulu, ethathe indawo yomgomo
wokuziphatha wesikhathi esedlule, lapho imvelo yayisetshenziswa
ngendlela engenankathalo futhi ingagcizeleli ukusetshenziswa
kwezinsiza zemvelo ngendlela esimeme. Ngokususela kumgomo
wokuqaphela nokucophelela, sesithuthukise izinhlelo eziphuma phambili
zesimanjemanje zokucophelela okugunyaziwe (institutional caution)
okuzolawula izenzo zabantu futhi kuvikele ukonakala kwemvelo
ngendlela engeke isalungiseka. Ngenxa yokuba khona komgomo
wokuqaphela nokucophelela, manje sesiyakwazi ukuphatha imvelo
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ngendlela esenza sicabange futhi sibhekisise izenzo zethu kanye

nomthelela ezingaba nawo kwimvelo ngaphambi kokuba siqalise noma
yimuphi umsebenzi obandakanya imvelo, futhi inhloso yethu
wukugwema ukucekeleka phansi kwemvelo, esikhundleni sokuvuselela
imvelo esicekeleke phansi – ngoba phela isisho sithi kushibhile
ukuvimbela kunokwelapha! Yakhelwe phezu komgomo wokuqaphela
nokucophelela inqubo yokuphathwa kwemvelo yokubikezela
nokuvimbela isimo ngaphambi kokuba senzeke. Ukuphathwa
kwemvelo kwakhelwe phezu kwenjongo yokuvimbela, esikhundleni
sokuthatha izinyathelo kuphela emva kokuba sekwenzeke umthelela
wemvelo omubi noma ongathandeki.
Primary data: A series of observations, measurements, facts, and so forth
pertaining to the sampled population (see “demographic data”) in a specific research
problem in a specific place at a specific time. There are various recognised methods
of data collection, such as literally standing at one street corner and counting the
numbers of motorcars, minibus taxis, pedestrians, senior citizens, young males
wearing a certain brand of shoe, and anything else which/who passes that specific
point in a specific time. It might also be counting the number of invader plants
flourishing in a specific area, or measuring the distance between baobab trees in a
specific area. These observations, facts, measurements and occurrences are simply
ticked off on a clipboard or recorded in the researcher’s field notes. Data collection
might also be done by checking official documents to establish the number of people
who have legally entered the country over a specific period, the number of people
who are living with HIV, the number of indivuals receiving social grants, the number
of people who do not pay their taxes, the number of individuals incarcerated for
sexual offences, the number of rhinos annually poached in conservation areas, and
many more. A commonly used data collection tool is the filling out of questionnaires.
All of the above-mentioned examples of data collection are called “data collection by
field-work”, although it might be done in a city! The data collected by researchers
and their trained research assistants, is unprocessed, raw, primary data. By
means of various data processing techniques, the data is then sorted, coded,
grouped, mapped and converted into information, such as percentages, indices
(indexes) and graphic representations, all of which are easily compared with the
same information from other areas. Processed data, might become primary data in
another research project, provided the accuracy of the original primary data can be
verified and found reliable.

Idatha eyisisekelo (primary data): Uchungechunge lwezinto

ezibonakele, izinto ezikaliwe, amaqiniso, njalo njalo, eziphathelne
nomphakathi wabantu okwenziwe kuwona ucwaningo (bheka i-
“demographic data”) oluphathelene nenkinga noma isimo esithile
esicwaningwayo endaweni ethile ngesikhathi esithile. Kunezindlela
ezihlukahlukene zokuqoqa idatha, njengokuma ekhoneni lomgwaqo
othile ubale inani lezimoto, amatekisi, abantu abahamba ngezinyawo,
abantu asebekhulile ngokweminyaka, abantu besilisa abasebasha
abagqoke uhlobo oluthile lwesicathulo, kanye nanoma yini enye, noma
umuntu odlula lapho ngesikhathi esithile. Lokhu kungabandakanya futhi
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nokubala izitshalo eziwukhula okungafanele zimile endaweni ethile,

noma ukukala ibanga lokugqagqana kwezihlahla zohlobo lwe-baobab
endaweni ethile. Lezi zinto ezibonakele, amaqiniso, izinto ezikaliwe
kanye nezinto ezenzekayo endaweni ethile ziboniswa ngophawu
olufakwa kwi-clipboard noma zibhalwe phansi emanothini omcwaningi,
okungamanothi ezinto azibonile ngenkathi enza ucwaningo
emphakathini. Ukuqoqwa kwedatha kuyenziwa futhi ngokubheka ulwazi
oluhlinzekwe emibhalweni esemthethweni ukuze kutholakale inani
labantu abangene ezweni ngokusemthethweni esikhathini esithile, inani
labantu abaphila ne-HIV, inani labantu abathola izibonelelomali
zikahulumeni, inani labantu abangayikhokhi intela, inani labantu
abasemajele ababoshelwe amacala aphathelene nezocansi, inani
lobhejane ababulawayo ngonyaka ezindaweni zokulondoloza imvelo,
kanye nokunye okuningi. Ithuluzi lokuqoqwa kwedatha elivamise
ukusetshenziswa wukugcwaliswa kwamapheshana emibuzo
(questionnaires). Zonke lezi zibonelo ezihlinzekwe ngenhla zibizwa
“ngokuqoqwa kwedatha ngokuvakashela emphakathini uyozibonela
ngamehlo lokho okwenzekayo (field-work)”, nakuba lokhu kungaba
yinto eyenziwe edolobheni imbala! Idatha eqoqwe ngabacwaningi kanye
nabasizi babo abaqeqeshiwe, yidatha eyisisekelo engakalungiswa
noma engakahluzwa (unprocessed, raw, primary data).
Ngokusebenzisa izindlela ezihlukahlukene zokulungisa nokuhluza
idatha, idatha iyahlungwa, inikezwe amakhodi (coded), ibekwe
ngokwamaqoqo, ihlukaniswe ngokwezindawo etholakale kuzona bese
iguqulwa ibe wulwazi, olungamaphesenti, izinkomba kanye
nemifanekiso, futhi konke lokhu kuqhathaniseka kalula nolwazi
olufanayo oluqoqwe kwezinye izindawo. Idatha esilungisiwe noma
esihluziwe ingasetshenziswa njengolwazi oluyisisekelo komunye
umklamo wocwaningo, kodwa-ke lokho kungenzeka kuphela uma
kunobufakazi obuqanda ikhanda bokunemba nokuthembakala kwedatha
eyisisekelo.
Profile drawing: The process of drawing a side view of a small part of the Earth’s
surface to obtain a representation of the relief of the surface. It is done by a simple,
relatively primitive technique and all that is needed is a contour map of the area (see
“isometric line” and “topographical map”). If a profile of a certain relief feature is
required, a line that cuts across that feature and runs between two definite points
(call them A and B), such as two trigonometric beacons, on either side of the feature
is drawn on the map. The edge of a loose sheet of paper is placed along this line.
Wherever the line crosses a contour line, a mark is made on the very edge of the
sheet of paper and the altitude (see “isometric line”) of that point on the surface is
written down. One then constructs a set of axes on the sheet of paper directly
underneath the line of marks along the edge of the sheet. The horizontal axis (x axis)
represents the distance between points A and B, according to the scale of the map
(say, 1:50 000). The scale for the vertical axis (y axis) is selected by the person who
is drawing the profile and – depending on the relief of the landscape – it might be
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convenient to use something like 2 mm on the drawing to represent 20 m in reality.

Point A is plotted on the y axis according to its altitude, and then all the contour-
intersection points marked on the edge of the sheet of paper are plotted where their
positions on the x axis intersect their altitudes on the y axis. All the plotted points are
then joined by one line which visually represents the actual relief of the surface. The
feature of interest will be clearly seen on this profile line. This technique is extremely
important in geomorphology and geology and in the latter such profiles are usually
called “cross sections”.

Ukudwetshwa kwephrofayili: Inqubo yokudweba nokubonisa

ingxenye encane yomhlaba, uma ibhekwa ngasohlangothini (side view)
olulodwa, ukuze kwenziwe umfanekiso obonisa kahle lezo zindawo
eziphakeme kakhulu kanye nalezo eziphansi kakhulu. Lokhu kwenziwa
ngendlela yasemandulo elula nje, futhi into edingekayo nje yi-contour
map yendawo (bheka i-“isometric line” kanye ne-“topographical map”).
Uma kudingeka iphrofayili yendawo ethile ephakeme kakhulu noma
ephansi kakhulu, ebalazweni kudwetshwa umugqa ovundlayo onqamula
phakathi kuleyo ndawo osuka ephoyintini elilodwa uya kwelinye
(esingathi yiphoyinti A no-B), okungamaphoyinti anjengama-
trigonometric beacons amabili, abekwe ngapha nangapha kwaleyonto
eboniswayo, bese kubekwa unqenqema lweheheba lephepha kulowo
mugqa. Noma kuphi lapho umugqa unqamula kwi-contour line, kubekwa
uphawu ekugcineni konqenqema lweheheba lephepha, bese kuqoshwa
phansi i-altitude (bheka i-“isometric line”) yalelo phoyinti lengxenye
yomhlaba. Emva kwalokho-ke kumele kwakhiwe iqoqwana lama-axes
kwiheheba lephepha, ngaphansi komugqa onezimpawu ezibekwe
onqeqemeni lweheheba. I-horizontal axis (x axis) imele ubude bebanga
kusuka kuphoyinti A kuya ku-B, ngokwesilinganiso sobude bebanga
sebalazwe (isibonelo, 1:50 000). Isilinganiso se-vertical axis (y axis)
sikhethwa ngumuntu odweba iphrofayili futhi – ngokubheka ukuphakama
noma ubuphansi bendawo edwetshwayo – kungaba ngcono ukuthi
kusetshenziswe amamilimitha amabili (2 mm) kulowo mdwebo
owenziwayo ukubonisa ubude boqobo bendawo ethile
obungamamilimitha angama-20 m. Iphoyinti A libekwa ku-y axis
ngokwe-altitude yalo, bese kuthi wonke ama-contour-intersection points
aboniswe ngezimpawu ezibekwe onqeqemeni lweheheba lephepha
abekwe ngendlela yokuthi izimo zawo ku-x axis ziphambane nama-
altitude azo ku-y axis. Bese emva kwalokho kujoyinwa wonke
amaphoyinti adwetshiwe ngomugqa owodwa obonisa umfanekiso
wokuphakama nobuphansi boqobo baleyo ngxenye yomhlaba
eboniswayo. Isici okugxilwe kusona sizobonakala ngokucacile kulo
mugqa wephrofayili. Le ndlela yokudweba isemqoka kakhulu ku-
geomorphology naku-geology futhi ku-geology, amaphrofayili anjalo
avamise ukubizwa ngama-“cross sections”.
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Protected areas: Any rural or urban area deemed worthy of protection and/or
conservation for the benefit of the future generations. It includes wildlife areas and
nature reserves, spectacular waterfalls, dramatic coast lines, vast stretches of
pristine desert, historic parts of cities, old city centres, single human artefacts with
their immediate environments, and so forth. Museums provide a safe haven for
relatively small objects, but large natural features and human artefacts such as the
Taj Mahal in Aggra (India), the pyramids in Egypt, the Kruger National Park, the
Cradle of Humankind world heritage site and the Iguassú waterfalls could not be
locked away in museums! Yet, the protection worthiness of these places and
objects have been obvious for many years or even centuries, and attempts to protect
them date from many years ago. Long before modern-day environmental
management was even devised, these very special, valuable and irreplaceable
places and objects were already being protected by various ad hoc international
agreements, national laws, regional and/or municipal regulations and a myriad of
other legal instruments specifically designed to ensure their protection. Although
current environmental management practices and legislation provide for the
protection of these special features, they are still afforded special consideration and
many of the old, specified pre-environmental management rulings still apply. In many
cases, the special case-specific protection arrangements for places or objects take
precedence over the normal environmental legislation. Antarctica is a case in point.
Normal environmental legislation does not apply to Antarctica, it is being protected
by the International Antarctic Treaty, an international body under the aegis and for all
practical purposes the highest decision-making body as far as Antartica is
concerned. From the few examples mentioned above, it is obvious that the variety of
the places and objects that must be protected vary widely in size and nature. Even
within one and the same protected area such as the Cradle of Humankind World
Heritage Site, certain parts are very lightly protected, while certain parts are so
strictly protected that visitors are not even allowed into them. This type of protection
is nowadays commonly used so that certain parts of a protected area are not even
open to the public, while less tight control is excised over the so-called buffer zone
where the public may enjoy the natural or human-made treasures and wonders of
our diverse world. (Note: It is important to realise that environmental management
deals with natural as well as human-made areas and objects.)

Izindawo ezivikelekile: Noma iyiphi indawo esemakhaya noma

esedolobheni ebonakala njengendawo okufanele ivikelwe futhi/noma
ilondolozwe ukuze izizukulwane zangomuso nazo ziyisebenzise,
ziyithokozele futhi zihlomule ngokuba khona kwayo. Lokhu
kubandakanya iziqiwu, izimpophoma ezinobuhle obumangalisayo,
izindawo ezinhle kakhulu ezisogwini lolwandle, odedangendlale
bogwadule olungakonakaliswa, izindawo zomlando ezisemadolobheni,
izingxenye zakudala ezisenkabeni yedolobha, izinto ezakhiwe ngabantu
kanye nemivukubulo yabantu yasemandulo kanye nendawo
eyizungezile, njalo njalo. Izigcinamagugu zihlinzeka ngendawo
ephephile yokugcina izinto ezingamagugu ezincane, kepha ngeke neze
umuntu akwazi ukuvalela lapho izinto zemvelo noma ezakhiwe ngabantu
ezinkulu kakhulu, njenge-Taj Mahal e-Aggra (India), ama-pyramids
kwelase-Egypt, i-Kruger National Park, i-Cradle of Humankind World
Heritage Site kanye nezimpophoma zase-Iguassú! Kepha-ke, nakuba
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kunjalo lezi zindawo kanye nezinto sekuphele iminyaka ngeminyaka

noma amakhulukhulu eminyaka imbala abantu bebona kunesidingo
esikhulu sokuthi zivikelwe, futhi imizamo yokuvikela lezi zindawo
nezinto yaqala eminyakeni eminingi edlule. Esikhathini sasemandulo,
kungakaphushwa nokuphupha ukuthi kuyoke kube khona into ebizwa
ngokuphathwa kwemvelo, esiyibona kulezi zinsuku, kwase kuqalile
kakade ukuvikelwa kwalezi zindawo nezinto ezikhethekile eziyigugu futhi
ezinesikhala esingeke neze sivalwe ngezinye, ngokuthi kwenziwe
izivumelwano ezihlukahlukene zamazwe ngamazwe ezingahlelekile
kahle (ad hoc), nemithetho kazwelonke, nemitheshwana yezifunda
kanye/noma yomasipala kanye neminye imithetho eminingi futhi
ehlukahlukene eyabe yenzelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuvikelwa kwalezi
zindawo nezinto eziyigugu. Nakuba izinqubo nemithetho yokuphathwa
kwemvelo okukhona njengamanje kuhlinzekela ukuvikelwa kwalezi zinto
ezikhethekile eziyigugu, zisasebenza ezinye zezinqumo zokuvikelwa
kwemvelo ezathathwa emandulo ngaphambi kwenqubo ehlelekile
yokuphathwa kwemvelo. Ezimweni eziningi, kuvamise ukuthi izinqubo
ezibekiwe eziqondene nokuvikelwa kwendawo noma kwento ethile
eyigugu kube yizona ezilandelwa kakhulu kunemithetho ejwayelekile
yokuphathwa kwemvelo. I-Antarctica yisibonelo esihle salokho.
Imithetho yezemvelo ejwayelekile ayisebenzi e-Antarctica, ngoba phela
yona ivikelwe yi-International Antarctic Treaty, okuyisivumelwano
esivikela le ndawo futhi okuyisona esilawula zonke izinqumo
ezithathwayo eziphathelene ne-Antartica. Uma kubhekwa lezi zibonelo
ezimbalwa ezingenhla, kubonakala ngokucacile ukuthi izindawo nezinto
ezingamagugu ezihlukahlukene, okumele zivikelwe, zihluke kakhulu
ngokobukhulu nobunjalo bazo. Ngisho nasesikhungweni esisodwa
imbala esivikelekile, esinjenge-Cradle of Humankind World Heritage
Site, kunezingxenye ezivikelwe kancane, bese futhi kuba nezingxenye
ezivikelwe kakhulu, kangangokuthi kwezinye zazo abavumelekile
abavakashi. Lolu hlobo lokuvikeleka lusetshenziswa kakhulu kulezi
zinsuku ukuze izingxenye ezithile zendawo evikelekile zingavulelwa
ngisho umphakathi imbala, bese kuthi ezinye izingxenye zithathwe
njenge-buffer zone engavikelwe ngesandla esiqine kakhulu lapho
umphakathi uvumelekile ukuthokozela izimangaliso zemvelo noma
ezakhiwe ngabantu ezikhona kulo mhlaba wethu onezindawo nezinto
ezinhlobonhlobo ezingamagugu. (Qaphela: Kusemqoka ukuba kwaziwe
ukuthi ukuphathwa kwemvelo kuphathelene nakho kokubili izindawo
nezinto zemvelo kanye nalezo ezakhiwe ngabantu.)
Public participation: The inclusion of the public in the decision-making about a
proposed development or project that might have a significant impact on the
environment. The integrated environmental management (IEM) procedure provides
for public participation in decision-making, and the South African environmental
legislation (see “environmental management”) makes public participation an
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essential prerequisite for permission to execute a development project.

Consequently, all interested and affected parties (IAPs) have to be consulted before
proceeding with a development project. By law, the proposer of a project has to
inform the local and the wider public about the proposal, then meet with all IAPs,
explain the details of the project to them, and take their views into account in the
proposal that is eventually submitted to the authorities for permission to proceed.
Dozens of proposed projects in South Africa have been turned down or significantly
altered because the public have not been satisfactorily consulted or informed. In fact,
this is one of the most effective aspects in the South African environmental
management system.

Ukubamba iqhaza komphakathi: Ukubandakanywa komphakathi

ekuthathweni kwezinqumo mayelana nomsebezi wokwakha noma
umklamo ohlongozwayo okungenzeka ube nomthelela omkhulu
kwimvelo. Inqubo-kusebenza yokuphathwa kwemvelo ngendlela
edidiyelwe (IEM) ihlinzekela ukubamba iqhaza komphakathi
ekuthathweni kwezinqumo, futhi imithetho yezemvelo yaseNingizimu
Afrika (bheka i-“environmental management”) ibeka ukubamba iqhaza
kwemvelo njengento esemqoka okumele yenziwe ngaphambi kokuba
kukhishwe imvume yokwakha umklamo. Ngenxa yalokho-ke, bonke
abantu abanentshisekelo kanye nalabo abathintekayo (IAPs) kumele
kuboniswane nabo ngaphambi kokuthi kuqhutshekelwe phambili
nomklamo wokwakha. Ngokomthetho, umhlongozi womklamo kumele
azise umphakathi wendawo okuzokwakhiwa kuyona kanye nomphakathi
wesifunda sonkana, mayelana nesiphakamiso sakhe somsebenzi
ohlongozwayo, futhi emva kwalokho ahlangane nawo wonke ama-IAP,
awachazele imininingwane yomklamo ohlongozwayo, futhi
ayibandakanye imibono yomphakathi esiphakamisweni sakhe
esizothunyelwa kwiziphathimandla, ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, sokuba
anikezwe imvume yokuqhubeka nomklamo. Miningi impela imiklamo
ehlongozwayo enqatsheliwe eNingizimu Afrika noma-ke eguqulwe
kakhulu ngenhla yokuthi umphakathi ubungabandakanywanga
ngokwanele futhi ungaziswanga ngokugculisayo. Empeleni, lokhu
kungenye yezinto ezisebenza kahle kakhu ohlelweni lwaseNingizimu
Afrika lokuphathwa kwemvelo.
Public-private participation (PPP): Any development scheme in which both the
public sector (or state) and the private sector (often called the business sector)
partake and contribute funds as well as expertise or whatever the case may be. The
sector of state that might be involved could be national, provincial or local or a
combination of these. One or more private bodies might represent the private sector
in the project. Normally such a co-operative agreement is made with one specific aim
in view, for instance to build a crèche or sportsfields or organise local litter removal
events, the rehabilitation of a wetland, provide frail-care, assist people living with HIV
and Aids, or improve education facilities and quality. There is no restriction to the
scale of the projects or any prescription that the state and the private sector should
contribute on a 50/50 basis. Often one of the participating parties contributes the
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finances and the other partner organises the labour and physical activities. There are
endless different ways how such participation schemes can be initialised, organised,
continued and their success could be evaluated. (Please note: Do not confuse the
abovementioned abbreviation “PPP” with the abbreviation “PPP” which is used in
strategic environmental management for policies, plan and projects.)

Ukubambisana kukahulumeni nomkhakha ozimele (PPP): Noma

yiluphi uhlelo lwentuthuko lapho yomibili imikhakha, okahulumeni (noma
umbuso) kanye nozimele (ovamise ukubizwa ngomkhakha
wabamabhizinisi) ibamba iqhaza futhi ifake izimali kanye nolwazi
lobungoti nabasebenzi kanye nanoma yini enye edingekayo ohlelweni
lolo. Umkhakha kahulumeni ongazibangakanya ohlelweni kungaba
wumkhakha kazwelonke, owesifundazwe noma owendawo, noma-ke
inhlanganisela yale mikhakha. Kulowo mklamo kungaba khona
nesikhungo esisodwa noma ngaphezulu esimele abomkhakha ozimele.
Ngokujwayelekile, isivumelwano sokubambisana esinjalo senziwa
ngenhloso yokufezekisa injongo ethile, isibonelo, ukwakha inkulisa
noma izinkundla zemidlalo noma ukuhlela umkhankaso wokuqoqa udoti
nemfucuza endaweni ethile, ukuvuselelwa nokulungiswa kabusha
kwendawo eyixhaphozi, ukuhlinzeka ngosizo lokunakekelwa kwabantu
abantekenteke abangakwazi ukuzenzela izinto, ukulekelela abantu
abaphila ne-HIV ne-Aids, noma ukwenza ngcono izikhungo zemfundo
nokuphucula izinga lemfundo. Awukho umkhawulo obekiwe maqondana
nobukhulu bomklamo futhi awukho umbandela obekiwe wokuthi umbuso
kanye nomkhakha ozimele kumele bafake igalelo elilinganayo,
okungukuthi u-50/50. Esikhathini esiningi, omunye walabo ababambe
iqhaza emklamweni ufaka izimali, bese kuthi lowo abambisene naye
yena athole abasebenzi abazoqhuba umsebenzi futhi benze nokunye
okuphathelene nomklamo. Kunezindlela eziningi kakhulu futhi
ezihlukahlukene zokusungula, ukuhlela, ukuqhuba kanye nokuhlola
impumelelo yomklamo onjalo okubanjiswene kuwona. (Qaphela:
Ungaphambanisi isifinyezo samagama esishiwo ngenhla esithi “PPP”
nesifinyezo esithi “PPP” esisetshenziswa kwezokuphathwa kwemvelo
ngokukhethekile, okuqondiswe kwizinqubomgomo, izinhlelo kanye
nemiklamo.)

Q
Quaternary economic activities: Gainful involvement with high-level
technology, high-level information services, knowledge and know-how. Industry
ranges from primary activities (farming, fishing, forestry and mining), to secondary
activities (manufacturing and construction), to tertiary activities (professional
services, hospitality, retailing and transport), to quaternary activities which require a
high level of knowledge and technical expertise. (See “development”, “dual
economy”, “developing countries” and “countries in transition”, “secondary economic
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activities” and “tertiary activities”.) Theoretically, all countries (economies) pass

through these phases of economic activity and most of the major economies in the
world are now in the tertiary and quaternary phases. In some of the largest
economies (for example the USA and England) manufacturing plays a rather small
role in the economy while the tertiary and quaternary economic activities form the
backbone of the economy. The risk inherent in such a situation became quite clear
with the world-wide economic collapse in 2008. The highly developed economies of
Western Europe and the USA were all severely hit, but the German economy was
the notable exception. Since Germany still had a very strong manufacturing and
industrial sector it was far less affected by the economic collapse. Some economies
(for instance the USA, Britain, France, Italy, Japan and other European countries)
are currently actively growing their neglected manufacturing sectors anew, while
boosting their primary economic sector, in order to regain a healthier balance among
their primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary activities. As a result of the 2008
economic collapse, it has become clear that a balance between all sectors of the
economy is required to sustain a developed economy.

Ama-quaternary economic activities: Ukubandakanyeka okunenzuzo

kwezobuchwepheshe obusezingeni eliphezulu, izinsizakalo zolwazi
ezisezingeni eliphezulu, kanye nobungoti bomsebenzi. Imboni
ibandakanya imisebenzi esukela emisebenzini eyisisekelo, okungama-
primary activities (ukulima, ukudoba, amahlathi kanye nezimayini), kuya
emisebenzini esekelayo ephathelene nezokukhiqiza, okungama-
secondary activities (ezokukhiqizwa kwempahla kanye nezokwakha),
kuya emisebenzini yokuhlinzekwa kwezinsizakalo, ama-tertiary activities
(izinsizakalo zemisebenzi yobungoti, ukunakekelwa kwabavakashi,
ukuthengisa kanye nezokuthutha), kuyofinyelela kuma-quaternary
activities, okuyimisebenzi edinga ulwazi olusezingeni eliphezulu kanye
nobungoti bomsebenzi. (Bheka i-“development”, “dual economy”,
“developing countries”, “countries in transition”, “secondary economic
activities” kanye nama-“tertiary activities”.) Ngokwethiyori, wonke
amazwe (iminotho) adlula kulezi zigaba zemisebenzi yomnotho futhi
iningi lamazwe aneminotho emikhulu amhlabeni njengamanje
asesigabeni sokuhlinzekwa kwezinsizakalo kanye nesigaba solwazi
nobuchwepheshe obusezingeni eliphezulu. Kweminye iminotho
emikhulukazi (isibonelo i-USA ne-England) ukukhiqizwa kwempahla
kudlala indima encane impela emnothweni, kanti ama-tertiary nama-
quaternary economic activities wona awumgogodla womnotho.
Ubungozi besimo esinjengaleso babonakala ngokucacile ngesikhathi
sokufadalala komnotho womhlaba ngowezi-2008. Iminotho esithuthukile
kakhulu yase-Western Europe kanye nomnotho wase-USA yonke
yakhahlamezeka kakhulu, kodwa-ke umnotho wase-Germany wona
awukhahlamezekanga kakhulu. Njengoba i-Germany yayisenomkhakha
wezokukhiqiza nowezimboni oqinile, ayikhahlamezekanga kakhulu
ngenxa yokufadalala komnotho womhlaba. Njengamanje, eminye
iminotho (enjenge-USA, Britain, France, Italy, Japan kanye namanye
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amazwe ase-Europe) imatasa ikhulisa kabusha, futhi ngenkuthalo,

imikhakha yayo yezokukhiqiza ebishaywe indiva esikhathini esedlule,
futhi kusenjalo igqugquzela nama-primary economic sector ayo,
ngenhloso yokulinganisa kahle imisebenzi yayo engama-primary,
secondary, tertiary kanye nama-quaternary activities. Ngenxa
yokufadalala komnotho womhlaba kowezi-2008, sekucace kahle
kamhlophe ukuthi kudingeka ukuthi kube nokulingana phakathi kwayo
yonke imikhakha, ngenhloso yokuqinisekisa ukusimamisa nokuqhuba
umnotho othuthukile.
R
Recycling: Reuse of material, but not necessarily in its original form. We can never
escape the physical laws of the conservation of mass and energy which
determine that “there is no away” (see “incineration”), so whatever objects we
manufacture or create will still be around in some form or other after we have no use
for it anymore. (See “development”, “dual economy”, “developing countries” and
“countries in transition”, “secondary economic activities” and “tertiary activities”.)
Moreover, in order to manufacture objects, we use some non-renewable resources
and in the end our scarce, non-renewable resources are “trapped” in objects we
have no use for, while our resources are running out. This is obviously a lose-lose
situation. The logical solution would be to reduce, reuse and recycle. Recycling
involves both reduction, since less objects (items) need to be manufactured, and
recycling since either the objects (items) themselves are reused, or at least the
material from which they have been made is reused to make another item or object.
The culture of consumerism is depleting our non-renewable resources and
cluttering our world with objects we do not want. To convert to a different culture is
not going to happen in one generation, but if we all worked together we might
achieve it before it is too late. There are interesting, innovative forms of recycling in
different parts of the world, and it is important to note that inexcusable wastage is far
more serious in the developed world than in the developing countries. Laudable
attempts at recycling are the Collect-a-Can project, and Mondi and Nampak’s paper
recycling projects in South Africa. There are people who make a living by collecting
used cans and getting paid by weight for the collected cans which are then used to
make new cans. Nampak collects used paper from large paper consumers like
Unisa, and Unisa is even paid for the waste paper. Mondi provides private
individuals with push-carts to collect carton and waste paper and remunerates the
collectors for the waste they deliver. The recycling of glass is very successful in
Europe and Canada, but in South Africa it has thus far had limited success. Owing to
South Africa’s large poor population, many rejected objects are collected from
landfills and end up as building material for shelters (mokhukhus) in informal
settlements. In this way recycling is inadvertently achieved.

Ukuvuselela nokusebenzisa kabusha: Ukusetshenziswa kabusha

kwezinto, kodwa-ke lokhu akusho ukuthi njalo lezo zinto zisuke
zisesimweni sazo soqobo, ngoba kuyenzeka ukuthi ziguqulwe zibe
kwesinye isimo ngaphambi kokuba zisetshenziswe kabusha. Ngeke
neze sikwazi ukuphunyula emithethweni yemvelo yokulondolozwa
kwezingqumbi namadla, okuyimithetho esibonisayo ukuthi noma
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singenzani “ngeke neze sikwazi ukuhlukana ngokuphelele nezinto

ezithile” (bheka i-“incineration”), ngakho-ke noma ngabe yini esiyakhayo
iyohlala nathi kulo mhlaba nakuba sesiqedile ukuyisebenzisa futhi
singasayidingi. (Bheka i-“development”, “dual economy”, “developing
countries” kanye nama-“countries in transition”, “secondary economic
activities” kanye nama-“tertiary activities”.) Ngaphezu kwalokho, uma
sakha izinto, sisebenzisa nezinto ezithile ezingavuseleleki, futhi
ngalokho, ekugcineni imithombo yethu yemvelo eyingcosana,
engavuseleleki izithola “ivaleleke” ezintweni esingazidingi, futhi lokho
kwenzeka ngenkathi imithombo yethu yemvelo iphela noma ishabalala.
Ngokusobala, lesi yisimo esinemiphumela emibi, lapho wonke umuntu
othintekayo elahlekelwa (lose-lose). Isixazululo esikahle futhi
esinobuhlakani wukunciphisa, ukusebenzisa kabusha, kanye
nokuvuselela. Ukuvuselela kubandakanya kokubili ukunciphisa
(njengoba lokhu kuholela ekutheni kukhiqizwe izinto ezincane), kanye
nokuvuselela (ngoba izinto zisetshenziswa kabusha noma-ke
okungenani kusetshenziswe izingxenye zalezo zinto ukwakha izinto
ezintsha). Isikompilo elikhuthaza kuthengwa kwempahla
ewubukhazikhazi licekela phansi imithombo yemvelo engavuseleleki
futhi ligcwalisa umhlaba wethu ngezinto esingazidingi. Ukuguqukela
kwisikompilo elihlukile kuyinto engeke neze yenzeke ngesizukulwane
esisodwa, kodwa uma sonke sisebenza ngokubambisana
singakufezekisa lokhu ngaphambi kokuba isimo sibe sibi kakhulu.
Kunezindlela zesimanjemanje ezimangalisayo ezisetshenziswayo
ezingxenyeni ezihlukahlukene zomhlaba, futhi kusemqoka ukuba
kuphawuleke ukuthi ukukhiqizwa nokuthengwa ngokweqile kwezinto
ezingadingeki kwenzeka kakhulu emazweni asethuthukile
kunasemazweni asathuthuka. Isibonelo esihle semizamo encomekayo
yokuvuselela nokusebensiza izinto kabusha wumklamo onjenge-Collect-
a-Can, kanye nemiklamo yokuvuselelwa nokusetshenziswa kabusha
kwephepha, okuyimiklamo eqhutshwa ngabakwa-Mondi nabakwa-
Nampak eNingizimu Afrika. Kunabantu abaziphilisa ngokuqoqa amathini
asesetshenzisiwe, futhi abakhokhelwa ngokwesisindo samathini
abawaqoqile, futhi lawo mathini asetshenziselwa ukwakha amathini
amasha. Inkampani yakwa-Nampak iqoqa amaphepha
asesetshenzisiwe ezikhungweni ezisebenzisa kakhulu iphepha njenge-
Unisa, futhi i-Unisa iyakhokhelwa ngisho nokukhokhelwa ngalawo
maphepha ayo asesetshenzisiwe. Inkampani yakwa-Mondi ihlinzeka
abantu ngezinqodlana ezingama-push-carts abazisebenzisela ukuqoqa
amakhadibhodi kanye namaphepha asesetshenzisiwe futhi abaqoqi
bephepha bayakhokhelwa ngamaphepha abawaqoqile, abawathumela
kule nkampani. Ukuvuselelwa nokusetshenziswa kabusha kwengilazi
kuyinto eyenziwa ngempumelelo enkulu e-Europe nase-Canada, kodwa-
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ke eNingizimu Afrika lokhu akukafinyeleli neze empumelelweni

ephawulekayo. Ngenxa yenani elikhulu labantu abahlwempu eNingizimu
Afrika, abantu abaningi baqoqa impahla esisebenzile elahlwe emigodini
okulahlwa kuyona udoti, futhi okunye kwalokhu kugcina
sekusetshenziswa njengempahla yokwakha imijondolo (imikhukhu).
Ngale ndlela kugcina sekwenzeka ukuvuselelwa nokusetshenziswa
kabusha kwezinto, nakuba lokhu bekuyinto engahlosiwe.
Refugee: A person of any age who flees from one place to another for fear of
his/her life. Throughout the history of humankind there have always been refugees in
all areas of the world. Owing to the reasons why people flee, certain regions on
Earth are more readily associated with refugees than others, but there are very few
regions that have never experienced the phenomenon. People mostly flee as a result
of political instability, religious intolerance, famine and starvation, but natural hazards
such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and floods have often caused people to
flee. True refugees are people who flee with nothing but the clothes on their backs.
Often they simply grab their children and run. They do not carry identification papers,
money, possessions, valuables, or food and blankets. They are totally at the mercy
of the host community which they have fled to (see “host community”). When people
flee for political or religious reasons they mostly flee over an international border and
their flight is permanent. When fleeing from starvation or natural hazards their flight
might be to a different part of their own country and they often return once the
threatening conditions in their areas of origin have changed. Host communities might
receive assistance from the United Nations High Commission for Refugees
(UNHCR), but an influx of refugees is extremely traumatic for the host country or
community. Reception centres are often constructed to deal with the refugees.
Political refugees might get political asylum in the host country, but these are
temporary arrangements, which allow them to remain in the host country for a
restricted period only. Then they have to flee on or return to their country of origin.
The UNHCR would never send people back home if it means certain death, but to
find permanent solutions for refugee crises are not easily found. There are currently
millions of refugees all around the world, and this is not any different from what the
case has always been although the numbers of refugees have probably never been
higher than they currently are, simply because the world population is currently
larger than ever. Refugees should not be confused with migrants. South Africa is
currently being flooded with economic migrants from a number of African states.
Very few of these people are refugees in the true sense of the word. Except for a
small number of Zimbabweans and Somalis, the vast majority of these people have
not fled from life-threatening political situations or war; they have migrated to South
Africa in order to find gainful employment. They are escaping from depressed
economic conditions in their countries of origin, but in many cases they are granted
asylum status simply because there is no other way to keep track of them all. These
poor people are undoubtedly a burden on social services and economic progress in
South Africa.

Umbaleki: Umuntu, kungakhathalekile ukuthi uneminyaka yobudala

emingaki, obaleka endaweni ethile ayohlala kwenye ngenxa yokusabela
impilo yakhe. Selokhu kwathi nhlo emlandweni wesintu bahlala bekhona
ababaleki kuwo wonke amagumbi amane omhlaba. Ngenxa yezizathu
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ezibangela ukubaleka kwabantu, izifunda ezithile emhlabeni zivamise

ukweyamaniswa nababaleki kunezinye, kodwa-ke zincane kakhulu
izifunda ezingakaze zihlangabezane nale nkinga. Abantu babaleka
ikakhulukazi ngenxa yokungabi khona kozinzo lwezepolitiki,
ukungabekezelelani kwezenkolo, indlala nokuntuleka kokudla, futhi
nezinhlekelele zemvelo nazo zivamisile ukubangela ukubaleka
kwabantu, okuyizinhlekelele ezinjengokuqubuka kwezintabamlilo,
ukuzamazama komhlaba kanye nezikhukhula. Ababaleki boqobo
ngabantu ababaleka bengaphethe lutho olunye ngaphandle kwezingubo
abazigqokile ngaleso sikhathi. Esikhathini esiningi, bamane badumele
izingane zabo babaleke. Abanawo amaphepha angomazisi, imali,
izimpahla, izinto eziyingcebo, ukudla kanye nezingubo zokulala.
Bathembele ngokuphelele kulowo mphakathi ababalekele kuwona
(bheka i-“host community”). Uma abantu bebaleka ngenxa yezizathu
zepolitiki noma zenkolo, bavamise ukweqa imingcele yamazwe
ahlukene futhi basuke bebaleka unomphela. Uma bebalekela indlala
noma izinhlekelele zemvelo babalekela kwenye ingxenye yezwe labo
futhi bavamise ukubuyela emakhaya abo uma sesidambile isimo
esibucayi endaweni abadabuka kuyona. Kuyenzeka ukuthi imiphakathi
esingatha ababaleki ithole usizo kwi-United Nations High Commission
for Refugees (UNHCR), kodwa-ke ukuthutheleka kwababaleki abaningi
endaweni ethile kuyayihlukemeza impela ngokwengqondo
nangokomphefumulo imiphakathi ababalekela kuyona futhi kuhlukemeze
nalelo zwe ababalekele kulona. Kuvamise ukuthi kwakhiwe izizinda
zokwamukela ababaleki ukuze kubhekwane nenkinga yokuthutheleka
kwababaleki ngobuningi. Ababaleki bezepolitiki bathola imvume
yokukhoseliswa ezweni elithile elamukela labo babaleki, kodwa-ke lokhu
kuyinto yesikhashana, ebavumela kuphela ukuba bahlale isikhathi
esinqunyiwe kulelo lizwe ababalekele kulona. Emva kwalokho, kumele
badlulele phambili noma-ke babuyele ezweni labo. I-UNHCR ngeke
neze ibabuyisele ezweni labo ababaleki uma lokho kusho ukuthi noma
kanjani bazobulawa, kodwa-ke kuyinto engelula neze ukuthola
isixazululo esizohlala unomphela mayelana nenkinga yababaleki.
Njengamanje kunezigidi ngezigidi zababaleki abavela kumagumbi
womane omhlaba, futhi lokhu akuhlukile esimweni sesikhathi esidlule,
kodwa-ke inani lababaleki selithanda ukudlondlobala ngenxa yokukhula
kakhulu kwesibalo sabantu emhlabeni uma kuqhathaniswa nesikhathi
esidlule. Ababaleki akumele baphanjaniswe nabafuduki. Njengamanje,
iNingizimu Afrika ibhekene nokutheleka kwezindimbane zabafuduki
bezomnotho abangena kuleli bevela emazweni amaningi ase-Afrika.
Bancane kakhulu kulaba ababaleki boqobo. Ngaphandle nje kwabantu
abambalwa base-Zimbabwe nase-Somalia, iningi lalaba bantu akubona
abantu ababalekele izimo zepolitiki ezibeka izimpilo zabo engozini noma
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izimpi; kodwa bafudukele eNingizimu Afrika ngenhloso yokuzozitholela

amatoho akhokhelwayo. Babalekela izimo eziwumphumela
wokufadalala komnotho emazweni abo, kodwa esikhathini esiningi
bagcina sebenikezwa izimvume zokukhosela ngenxa yokuthi inani labo
liphezulu kakhulu lapha ezweni, futhi ayikho indlela yokuqinisekisa isimo
soqobo esibangele ukuthi beze kuleli lizwe. Akukho nokuncane
ukungabaza ukuthi laba bantu bawumthwalo omkhulu kuhulumeni futhi
baphazamisa inqubekelaphambili yezomnotho eNingizimu Afrika.
Region: A two dimensional space on the surface of the Earth. It is a definable
space that can be demarcated (see “location” and “demarcation”) and mapped. It is
actually one of the most problematic geographical terms to define, but the most
important geographical qualifications are that there is some homogeneity within the
space and that the space can be mapped (that is, boundaries or margins can be
defined). The size of the space is irrelevant; a region might include vast parts of the
world that include a number of countries, it might include an entire sub-continent, it
might refer to a specific part of one country, or it might be as small as a few small
street blocks in a city. The important thing is that there is a common factor within
this space which distinguishes it from other regions. In Africa the so-called Great
Lakes region includes a number of neighbouring states who share a number of
common factors because of their proximity to one another and large water bodies.
The Middle-East is a region consisting of a number of countries who share a very
important condition, namely they are located in a region of the Earth that contains
vast oil reserves. The Arctic region denotes all land surface located north of the
66½˚N latitude (see “location”) and it includes part of a whole number of countries,
such as the USA (Alaska), Canada, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia and
Greenland (which is administered by Denmark). Three months of little or no sunlight
and very low winter temperatures are the common factors throughout this region.
Even areas which are completely disjointed and the separate portions are located on
different continents literally thousands of kilometres apart, might be seen as one
region, like the “grasslands”, which occur in the USA (where it is called the prairies),
Russia (where it is called the steppe), Argentina (where it is called the pampas), East
Africa (where it is called the savannas [savannahs] and South Africa (where it is
called the highveld and the bushveld). Many other natural regions can be named,
based on global location, climate, vegetation, and so on. Regions defined by
common human activities are innumerable. Culture, religion, language, economic
activity, art, political history, current political interests, trade interests, and many
other human factors might serve as common bond among different spatial entities.
The Cradle of Humankind world heritage site is a specific, mapped area or site,
inside a larger region which contains numerous fossilised hominid (early human)
bones and artefacts. The most important fossil sites have been identified and the
area within which these occur has been demarcated, mapped and proclaimed an
international heritage site. This declaration affords the demarcated area (space)
special protection (see “conservation areas” and “demarcation”), but the region
within which hominid fossils may occur is far larger than the heritage site as such.

Isifunda: Indawo enhlangothi-mbili (two dimensional) esemhlabeni.

Lena yindawo echazekayo engaklameka (bheka i-“location” kanye ne-
“demarcation”) futhi kuboniswe imingcele yayo ecacile. Leli ngelinye
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lamatemu ejografi okunzima kakhulu ukuwachaza, kodwa-ke izici

zejografi ezisemqoka kakhulu zokuchaza leli temu wukuthi kukhona
ukufana okuthile kwesimo nempilo kuleyo ndawo (homogeneity)
futhi leyo ndawo iyaklameka futhi ihlukaniswe ngokwemingcele
(okusho ukuthi, imingcele yaleyo ndawo ingachazwa ngokucacile).
Usayizi wendawo awubalulekile; ngoba isifunda singaba yindawo
ebandakanya izingxenye ezinkulu zomhlaba ezifaka phakathi amazwe
amaningi, kungenzeka sibandakanye ingxenye enkulu yezekwazi elithile
(sub-continent), kungenzeka sibandakanye ingxenye ethile yelizwe
elilodwa noma kube yindawo encanyana nje ebandakanya imigwaqo
embalwa ngaphakathi edolobheni. Into esemqoka wukuthi kukhona into
efanayo (common factor) ngaphakathi kwaleyo ndawo, okuyinto
eyenza ihluke kwezinye izifunda. Kwizwekazi lase-Afrika, kunesifunda
esibizwa nge-Great Lakes esibandakanya amazwe amaningana
angomakhelwane, anezinto ezithile ezifanayo ngenxa yokusondelana
kwawo kanye namachibi amakhulukazi atholakala lapho. Isifunda sase-
Middle-East yisifunda esibandakanya amazwe amaningi anesimo
esifanayo esisemqoka kakhulu, okuwukuthi wonke asesifundeni
somhlaba okutholakala kusona imithombo emikhulukazi kawoyela
ongahluziwe. Isifunda i-Arctic region sibonisa yonke ingxenye yomhlaba
etholakala enyakatho ku-66½˚N latitude (bheka i-“location”) futhi
sibandakanya ingxenye yamazwe amaningi, anjenge-USA (Alaska),
Canada, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia kanye ne-Greenland
(okuyizwe elingaphansi kwe-Denmark). Isimo esifanayo kuzo zonke
izingxenye zalesi sifunda wukuthi ziyaphela izinyanga ezintathu
kungekho ukukhanya kwelanga, noma-ke mhlawumbe kunokukhaya
okuncane kakhulu kanye namazingakushisa aphansi kakhulu ebusika.
Ngisho nasezindaweni ezihlakazeke kakhulu kanye nezingxenye
ezihlukene kakhulu ezikumazwekazi ahlukene ezigqagqene
ngezinkulungwane ngezinkulungwane zamakhilomitha, kuyenzeka
zithathwe njengesifunda esisodwa, njengama-“grasslands”, atholakala
kwelase-USA (lapho ebizwa khona ngama-prairies), e-Russia (lapho
ebizwa khona ngama-steppe), e-Argentina (lapho ebizwa khona ngama-
pampas), eMpumalanga Afrika (lapho ebizwa khona ngama-savannas
[savannahs] kanye naseNingizimu Afrika (lapho ebizwa khona nge-
highveld ne-bushveld). Ziningi ezinye izifunda zemvelo esingazibala,
ngokubheka indawo ezitholakala kuyona emhlabeni, isimo semvelo,
izimila zemvelo, njalo njalo. Futhi ziningi kakhulu izifunda ezichazwa
ngokubheka imisebenzi efanayo eyenziwa ngabantu. Isiko, inkolo,
ulimi, umsebenzi wezomnotho, ubuciko, umlando wezepolitiki, izidingo
nezimfuno zepolitiki ezikhona njengamanje, izidingo nezimfuno
zokuhwebelana, kanye nokunye okuningi okuphathelene nezenzo
zabantu, kungaba yinto efanayo ehlanganisa abantu abahlala
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ezindaweni ezihlukahlukene. I-Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site

yindawo noma isizinda esinemingcele eklanyiwe futhi ecacile,
esitholakala esifundeni esikhulu esiqukethe imivukubulo eminingi
yasemandulo kanye nezinsalela zamathambo abantu nezilwane.
Sezihlonziwe izizinda ezisemqoka kakhulu eziqukethe imivukubulo
yasemandulo futhi indawo okutholakala kuyona le mivukubulo iklanyiwe,
yahlukaniswa ngokwemingcele futhi yamenyezelwa ngokusemthethweni
njengesizinda samagugu omhlaba. Lokhu kumenyezelwa kuhlinzeka
indawo eklanyiwe ngokuvikeleka okukhethekile (bheka ama-
“conservation areas” kanye ne-“demarcation”), kodwa-ke isifunda
okutholakala kusona ama-hominid fossils (izinsalela zabantu nezilwane
zasemandulo) sikhulu kakhulu uma siqhathaniswa nesizinda samagugu.
Regulation: Nowadays all developed countries and most developing
countries have official environmental management systems to protect the
environment according to promulgated environmental legislation (that is, laws or
acts). Owing to the fact that national environmental acts must cover all eventualities
and all areas, they are often generic and rather vague on detail. That is the nature of
all legislation. However, in one way or the other, all of these environmental acts
provide for individual and/or specialised circumstances and cases. These
subservient provisions are regulations and they are legally as binding as the
“umbrella legislation”, that is, the Environmental Acts, which – in South Africa –
would be the National Environmental Management Act, number 107 of 1998,
popularly known as NEMA (see “environmental management”). Strong
environmental legislation, as we have in South Africa, demands an environmental
management plan (EMP) for each proposed development project or human activity
that might significantly impact on the environment. The EMP stipulates the specific
details of the actions to minimize and ameliorate or “soften” the impact of the
development on the environment.

Imithethonqubo elawulayo: Kulezi zinsuku wonke amazwe

asethuthukile kanye namazwe amaningi asathuthuka anezinhlelo
ezisemthethweni zokuphathwa kwemvelo, ezenzelwe ukuvikela imvelo,
ngokulandela imithetho eshayiwe. Ngenxa yokuthi imithetho yezemvelo
kumele ibhekelele zonke izigameko ezingenzeka, futhi kuzo zonke
izindawo, ivamise ukuba banzi ngokweqile futhi ayicacile kahle
imininingwane ehlinzekwe kule mithetho. Kodwa-ke injalo yonke
imithetho. Kepha-ke, nakuba kunjalo yonke le mithetho ihlinzekela izimo
ezithile eziqondene nezigameko ezithile kanye/noma izimo
ezikhethekile. Lezi zimiselo ezingaphansi kwale mithetho
ziyimithethonqubo eyisibopho esisemthethweni, ngokufanayo
“nemithetho emikhulu elawula ezemvelo” (“umbrella legislation”),
okusho, iMithetho Yezemvelo, futhi eNingizimu Afrika lapha kushiwo
uMthetho Kazwelonke Wezokuphathwa Kwemvelo, ongunombolo 107
we-1998, odume ngele-NEMA (bheka i-“environmental management”).
Imithetho yezemvelo eqinile, njengaleyo esinayo lapha eNingizimu
Afrika, iyalela ukuthi kube nohlelo lokuphathwa kwemvelo (EMP)
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maqondana nomklamo ngamunye ohlongozwayo noma umsebenzi

othile owenziwa ngabantu ongaba nomthelela omkhulu kwimvelo. I-EMP
ibeka ngokucacile imininingwane nezinyathelo okumele zithathwe
ukunciphisa nokwenza ngconywana umthelela womklamo ukuze
ungazweli kakhulu kwimvelo.
Relative location: See “location”.

I-relative location: Bheka i-“location”.

Relative relief: The difference in height above sea-level (altitude) between the
highest and lowest points in a relatively small area. It does not matter how high the
area is above sea-level, or how mountainous or flat it is. One simply subtracts the
height of the lowest point from that of the highest point.

I-relative relief: Umehluko wokuphakama kwendawo ethile kusuka

olwandle (altitude), phakathi kwephoyinti elibonisa ingxenye yezwe
noma yomhlaba ephakeme kakhulu kanye nephoyinti elibonisa ingxenye
ephansi kakhulu, endaweni encanyana impela ngobukhulu. Akusho
lutho ukuthi indawo iphakeme kangakanani kusuka olwandle, noma
inezintaba eziningi kangakanani noma iyisicaba kangakanani. Into
okumele yenziwe nje kuphela wukususa (subtracts) ubude bephoyinti
lendawo eliphansi kakhulu kubude bephoyinti lendawo ephakeme
kakhulu.
Remote sensing: The obtaining of data about an object from a distance by means
of a specialised instrument – a sensor – that is not physically in touch with the
object. The instrument could be a camera, sonar devise, mechanical scanner, radar
system, laser sensor, electronic sensor, or an electromagnetic radiation sensor
mounted in an Earth-orbiting satellite. All natural and synthetic objects with a
temperature higher than absolute zero (that is, nil on the Kelvin scale, or -273,16˚C)
emit electromagnetic energy and certain sensors can detect these emissions.
Different objects emit different wavelengths of electromagnetic energy and we can
build different sensors that can detect different wavelengths of radiation. An ordinary
camera like the one in your cellphone can detect a very limited span of radiation
wavelengths, namely those that are in the visible part of the spectrum – the same
ones we can see with our own eyes. Laser instruments can emit wavelengths
outside the visible spectrum with the result that we cannot see the beam unless it is
reflected by some medium. This is used to spectacular effect in theatre productions
and pop concerts, but it is mostly used for bona fide scientific, military and medical
purposes. (Sonar imagery is often used in the military and medical fields, but that is
something entirely different. Sound waves are emitted by an instrument and the
same instrument detects the waves as they bounce back from the object they were
aimed at. With sonar technology a baby can be safely viewed within its mother’s
uterus.) It is important to note that an ordinary airphoto can be interpreted without
processing of the data captured on it. However, this is not the case with satellite
imagery which has to be processed before it can be interpreted.

I-remote sensing: Ukuqoqa idatha mayelana nento ethile, ukude,

usebenzisa ithuluzi elikhethekile – inzwakuzwa (sensor) –
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elingathintene ngqo naleyonto okuqoqwa kuyona idatha, futhi

elingaxhunyiwe kuyona. Ithuluzi elinjalo kungaba yikhamera, idivayisi ye-
sonar, i-mechanical scanner, i-radar system, i-laser sensor, i-electronic
sensor, noma i-electromagnetic radiation sensor exhunywe
kwisiphuphutheki sesathelayithi esizungeza umhlaba. Zonke izinto
zemvelo noma ezakhiwe ngabantu ezinezingakushisa elingaphezulu
kuka-absolute zero (okusho, u-zero ku-Kelvin scale, noma izinga elingu -
273,16˚C) zikhiqiza amandla kazibuthegesi (electromagnetic energy)
futhi ama-sensors akhethekile ayakwazi ukuzwa nokubona lawa mandla
kazibuthegesi akhiqiziwe. Izinto ezihlukahlukene zikhiqiza amandla
kazibuthegesi anobude bamagagasi obuhlukahlukene futhi singawakha
ama-sensors ahlukahlukene akwaziyo ukuzwa nokubona amandla
okushisa (radiation) okunobude bamagagasi obuhlukahlukene.
Ikhamera ejwayelekile, njengekhamera kamakhalekhukhwini, iyakwazi
ukuzwa nokubona ama-radiation wavelengths kodwa-ke ubude balokho
buncane kakhulu, okuyilawo ayingxenye ye-spectrum esibonakalayo –
futhi afanayo nalawo esikwazi ukuwabona ngamehlo ethu. Amathuluzi e-
laser ayakwazi ukukhiqiza ama-wavelengths angaphandle kwe-
spectrum esibonakala ngamehlo, futhi lokho kuholela ekutheni
singakwazi ukubona umsebe (beam), ngaphandle uma lowo msebe
ubuyiseleka emuva (reflected) emva kokushayisa entweni ethile. Lokhu
kusetshenziselwa ukukhiqiza umbono onobukhazikhazi obumangalisayo
emidlalweni yeshashalazi noma yasesiteji kanye nasemakhonsathini
omculo we-pop, kodwa-ke lokhu kusetshenziswa ikakhulukazi
ukufezekisa izinhloso zesayensi, zempi kanye nezokwelapha.
(Imifanekiso ye-sonar nayo ivamise ukusetshenziswa emkhakheni
wezempi nowezokwelapha, kodwa-ke lokho kuyinto ehluke kakhulu.
Amagagasi omsindo akhiqizwa yithuluzi elithile futhi lona lelo thuluzi
liyawezwa (detects) lawo magagasi ngenkathi ebuyela emuva emva
kokushayisa entweni abethunyelwe kuyona. Ngokusebenzisa
ubuchwepheshe be-sonar odokotela bayakwazi ukubona, ngendlela
ephephile, umntwana ngaphakathi esibelethweni sikamama wakhe.
Kusemqoka ukuthi kuphawuleke ukuthi isithombe esijwayelekile
esithwetshulwe emoyeni singahumusheka ngaphandle kokuhlunga,
nocubungula kanye nokuhlaziya idatha equkethwe kuleso sithombe.
Kodwa-ke, lokho ngeke neze kwenzeke maqondana nezithombe
ezithwetshulwe ngesiphuphutheki sesathelayithi, ngoba phela zona
kumele zicutshungulwe futhi zihlaziywe ngaphambi kokuba
zihunyushwe.
Renewable energy: Energy derived from a source that is perpetually present
or replenished within a short period such as hours or days. Consequently, renewable
energy can – theoretically – never be depleted. Solar energy (sunlight) is available
during every day that the sun shines and it can be used to heat water, charge
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batteries which could power ordinary light bulbs, or cook food in a special solar stove
(even a cheap, homemade model). Solar energy is nowadays very commonly used
all over the world for a variety of installations and equipment; these range from
pocket calculators, to cell phone towers, warm water geysers, cookers (stoves),
domestic lighting, to power entire buildings, and many more. The only limitations for
using solar energy are geographic location (certain regions, such as the polar
regions do not receive much sunlight for a few months of the year), cloudy and rainy
regions, the high capital outlay to buy and install the solar equipment (these costs
are high because the equipment and solar panels are expensive), and so forth.
However, even in European countries that receive much less solar energy than we
do in South Africa, solar energy is commonly used, and all homes and buildings
have to install solar panels. In fact, the entire African continent receives so much
sunlight that solar generated electricity could be available to every human being in
Africa, but the expense of solar panels, installations and batteries is beyond the
financial capability of most Africans. Other forms of renewable energy are falling
water which generates hydro-electric power, tidal energy (in the oceans), and wind
energy. Hydro-electricity is generated at a number of places in Africa, namely the
Cahora Bassa Dam in Mozambique, the Gariep Dam in South Africa, the Katse Dam
in Lesotho, the Kariba Dam in Zimbabwe, the Ruacana waterfall on the border
between Namibia and Angola, the Owen Falls in Uganda, the Aswan High Dam in
Egypt, and some others. In parts of the world – like Canada, Scandinavia, parts of
the USA, parts of South America, and New Zealand – where water is more abundant
than in Africa, hydro-electricity is the main source of electricity. Wind energy is what
is used by an ordinary windpump, of which there are many thousands in Africa. Wind
turbines are remarkably effective electricity generators, and they range in size from a
small, domestic turbine smaller than a satellite dish and a car battery, to large “wind
farms” which generate a lot of electricity which is fed into the general energy network
of a country or region. We have one such wind farm in South Africa, namely at
Darling in the Western Cape and one is currently under construction at Mossel Bay.
The main drawbacks of wind turbines are the limited capacity of the batteries to store
the electricity, and the extreme noise caused by the turbines themselves. A wind
turbine would be of little help in Pretoria where the wind frequency is exceptionally
low, but in regions like the Southern and Eastern Cape and the Free State, wind
turbines would be highly successful. Nuclear energy is normally classified as a
renewable source of energy (see “nuclear energy”). Strictly speaking, that is
incorrect since the plutonium and/or uranium used cannot regenerate, but such small
quantities of these materials are used to generate so much electricity that the
available supplies on the Earth could never run out. On top of that, the “waste
material” remains radio-active for so many thousands of years that we might find out
how to use it and thereby lengthen the use of the resource. In practice, nuclear
energy can be regarded as a perpetual source of energy. There are, however, many
negative factors associated with nuclear energy: the first is the high cost, and the
second is the danger of an “accident” causing radio-activity to “leak” into the
environment, like at Three Mile Island in the USA, and Chernobyl in Russia, and the
Fukushima plant in Japan (see “hazardous waste” and “nuclear energy”). Owing to
the dangers inherent to nuclear energy plants and radio-active waste, nuclear energy
would probably always be much disputed and controversial. (Note that there are
quite a number of environmentally friendly, or relatively so, alternatives to fossil fuel
energy, particularly biofuels – [see “fossil fuels”], but thus far certain limitations and
high costs have always tipped the scale to the use of dirty, but relatively cheap, fossil
fuels. Biofuels are really not even to be considered in low-rainfall and semi-arid
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environments like South Africa, simply because they do not have the climate to make
it viable.)

Amandla avuselelekayo: Amandla atholakala emthonjeni oyohlala

ukhona ungunaphakade noma ovuseleleka ngesikhashana esincane
nje, njengamahora noma izinsuku. Ngenxa yalokho-ke, amandla
avuselelekayo – ngokwethiyori – ngeke neze asetshenziswe aze aphele
nya. Amandla elanga (solar energy) atholakala nsuku zonke ngenkathi
liphumile ilanga futhi angasetshenziselwa ukubilisa amanzi, ukushaja
amabhethri, ukukhanyisa amagilobhu okukhanyisa ajwayelekile,
ukupheka ukudla esitofini esikhethekile esisebenza ngamandla elanga
(okungaba yisitofu esishibhile esakhiwe ekhaya). Kulezi zinsuku
amandla elanga asetshenziswa kakhulu emhlabeni wonke jikelele,
emishinini enhlobonhlobo; lokhu kusukela emishinini enjengama-pocket
calculators, kuya emibhishongweni yamaselula, ama-geyser amanzi
ashisayo, izitofu zokupheka, izibane zokukhayisa endlini, ugesi
wesakhiwo sonkana, kanye nokunye okuningi. Izinto ezimbalwa
ezingaba yisithiyo ekusetshenzisweni kukagesi welanga yizinto
ezinjengezindawo ezithile (okuyizifunda ezithile, njengezifunda
ezisezingxenyeni ezisekupheleni komhlaba lapho kudlula isikhathi
esilinganiselwa ezinyangeni ezimbadlwana ngonyaka kungekho
ukukhanya kwelanga), izifunda ezinamafu kakhulu noma izimvula,
izindleko eziphakeme kakhulu zokuthenga nokuxhuma imishini kagesi
welanga (into ephakamisa lezi zindleko wukuthi imishimi kanye nama-
solar panels kumba eqolo), nokunye okuningi. Kodwa-ke, ngisho
nasemazweni ase-Europe athola amandla elanga aphansi kakhulu
kunalokho okutholwa yiNingizimu Afrika, usetshenziswa kakhulu impela
ugesi wamandla elanga, futhi kuwo wonke amakhaya nezakhiwo
zakulawo mazwe kumele kuxhunywe ama-solar panels. Eqinisweni,
izwekazi lonke lase-Afrika lithola amandla elanga amaningi
kangangokuthi ugesi welanga ungafinyelela kubo bonke abantu e-Afrika,
kodwa-ke izindleko zokuthenga ama-solar panel, nokuwaxhuma kanye
nezindleko zamabhethri, zingaphezulu kakhulu kwamandla amazwe
amaningi ase-Afrika, ngoba phela awanazo izimali ezanele. Ezinye
izinhlobo zamandla avuselelekayo ngamanzi ehla ngomfutho akhiqiza
ugesi wamanzi, ugesi wamandla amagagasi olwandle kanye nogesi
wamandla omoya. Ugesi wamanzi ukhiqizwa ezindaweni eziningi
kwelase-Afrika, njenge-Cahora Bassa Dam e-Mozambique, i-Gariep
Dam eNingizimu Afrika, i-Katse Dam e-Lesotho, i-Kariba Dam e-
Zimbabwe, i-Ruacana waterfall emngceleni ophakathi kwe-Namibia ne-
Angola, i-Owen Falls e-Uganda, i-Aswan High Dam e-Egypt, kanye
nezinye izindawo eziningi. Kwezinye izindawo zomhlaba – njengase-
Canada, nase-Scandinavia, ezingxenyeni ezithile ze-USA, ezingxenyeni
ezithile ze-South America, kanye ne-New Zealand – okuyizindawo lapho
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amanzi exhaphakile futhi etholakala ngobuningi uma kuqhathaniswa

nezwekazi lase-Afrika, ugesi wamanzi uwumthombo omkhulu wamandla
kagesi osetshenziswayo. Amandla omoya yilokho okusetshenziswa yi-
windpump ejwayelekile, futhi e-Afrika kunezinkulungwane
ngezinkulungwane zalokhu. Imishini engama-wind turbines yimishini
yokuphehla ugesi wamanzi esebenza kahle kakhulu, futhi itholakala
ngosayizi abahlukahlukene kusukela kuma-turbine amancane
asetshenziswa emakhaya, anobukhulu obungaphansi kwendishi
yesathelayithi kanye nebhethri yemoto, kuye “emapulazini omoya”
amakhulu aphehla ugesi omningi impela, othunyelwa kwinethiwekhi
kagesi wezwe noma wesifunda. ENingizimu Afrika, sinalo ipulazi lomoya
elinjalo, elisendaweni yase-Darling esifundazweni saseNtshonalanga
Koloni futhi kunelinye elakhiwayo njengamanje endaweni yase-Mossel
Bay. Izikhinyabezi (drawbacks) ezinkulu eziphazamisa ukusetshenziswa
kahle kwama-wind turbines wumthamo omncane wamabhethri okugcina
ugesi, kanye nomsindo omkhulu ophuma kuma-turbines. I-wind turbine
ngeke ibe wusizo kakhulu ePitoli ngoba lapho liphansi kakhulu izinga
lokutholakala komoya, kodwa ezifundeni ezinjengeNingizimu
neMpumalanga Koloni kanye ne-Free State, ama-wind turbine angaba
yimpumelelo enkulu. Amandla enuzi (nuclear energy) avamise ukufakwa
ngaphansi kwemithombo yamandla avuselelekayo (bheka i-“nuclear
energy”). Uma sikhuluma iqiniso, lokho kuyiphutha njengoba i-plutonium
kanye/noma i-uranium esetshenziswa emandleni enuzi kuyizinto
ezingavuseleleki, kodwa-ke kusetshenziswa umthamo omncane kakhulu
walokhu ukwenza ugesi omningi kakhulu impela, kangangokuthi lokho
ngeke neze kuyiqede i-plutonium ne-uranium ekhona emhlabeni.
Ngaphezu kwalokho, “imfucuza ekhiqizwa wugesi wenuzi” ihlala
inemisebe enobungozi iminyaka eyizinkulungwane ngezinkulungwane
kangangokuthi mhlawumbe siyogcina sesikwazile ukuthola ukuthi
singayisebenzisa kanjani, futhi ngalokho selule isikhathi
sokusetshenziswa kwalo mthombo. Ngokubheka lokhu osekushiwo
ngendla, amandla enuzi angathathwa njengomthombo wamandla
oyohlala ukhona njalo, unomphela. Kepha-ke, zikhona izikhinyabezi
eziphathelene nokusetshenziswa kwamandla enuzi: esokuqala
yizindleko eziphezulu zalokhu, futhi esesibili “wubungozi” noma
izinhlekelele ezingabangela “ukuputshuka” kwemisebe enobungozi
ingene kwimvelo, njengoba kwenzeka e-Three Mile Island kwelase-USA,
kanye nase-Chernobyl e-Russia, kanye nasesikhungweni senuzi sase-
Fukushima kwelase-Japan (bheka i-“hazardous waste” kanye ne-
“nuclear energy”). Ngenxa yobungozi obuphathelene nezikhungo
zamandla enuzi kanye nemfucuza enemisebe eyingozi, amandla enuzi
ayohlala edala impikiswano enkulu kubantu. (Qaphela ukuthi
kunezinhlobo eziningana zamandla eziphehlamandla ezingayilimazi
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imvelo, noma-ke ezidala umonakalo omncane kakhulu, ikakhulukazi

iziphehlamandla ezenziwe ngezinto zemvelo, ama-biofuels – [bheka
ama-“fossil fuels”], kodwa-ke lokhu kunemikhawulo ethile futhi
ukuphakama kwezindleko zalokhu kuholela ekutheni abantu baqoke
ukusebenzisa iziphehlamandla ezimbiwa phansi ezingcolile, kodwa-ke
ezingabizi kakhulu. Ama-biofuel awacatshangwa nokucatshangwa
ezindaweni ezithola imvula encane, ezinjengeNingizimu Afrika, ngenxa
yokuthi azinaso kahle isimo sezulu esikulungele lokhu.)
Resolution: The capability of a film and/or a lens to capture and record
spatial detail. In order to identify the finest detail on a photographic image the
resolution should be as high as possible. From a very grainy photographic image
very little or no fine detail could be identified. Such an image is of little value.
Compare a grainy (that is a photographic image composed of dots spaced far apart),
semi-focussed photograph of a lovely bride to a sharp, fully focussed photograph of
the same bride. On the first photo one can hardly see any of the detail on her dress,
and even her face might be somewhat vague. But on a high resolution photograph
one can see every pearl, frill, fold and detail of her dress and her happily smiling face
is sharp and perfectly recognisable. The resolution of a photographic image is
inversely proportional to grain size; that is, the smaller the grain size of the
photographic image, the higher is its resolution. For military purposes, high
resolution images are essential. It is of little value to be able to see that some
construction is going on in an enemy country, but when the construction is
photographed with high resolution equipment and the images reveal that a missile
launching pad is being built the neighbouring states would react differently! The
global military industry is always involved in progressive remote sensing techniques
(see “remote sensing”) in order to obtain more detailed remotely sensed images.
Scientists doing research in these fields often work directly or on contract for the
military. Eventually some of these techniques make it to the public domain where
they become available for use to all.

Izinga lokugqama nokucaca kwesithombe: Amandla efilimu

kanye/noma i-lens okuthwebula nokugcina izinto ezithwetshuliwe
eziphathelene nendawo ethile. Ukuze kuhlonzwe nemininingwane
yezinto encane kakhulu imbala, ezisesithombeni, kumele sibe ne-
resolution ephakeme kakhulu. Uma isithombe sifithizela, mincane
kakhulu imininingwane esesithombeni engabonakala ngokucacile futhi
ihlonzwe kahle. Ngeke neze sibe wusizo isithombe esinjalo. Qhathanisa
isithombe esifithizelayo (isithombe esigcwele amachashazi agqagqene
kakhulu), nesithombe sikamakoti omuhle esingacacile kakhulu (semi-
focussed) kanye nesithombe salowo makoti esigqamile futhi esicace
kakhulu (fully focussed). Esithombeni sokuqala ayibonakali neze
imininingwane yengubo yomshado kamakoti, kanti nobuso bakhe
imbala, kungenzeka bungabonakali kahle. Kodwa-ke esithombeni esine-
high resolution kubonakala yonke into, wonke amagqamuzana obuhlalu
obumhlobe (pearl), yonke imiphetho nemisiko yengubo kamakoti, futhi
nobuso bakhe obumamathekayo bugqamile futhi bubonakala
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ngokucacile. I-resolution yesithombe ingaqhathaniseka nosayizi

wohlamvu (grain size) lokudla okusanhlamvu; okusho ukuthi, uma
usayizi wohlamvu lwesithombe umncane lokho kusho ukuphakama kwe-
resolution yesithombe. Uma kuhloswe ukufezekisa izidingo zempi,
kusemqoka kakhulu ukuthi kube nezithombe ezicace bha. Ngeke neze
sibe nosizo isithombe esingabonisi ukuthi kukhona isakhiwo esakhiwayo
ezweni lesitha, kodwa uma isakhiwo sithwetshulwe ngesithwebuli
esibonisa isithombe esicacile, futhi uma imininingwane yaleso sithombe
iveza ukuthi kulelo lizwe kwakhiwa isizinda sokuthumela imicibisholo
yeziqhumane, amazwe angomakhelwane angalubheka ngendlela
ehlukile lolo daba futhi athathe izinyathelo ezifanele! Imboni yezempi
emhlabeni jikelele izama ngakho konke okusemandleni ayo ukuthola
izindlela ezintsha zokuqoqa ulwazi ngemishini ekwazi ukuqoqa ulwazi
ibe ikude kakhulu nendawo okuqoqwa kuyona ulwazi (bheka i-“remote
sensing”), ukuze ikhiqize izithombe ezicace kakhulu ezithathwe
ngezithwebuli ezibekwe kude nendawo ethwetshulwayo. Abanye
ososayensi abenza ucwaningo kulo mkhakha basebenza ngokugcwele
kanti futhi abanye basebenza ngaphansi kwenkontileka. Ngokuhamba
kwesikhathi ezinye zalezi zindlela zokuqoqa ulwazi zigcina sezifinyelelile
nasemehlweni omphakathi, lapho zigcina khona sezisetshenziswa
ngumuntu wonke.
Resource management: Controlling the use of any material or object that is
of use to humankind. Two types of resources are distinguished, namely natural
resources which are naturally occurring exploitable materials that may be used to
enhance human wellbeing, and human resources which are those things that human
beings themselves may contribute to the well-being of humankind. In geography we
are interested in the management of both types of resources. Of course, different
people regard different things as resources; that is a cultural aspect of human
existence. But, irrelevant of culture, certain resources are renewable and others are
non-renewable. Renewable resources are materials that can be regenerated as fast
as or nearly as fast as they are used. Vegetation, groundwater, animals, oxygen,
solar energy and wind are examples. Nonrenewable resources are regenerated at a
much slower rate or not at all. Fossil fuels (see “fossil fuel”), iron ore, diamonds, gold
and a beautiful natural landscape cannot be regenerated, but we may at least reuse
or recycle (see “recycling”) some of them. Soil is a very difficult resource to classify;
it can be regenerated, but at a much slower rate than human activities can either
loose or degrade it to a state where it is unproductive. From a resource management
and sustainability point of view, soil is classified as non-renewable on a human time-
scale, and many scientists and environmentalists regard accelerated soil erosion as
humankind’s most serious environmental threat. Resource management basically
aims at the sustainable use of all types of resources. It seeks to minimise the use of
non-renewable resources and the slowed-down use plus the replenishment of the
renewables. Resources are evaluated and managed by means of different methods
which include restriction of use (that is, conservation), forbidding all use (that is,
preservation), pollution regulations, prescribed rehabilitation of a landscape after
use, permission to execute actions that might impact on the environment, and
variations of the aforementioned methods. The most important management strategy
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and the only one which would really arrest all the problems, is the cultivation of a
culture of sustainable use. However, that is a long-term solution, while the problems
demand immediate action which could be provided by international conventions and
national laws, regulations and permitting (see “international conventions” and
“environmental management”).

Ukuphathwa nokulawulwa kwemithombo ewusizo:

Ukulawula ukusetshenziswa kwanoma yiziphi izinto eziwusizo
kubantu. Zimbili izinhlobo zalokhu ezikhona, okungama-natural
resources, izinto ezitholakala ngokwemvelo ezingasetshenziswa
ukwenza ngcono inhlalakahle yabantu, kanye nama-human resources,
okuyizinto ezivela kubantu noma ezakhiwe yibona, ezingasetshenziswa
ukwenza ngcono inhlalakahle yabantu. Kujografi, sigxile kakhulu
ekuphathweni kwazo zombili lezi zinhlobo zemithombo yempilo.
Kuyiqiniso elingephikiswe ukuthi abantu abahlukahlukene banemibono
ehlukahlukene mayelana nokuthi yiziphi izinto eziyimithombo yempilo,
futhi yiziphi ezingeyona; lokho-ke kuyinto ephathelene namasiko-mpilo
abantu. Kodwa-ke uma sibeka amasiko-mpilo eceleni, kuyinto
eyaziwayo ukuthi eminye yale mithombo yempilo iyavuseleleka kanti
futhi eminye ayivuseleleki. Imithombo evuselelekayo yizinto
ezingavuseleleka ngokushesha noma ezingavuseleleka ngesivinini
esilingana naleso sokusetshenziswa kwazo. Izibonelo zalokhu yizimila
zemvelo, amanzi agcinwe ngaphansi komhlaba, izilwane, i-oksijini,
amandla elanga kanye nomoya. Imithombo engavuseleleki yimithombo
evuseleleka ngesivinini esiphansi kakhulu, noma engavuselelekile
nakancane nje. Iziphehlamandla ezimbiwa phansi (bheka i-“fossil fuel”),
i-iron ore, amadayimane, igolide kanye nezindawo ezinobuhle bemvelo
obumangalisayo, yizinto ezingavuseleleki, kodwa-ke okunye kwalokhu
singakusebenzisa kabusha (bheka i- “recycling”). Umhlabathi yinto
okunzima ukuyichaza ukuthi ingena kuphi kulezi zinhlobo ezimbili, izinto
ezivuselelekayo kanye nezinto ezingavuseleleki; ngoba phela
umhlabathi uyavuseleleka kepha lokhu kwenzeka ngesivinini esiphansi
kakhulu uma kuqhathaniswa nemisebenzi yabantu eyenziwa
emhlabathini okungenza ukuthi bawusebenzise uze ufinyelele esigabeni
lapho usucekeleke phansi kakhulu, kangangokuthi ungabe usakwazi
ukukhiqiza izitshalo. Uma lokhu kubhekwa ngasohlangothini
lokuphathwa nokulawulwa kwemithombo ewusizo kanye
nokusetshensiswa kwayo ngendlela esimeme, umhlabathi ufakwa
ngaphansi kwezinto ezingavuseleleki, uma lokhu kubhekwa
ngokwesilinganiso sobude besikhathi esiphilwa ngumuntu emhlabeni
(human time-scale), futhi ososayensi abaningi kanye nezishoshovu
zokuvikelwa nokulondolozwa kwemvelo babona ukuguguleka
kwenhlabathi njengobungozi bemvelo obubeka abantu engcupheni
enkulu. Kahle-kahle, ukuphathwa nokulawula kwemithombo ewusizo
kuhlose ukuqinisekisa ukusetshenziswa ngendlela esimeme kwazo
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zonke izinto ezikhona eziyimithombo ewusizo. Kuhlose ukunciphisa

ukusetshenziswa kwemithombo engavuseleleki futhi kuncishiswe
nesivinini sokusetshenziswa kwemithombo evuselelekayo futhi
kuqinisekiswe nokuvuselelwa kwayo. Imithombo ewusizo ihlolwa futhi
ilawulwe ngezindlela ezihlukahlukene, ezibandakanya ukuncishiswa
kokusetshenziswa kwayo (okusho, ukulondolozwa, [conservation]),
ukunqabela ngokuphelele ukusetshenziswa kwayo (okusho, ukugcinwa
kwayo [preservation]), imithethonqubo yokuvimbela ukungcoliseka
kwemvelo, ukubekwa kwemibandela yokuthi indawo yemvelo kumele
nakanjani ivuselelwe emva kokusetshenziswa kwayo, isidingo
sokutholakala kwemvume ngaphambi kokwenziwa komsebenzi ongaba
nomthelela kwimvelo, futhi kubandakanya nokuthi indlela ngayinye
kulezi ezishiwo lapha iguqulwe lapha noma laphaya ukuze ihambelane
nesimo esithile esihlukile. Isu elisemqoka kakhulu lokuphathwa
nokulawulwa kwemvelo futhi okuyilona kuphela eliyoxazulula
ngokuphelele zonke izinkinga eziphathelene nemvelo,
wukugqugquzelwa kwesiko-mpilo lokuqinisekisa ukutshenziswa
kwemithombo yemvelo ngendlela esimeme. Kodwa-ke, lokho
kuyisixazululo sesikhathi eside, kanti izinkinga zona zidinga izinyathelo
ezisheshayo ezingahlinzekwa yizivumelwano zamazwe ngamazwe,
imithetho yamazwe, imithethonqubo kanye nokukhishwa kwezimvume
(bheka ama-“international conventions” kanye ne-“environmental
management”).
Responsible tourism: Trips or tours by visitors that do not cause any harm to
the visited environment itself (the host environment) or to the culture and way of life
of the people in the visited regions (see “host community”). Also, the number of
visitors should not exceed the carrying capacity of the attractions or the capacity of
the host area to absorb the waste associated with up-market tourism (see “carrying
capacity”). Tourist facilities should not despoil the natural or human-made attributes
– the assets – of the area, because these assets are the very reason why the visitors
are there. If these attributes were degraded, the owners or managers of the area are
destroying their own asset base (like killing the goose that lays the golden eggs!). In
order to ensure the sustainability of the place as a tourist attraction, its tourist
attributes have to be managed sustainably and with great care (see “demarketing”
and “carrying capacity”). There are justifiably serious concerns that the tourist
carrying capacity of the Kruger National Park is being exceeded by too many day
visitors and a proliferation of small camps. The Yellow Stone and Yosemite nature
reserves in the USA have had to limit visitor numbers many years ago – if for no
other reason than to relieve the problem of traffic jams inside the nature reserves!
Irresponsible tourism in the form of littering and exceeding the carrying capacity are
despoiling the once pristine slopes of mountains such as Mount Everest, Kilimanjaro
and Mount McKinley. Anything – from empty oxygen bottles to human excreta – is
strewn all along the climbing routes. At Everest, the Sherpas (see “accessibility”,
“adventure tourism” and “alternative tourism”) literally have to remove tons of waste
from both the south and the north slope of the mountain every year (56 tons were
removed from the south slope alone in 2012!), and teams of “clean-up” and
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sanitation workers are continually removing waste from Kilimanjaro. The fact that the
waste is at least removed makes the littering and deposition of waste more
acceptable, but the first principle of eco-tourism and nature tourism of “leave
nothing but your footprints” (see “ecological citizenship”, “ecological footprint” and
“environmentalist”) is conveniently, but lamentably, ignored. One cannot but wonder
how many people would try to climb Everest or Kilimanjaro if they themselves had to
carry all their waste – and that includes their own excreta – down the mountain! The
fashionable past-time of the well-to-do so-called “nature lovers” is to drive their
environmentally unfriendly, 4x4 gas-guzzler off-road, over sensitive grasslands, right
through wetlands, over steep slopes, across dune ridges and on beaches. To
describe all the environmental damage, they do would fill a thick book, and their
“love of nature” is at best superficial and at worse a very flimsy “green screen” for
hubris. From an envirocentric point of view, 4x4-tourism is – by its very nature –
environmentally irresponsible. Well-heeled tourists, who troop through squatter
camps or shanty towns and dish out sweets to the children, are equally irresponsible
– their behaviour is at best insulting and at worse socially and/or culturally and
eventually politically inflammatory. Even the oceans do not escape irresponsible
tourism! Scuba and snorkel divers have committed indescribable, irreversible
damage to the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, the coral reefs of the Maldives, and
just about every coral reef on Earth. The damage done to coral reefs by the
enormous tsunami of 26 December 2004, pales to insignificance compared to what
has been wreaked by so-called nature-loving divers. There are so many examples of
irresponsible tourism and especially irresponsible up-market eco-tourism (which is
per definition irresponsible!) that one could easily fill an entire book on it. It is
encouraging that there are some positive examples of responsible tourism, such as
day-trips to the Galapagos Islands, and trips to Antarctica, sections of the Pantanal,
and specific regions of Canada, Alaska and the Amazonian forests.

Ezokuvakasha eziqhutshwa ngenkathalo nenkambiso elungileyo:

Izinkambo zabavakashi ezingadali umonakalo kwimvelo
abayivakashele (i-host environment) noma ezingaphazamisi isikompilo
noma indlela yokuphila yabantu abahlala kulezo zifunda ezivakashelwe
(bheka i-“host community”). Futhi, akufanele ukuthi inani labavakashi
libe ngaphezulu kwamandla okumumatha (carrying capacity) endawo
evakashelwe, noma-ke amandla endawo evakashelwe okumumatha
imfucuza ekhiqizwa yizikhungo zokuvakasha ezenzelwe abantu abadla
izambane likapondo (up-market tourism) (bheka i-“carrying capacity”).
Izikhungo zokuvakasha akumele neze zicekele phansi ubuhle bendawo
yemvelo noma bendawo eyakhiwe ngabantu, ngoba phela lobo buhle
yibona obudoba futhi buhehe abavakashi ukuthi bavakashele indawo
leyo. Uma bucekelwa phansi lobu buhle, abanikazi noma izimenenja
zendawo zicekela phansi izinto ezenza indawo yabo ibe yigugu
kubavakashi (asset base) (okufana nokucekela phansi umthombo
wabo wemali!). Ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukusimama kwendawo ethile
njengendawo eheha abavakashi, kumele buphathwe kahle futhi
ngendlela esimeme ubuhle bayo kanye nalezo zinto eziyenza ibe yigugu
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kubavakashi, futhi lokhu kumele kwenziwe ngokucophelela okukhulu

(bheka i-“demarketing” kanye ne-“carrying capacity”).
Kunokukhathazeka okukhulu, futhi kube kufanelekile, mayelana nokuthi
i-Kruger National Park ivakashelwa ngabantu abaningi ngokweqile
emini, futhi sekugcwele kakhulu nezinkambu ezincane kuyo yonke le
dawo. Iziqiwu i-Yellow Stone kanye ne-Yosemite kwelase-USA
kwadingeka ukuthi eminyakeni eminingi edlule zinciphise inani labantu
abavakashela lezi ziqiwu – ikakhulukazi njengomzamo wokunciphisa
isiminyaminya sezimoto ngaphakathi eziqiwini! Ukuvakasha
okuhambisana nokungaziphathi kahle kabantu ngokuthi balahle udoti
phansi kanye nokugcwalisa abavakashi ngokweqile, kucekela phansi
izintaba ezazinobuhle bemvelo obumangalisayo ezinjenge-Mount
Everest, Kilimanjaro kanye ne-Mount McKinley. Emizileni yokuqwala
intaba sekwagcwala imfucuza eningi, kusukela emabhodleleni e-oksijini
angasenalutho phakathi kuya kwindle namangcoliso abantu agcwele
yonke indawo. Entabeni i-Everest, ama-Sherpas (bheka i-“accessibility”,
“adventure tourism” kanye ne-“alternative tourism”) kuye kudingeke
ukuthi minyaka yonke aqoqe izinqwabanqwaba zemfucuza kuzo zombili
izinhlangothi okuqwalwa kuzona intaba okuyi-south slope kanye ne-
north slope (ngowezi-2012 nje kuphela kwaqoqwa amathani emfucuza
angama-56!), ngokunjalo nasentabeni i-Kilimanjaro kunamathimba
abasebenzi abaqoqa udoti abasebenza ngokuqhubekayo, beqoqa udoti
kule ntaba. Ukuqoqwa kwemfucuza kwenza abantu babone sengathi
kuvumelekile ukulahla udoti noma kuphi noma kanjani nje, ngoba phela
bakhona abasebenzi abazowuqoqa, kepha-ke abantu bashaya sengathi
sebewukhohliwe umgomo wokuqala we-eco-tourism ne-nature tourism
othi “ungashiyi lutho ngaphandle kwama-footprints ezinyawo
zakho” (bheka i-“ecological citizenship”, “ecological footprint” kanye ne-
“environmentalist”), okuyinto edabukisayo impela. Umuntu uyazibuza
ukuthi bangaki nje nempela abantu ababeyoqwala intaba i-Everest
noma i-Kilimanjaro ukuba babephoqelekile ukuthi bazithwalele
ngokwabo yonke imfucuza yabo – futhi lokho kubandakanya nendle
yabo imbala – ngenkathi sebehla bebuyela phansi! Ukungcebeleka
nobumnandi obuthandwa kakhulu ngabantu abadla izambane likapondo
abazibiza “ngabathandi bemvelo” wukutetemuka ngezimoto zabo
ezinkulu zohlobo lwe-4x4 eziziphuzelayo nje kuphethiloli, ezicekela
phansi imvelo; bahambe badabule phezu kama-grassland anemvelo
ebucayi, banqamule phakathi kwamaxhaphozi, bahambe emagqumeni
ehlelayo kakhulu, badabule izindunduma zesihlabathi futhi banqamule
nasemabhishi. Kungagcwala ibhuku eliwugqinsi impela uma singabhala
wonke umonakalo abawenzayo kwimvelo, futhi “uthando lwabo
lwemvelo” wuthando olungamanga nenkohliso nje, futhi oluyize leze.
Ngasohlangothini lwemibono ebeka imvelo phambili, ukuvakasha
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kwabantu abahamba ngezimoto zohlobo lwe-4x4 – uma kubhekwa isimo

sakho kanye nomonakalo okuwudalayo – kuwukuvakasha
okungenankathalo futhi okuphambene kakhulu nenkambiso
elungileyo yezokuvakasha. Abavakashi abacebile futhi abadla
izambane likapondo abangena bephuma ezindaweni eziyimijondolo
lapho befike khona baphe izingane amaswidi, nabo ngokufanayo
babonisa ukuziphatha ngendlela engenankathalo futhi ephambene
nenkambiso elungileyo yokuvakasha – futhi izenzo zabo zingachazwa
njengento eyinhlamba; futhi lokhu kucasula ngendlela evusa uhlevane
ngasohlangothini lwamasiko nenhlalo yabantu, kanye
nangokwezepolitiki imbala. Ngisho nezilwandle aziphunyuli neze kule
nkinga yokuvakasha okuphambene nenkambiso elungileyo! Abatshuzi
abangama-scuba divers kanye nama-snorkel divers sebedale
umonakalo ongachazeki futhi ongeke neze usalungiseka endaweni
yemvelo ebizwa nge-Great Barrier Reef kwelase-Australia, kuma-coral
reefs ase-Maldives, kanye nakuwo wonke ama-coral reef emhlabeni.
Umonakalo owenziwa yi-tsunami enkulukazi mhla zingama-26
kuDisemba 2004, mncane kakhulu uma uqhathaniswa nomonakalo
owenziwa yilabo ababizwa ngabatshuzi abathanda imvelo. Ziningi
impela izibonelo zokuvakasha okungenankatho futhi okuphambene
nenkambiso elungileyo, ikakhulukazi okwenziwa wumkhakha we-eco-
tourism wabantu abadla izambane likapondo abangenankathalo
(ngokwencazelo, okuyisenzo esiphambene nenkambiso elungileyo!)
futhi uma muntu engazibhala phansi lezo zibonelo zobubi ababenzayo
kwimvelo, zingahlanganisa ibhuku eliphelele. Kuyathokozisa ukuthi
kukhona izibonelo ezinhle zokuvakasha okuyikhathalelayo imvelo futhi
okubonisa ukulandelwa kwenkambiso elungileyo, njengezinkambo
zasemini zokuvakashela iziqhingini zase-Galapagos, izinkambo eziya e-
Antarctica, izingxenye ezithile ze-Pantanal, kanye nezifunda ezithile
zase-Canada, e-Alaska kanye nasemahlathini ase-Amazon.
Retail facilities: Places and/or opportunities for consenting sellers and
consenting buyers to legally exchange relatively small amounts or volumes of goods
for money or other goods or services. From time immemorial humans have been
trading. There are various ways of small scale trading: goods can change hands (I
trade a chicken for your jar of honey); goods may be exchanged for services (I help
you pick the apples in your orchard and receive a part of the harvest in return for my
labour), goods might be sold for money (I buy your cow for an amount of money
mutually agreed upon), and so forth. These transactions took place anywhere, such
as along the roads, on street corners and often at a recognised, traditional market
place or a family-store (a spaza shop, that is, a shop belonging to one person or
family and dealing in a certain type of merchandise), or in the central business
district (CBD) (see “central business district”) of a city. Such market places often
constituted the entire CBD of an ancient city. In order to purchase or sell things one
went to the CBD. Over time retailing has changed a lot, but these traditional ways of
retailing still endure in various forms in especially the developing economies, but
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also in the developed ones although the merchandise might now be more
sophisticated. The infrastructure required for retail activities has been modernised
and today many retailers do their business from formal shops in buildings specifically
erected for this purpose; shops (sellers) now have proper business addresses.
Retailers buy goods in bulk from wholesalers and sell it at higher prices to
purchasers at their shops with fixed addresses. The price the buyer is now going to
pay would probably be much higher because the retailer has to pay a steep rental for
the shop and his overheads are thus higher than in the informal market space. The
purchaser pays a little (or a lot) more for having the convenience to buy goods in a
conveniently located shop. In most modern cities the CBD is not the main retailing
space anymore, and most retailing happens at decentralised facilities (like malls and
shopping centres). People would rather travel to a nearby shopping centre than to
the CBD to make their ordinary, every-day purchases. Owing to this geographical
shift of retail areas, many CBDs became abandoned, derelict features (see “central
business district” and “gentrification”) where illegal trade, illegal activities, and vice
flourish. It would, for instance, be easier to buy crack-cocaine and procure the
services of a prostitute in the old CBD, than in the glitzy mall in the newer parts of
the city. The official attempts at “sanitising”, revitalising and rejuvenating the old
CBDs (see “gentrification”) might in the future shift the main retailing facilities back to
the CBDs, but we should not hold our breath! Besides, rentals in rejuvenated CBDs
are notoriously high, so the shopper will have to pay even more than previously. And
in the developing world no-one would want to lose the ubiquitous spaza shops!

Izikhungo zokuthengisa: Izindawo kanye/noma amathuba okuthi

abantu abathengisayo kanye nabantu abathengayo bathengiselane
ngokushintshiselana ngemali nezimpahla ezincane noma izinsizakalo.
Kusukela kudala ezikhathini zasemandulo, abantu basaqhubeka
nokuhwebelana. Kunezindlela ezihlukahlukene zohwebo oluncane:
bangashintshiselana ngezimpahla (Ngizokunika inkukhu wena unginike
ibhodlela loju lwezinyosi); izimpahla zingashintshaniswa nezinsizakalo
noma usizo oluthile (Ngingakulekelela ngenkathi ukha ama-aphula
engadini yakho bese wena ungipha ingxenye yesivuno sakho
njengenkokhelo yami), izimpahla zingathengiswa ngemali (Inkomo
yakho ngingayithenga ngesamba semali esizovumelana ngaso), njalo
njalo. Lokhu kuhwebelana kwenzeka noma kuphi, okungaba yiseceleni
komgwaqo, ekhoneni lomgwaqo noma endaweni edumile eyimakethe
okuthengiselwana kuyona, noma isitolo somndeni (i-spaza, okuyisitolo
somuntu oyedwa noma somndeni futhi esithengisa izimpahla ezithile
kuphela), noma esifundeni sebhizinisi esiyinhloko (CBD) (bheka i-
“central business district”) sedolobha. Emadolobheni asemandulo,
izindawo zokuhweba ezinjalo yizona ezaziyingxenye enkulu ye-CBD.
Uma umuntu efuna ukuthenga noma ukuthengisa into ethile
wayevakashela i-CBD. Kule minyaka edlule sekutshintshe kakhulu
impela ukuthenga nokuthengiselana, kodwa lezi zindlela zakudala
zisekhona emikhakheni ethile, ikakhulukazi emazweni asathuthuka,
kodwa futhi zisekhona nasemazweni asethuthukile, nakuba impahla
okuthengiselwana ngayo isishitshe kakhulu futhi
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sekungeyesimanjemanje. Ingqalasizinda edingekayo yokuthengiselana

isingeyesimanjemanje futhi namuhla abathengisi abaningi sebedayisela
ezitolo ezihlelekile, ezakhiweni ezakhelwe umsebenzi wokuthengisa;
izitolo (abathengisi) manje sezinamakheli ebhizinisi aqondile
ezisebenzela kuwona. Abathengisi bathenga izimpahla ngobuningi
kuma-wholesalers bese bezithengisa kubathengi ngentengo ephakeme
ezitolo zabo ezisakhiweni esithile lapho bethengisela khona unomphela.
Umthengi manje kumele akhokhe intengo ephakeme ngoba phela
umthengisi ukhokhe imali eshisiwe ukuqasha isakhiwo leso asebenzela
kusona, ngalokho-ke izindleko zokuqhuba ibhizinisi ziphakeme kakhulu
uma kuqhathaniswa nesizinda semakethe engahlelekile
okuthengiselwana kusona. Umthengi ukhokha imali ethanda
ukuphakama kancane (noma-ke ephakeme kakhulu) ngoba phela
useyakwazi ukuthola izimpahla azidingayo kalula esitolo esiseduze
naye. Emadolobheni amaningi esimanjemanje i-CBD ayiseyona indawo
eyinhloko okuqhutshwa kuyona umsebenzi wokuthengiselana, futhi
ukuthengiselana sekwenzelwa ikakhulukazi ezikhungweni
ezingaphandle (njengama-malls kanye nama-shopping centres). Uma
abantu befuna ukuthenga izimpahla ezijwayelekile, zansuku zonke
sebencamela ukuya ku-shopping centre eseduzane kunohamba ibanga
elide beya e-CBD. Ngenxa yalokhu kuguquka kwendawo okutholakala
kuyona izikhungo zokuthengisa, ama-CBD amaningi aseyizinda
ezinganakiwe futhi eziwohlokile (bheka i-“central business district” kanye
ne-“gentrification”) lapho kuthengiselwana khona ngendlela engekho
emthethweni, futhi kwenziwa neminye imikhuba emibi ehambisana
nokuphulwa komthetho. Isibonelo, kulula ukuthenga i-crack-cocaine
kanye nokuthenga umqwayizi othengisa ngomzimba endaweni eyi-CBD
yakudala, uma kuqhathaniswa ne-mall kanokusho etholakala
engxenyeni entsha yedolobha. Imizamo esemthethweni “yokukhuculula”,
nokuvuselela izindawo ezindala ezingama-CBD (bheka i-“gentrification”)
kungenzeka esikhathini esizayo zibuyisele izikhungo zokuthengisa
ezinkulu ema-CBD, kodwa-ke akufanele sizithembise kakhulu ukuthi
lokho kuzokwenzeka ngempela! Ngaphandle kwalokho, irenti ivamise
ukuba phezulu kakhulu kuma-CBD avuselelwe kabusha, ngakho-ke
kuzodingeka ukuthi abathengi bakhokhe imali engaphezulu kwaleyo
ababeyikhokha esikhathini esedlule. Futhi-ke emazweni asathuthuka
akekho ongathanda ukulahlelekwa yilama-spaza shops athe chithi saka
yonke indawo!
Risk assessment: In a geographical and environmental sense, it is an
estimate of the possibility of an undesirable event or an unexpected negative result
to any action. The term is loosely applied and is used in many different sciences and
senses. In the environmental field it is used to evaluate the possibility of water
pollution, soil erosion, airpollution, habitat destruction, the death of animals,
destruction of plants, ecological change, destruction of a wetland, and numerous
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other undesirable environmental results which might follow on any human activity.
Risk assessment is a predictive technique and it is a very difficult thing to do in the
environmental field, because it basically is a set of economic techniques that are
adapted for use in the environmental field. Ecological risk assessment has become
an extensively used method all over the world, including South Africa, and a
comprehensive set of guidelines have been developed by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) of the Unites States of America. No standardised
methodology exists, but a risk assessment process could be described as a process
consisting of four distinct phases: hazard identification, hazard assessment, risk
estimation, and risk evaluation. The most problematic aspect of any risk assessment
process is probably that values must be ascribed to things which cannot be
measured. There are various ways of doing that and each risk assessment process
must choose the most appropriate technique. The entire process of risk assessment
is to a very large extent guesswork, but an informed guess and calculated risk
could be scientifically justifiable if used with caution and based on prior empirical
proof or experience.

Ukuhlolwa kobungozi: Ngowejografi kanye

nangokwezemvelo, lokhu kuyisilinganiso samathuba okwenzeka
kwesigameko esingathandeki noma umphumela omubi obungalindekile
wanoma yisiphi isenzo noma isinyathelo. Leli temu lisetshenziswa
ngendlela evulekile futhi aliqondile esigamekweni esithile kuphela futhi
lisetshenziswa kumasayensi amaningi ahlukahlukene nasezimweni
ezihlukahlukene. Emkhakheni wezemvelo lisetshenziselwa ukuhlola
ukuthi angakanani amathuba okuthi kwenzeke isigameko
sokungcoliseka kwamanzi, ukuguguleka komhlabathi, ukungcoliseka
komoya, ukucekelwa phansi kwendawo okuphila kuyona izinto zemvelo,
ukufa kwezilwane, ukuguquka kwesimo semvelo, ukucekeleka phansi
kwexhaphozi, kanye neminye imiphumela yemvelo engathandeki
ebangelwe yizenzo zabantu. Ukuhlolwa kobungozi yinqubo
yokubikezela isimo futhi kunzima kakhulu ukwenza lokhu emkhakheni
wezemvelo, ngoba phela kuthathwa izinqubo zezomnotho ziguqulwe
ukuze zilungele ukusetshenziswa emkhakheni wezemvelo. Ukuhlolwa
kobungozi bemvelo sekuyinqubo esetshenziswa kakhulu emhlabeni
wonke jikelele, kubandakanya naseNingizimu Afrika, futhi i-
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) yase-Unites States of America
seyithuthukise iqoqwana lemihlahlandlela ebanzi mayelana nalokhu.
Ayikho indlela ebekiwe, futhi eyamukelwe ngumuntu wonke yokwenza
lokhu, kwodwa-ke inqubo yokuhlolwa kobungozi ingachazwa
njengenqubo ebandakanya izigaba ezine ezihlukene: ukuhlonzwa
kwesimo esinobungozi, ukuhlolwa kobungozi, ukwenziwa kwesilinganiso
samathuba okudaleka kwengozi, kanye nokuhlola ukusebenza
kwezilawuli zokunciphisa nokuvimbela ubungozi (risk evaluation).
Ingxenye eyinkinga kakhulu yanoma iyiphi inqubo yokuhlolwa kobungozi
wukuthi kumele kwenziwe izilinganisonani zezinto ezingakaleki.
Kunezindlela ezihlukahlukene zokwenza lokho, futhi inqubo ngayinye
 220

yokuhlolwa kobungozi kumele ikhethe isu elifanelekile

elizosetshenziswa. Inqubo yonke yokuhlolwa kobungozi, iyinqubo egxile
ikakhulukazi ekusebenziseni ukuqagela, kodwa-ke ukuqagela
okuphusile okuhambisana nolwazi olunzulu kanye nokwenza
isilinganiso sobungozi ngobuhlakani obukhulu (calculated risk)
kungafakazeleka ngokwesayensi uma kusetshenziswe ngokucophelela
futhi kususelwe ebufakazini obuphathekayo noma ezigamekweni
okudlulwe kuzona.
S
Salinisation (salinization): The process whereby soluble salts (certain types
of chemical substances) accumulate in the soil. It is a serious environmental problem
in regions with a warm, arid (dry) or semi-arid climate. All natural waters – including
groundwater – contain varying amounts of soluble chemical compounds called
“salts”. These compounds include NaCl (ordinary table salt), other chlorides,
carbonates and sulphates of sodium, calcium and magnesium. Many soils also
contain soluble salts and when groundwater passes through such soil, it dissolves
some of the salts and its salinity increases. Where the climate is warm and dry, the
water evaporates out of the soil profile, but the soluble salts remain behind. Every
repetition of this process increases the salinity of the soil until it is totally infertile and
cannot support any plant growth. Irrigation in unsuitable regions has rendered
millions and millions of hectares of land throughout the world unproductive and
useless. In arid and semi-arid regions irrigation is necessary in order to produce
food, but it has to be judiciously done in order to maintain soil fertility. The type of soil
and the salinity of the irrigation water have to be studied and the irrigation should be
done in a way that will not increase the salinity of the soil. Certain soils should never
be irrigated and certain water should never be used for irrigation. Salinisation
happens all over the world, but owing to its aridity Africa is particularly prone to the
problem. It is interesting to note that enormous, circular regions of salinisation occur
around all of the oases (wells made in the desert to extract water, and marshy areas
where free-flowing water might be obtained) in the Sahara Desert. At all of these
places the watertable is close enough to the surface that the water can be extracted
by means of shallow wells and for thousands of years people have used these
regions to cultivate crops because it was possible to irrigate the land around these
water sources. Nowadays most of these areas are completely barren as a result of
salinisation. The water is still available, but the soil is so saline that absolutely
nothing will grow there. The age-old image of an oasis is that of a clump of palm
trees and reeds surrounding a water source where shade, food and water could be
enjoyed in the midst of the harsh, dry, hot, lifeless desert. “An oasis in the desert”
has even become an often used idiom. Unfortunately, those idyllic oases do not exist
anymore and soon no-one will understand the idiom anymore!

Ubusawoti bomhlabathi: Ukuqoqana nokukhula komthamo kasawoti

oncibilikayo (okuyizinhlobo ezithile zezinto ezingamakhemikhali)
emhlabathini. Lokhu kuyinkinga yemvelo enkulu impela ezifundeni
ezinesimo sezulu esishisayo, esomisile noma esimvulancane (semi-
arid). Wonke amanzi emvelo – kubandakanya namanzi atholakala
ngaphansi komhlaba – aqukethe imithamo ehlukahlukene yezingxube
 221

ezingamakhemikhali ancibilikayo abizwa “ngosawoti”. Lezi zingxube

zifaka phakathi ne-NaCl (usawoti ojwayelekile ofakwa ekudleni
emakhaya), namanye ama-chlorides, ama-carbonates nama-sulphates
of sodium, i-calcium kanye ne-magnesium. Izinhlobo ezihlukahlukene
zomhlabathi ziqukethe usawoti oncibilikayo futhi uma amanzi atholakala
ngaphansi komhlaba edlula kulowo mhlabathi onjalo, ancibikilisa
omunye walowo sawoti osemhlabathini bese lokho kukhuphula
umthamo kasawoti (salinity) otholakala emhlabathini. Ezindaweni lapho
isimo sezulu sifudumele futhi somile, amanzi ayaguquka abe
ngumhwamuko bese ephuma eya phezulu emkhathini, kodwa usawoti
wona uyasala emhlabathini. Uma iphindaphindeka le nqubo, lokho
kukhuphula umthamo kasawoti emhlabathini, futhi ngenxa yalokho-ke
umhlabathi ugcina ungasavundile futhi uhluleke ngokuphelele
ukukhiqiza izitshalo. Ukunisela ezifundeni ezingakulungele lokho
sekuholele ekutheni umhlaba ongamahekthare ayizigidi ngezigidi
emhlabeni wonke jikelele ugcine ungasakwazi ukukhiqiza izitshalo futhi
ungaselona nakancane usizo. Ezifundeni ezomisile kanye nalezo
ezimvulancane kuyadingeka ukuniselwa kwezitshalo ukuze kukhiqizwe
ukudla, kodwa-ke lokho kumele kwenziwe ngokucophelela okukhulu
ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuthi umhlabathi uhlala uvundile. Uhlobo
lomhlabathi kanye nomthamo kasawoti osemanzini okunisela kumele
kuhlolisiswe futhi ukunisela kumele kwenziwe ngendlela
engezokhuphula umthamo kasawoti emhlabathini. Kunezinhlobo ezithile
zomhlabathi okungafanele neze ziniselwe futhi kunezinhlobo zamanzi
okungafanele neze asetshenziselwe ukunisela. Ukukhuphuka komthamo
kasawoti emhlabathi kuyinto eyenzeka emhlabeni wonke jikelele,
kodwa-ke ngenxa yokuthi izwekazi lase-Afrika liyizwekazi elishisayo futhi
elomisile, livamise ukuhlangabezana kakhulu nale nkinga yokukhuphuka
komthamo kasawoti emhlabathini. Kuyinto emangalisayo impela ukuthi
ogwadule lwase-Sahara kunezifunda ezinkulukazi eziyindilinga
ezizungeze wonke ama-oases (okuyimithombo yamanzi etholakala
ogwadule, kanye nezindawo ezingamaxhaphozi ezinamanzi agelezayo)
lapho kutholakala khona umthamo omkhulu womhlaba onosawoti. Kuzo
zonke lezi zindawo izinga lokuphakama kwamanzi (watertable)
ngaphansi komhlaba lisondele kakhulu engxenyeni engaphezulu
yomhlaba, kangangokuthi amanzi angadonswa phansi ngokwakha
imithombo engajulile kakhulu, futhi sekuphele iminyaka ngeminyaka
abantu belima izitshalo kulezi zifunda ngoba phela bekulula ukunisela
umhlaba osondelene nale mithombo yamanzi. Kulezi zinsuku, iningi
lalezo zindawo akusalimeki kuzona ngoba akusamili lutho ngenxa
yokuphakama komthamo kasawoti emhlabathini. Amanzi wona
asekhona, kepha umhlabathi unomthamo ophakeme kakhulu kasawoti,
kangangokuthi ngeke kumile ngisho nesitshalo esisodwa nje vo kuleyo
 222

ndawo. Umfanekiso wakudala wama-oasis (indawo enamanzi nezihlahla

ogwadule) wawubonisa ihlashana lama-palm trees kanye nomhlanga
ozungeze umthombo wamanzi lapho abantu babeziphumulela kamnandi
bathokozele ukudla kwabo kanye namanzi apholile, bezungezwe
wugwadule olunonya, olomile, olushisayo futhi olungenampilo. Ngisho
nesisho esithi “An oasis in the desert” (“Umthombo wamanzi ogwadule”)
sesaba yisisho esisetshenziswa kakhulu impela. Ngelishwa-ke, ayisekho
leyo mithombo yasogwadule, epholile enobuhle obumangalisayo, futhi
khona maduze nje abantu ngeke besasiqonda nokuthi sichaza ukuthini
isisho esingenhla!
Scientific hypothesis: A scientific proposition whose truth or falsity can be
asserted. Therefore, a hypothesis is a scientific statement that can be “tested” and
verified (declared true) or rejected (declared false). Once a hypothesis has been
proven true, it is accepted as a true statement, and when it has been proven false it
is rejected. It is very important that a scientific hypothesis is an empirical
proposition in the sense that it can be tested (verified) by experience. If it is proven
to be a true statement, it might become a scientific law which might – together with
other such laws – form the tenets of a particular theory. A hypothesis must be
testable; if it is not testable, it is actually a postulate, not a hypothesis. The so-
called “hard sciences” such as chemistry and physics, and the so-called “soft
sciences” like psychology and sociology have completely differing views of what
hypotheses, laws and theories are. Although geography straddles the hard and the
soft sciences, it tends to adhere to the physical scientists’ view of what a hypothesis
is (this stems from the quantification period of the 1970s and 1980s), but this
tendency was never universal, and it definitely is not universal now.

Umbonosiqagelo (ihayiphothesisi) wezesayensi: Isiphakamiso

sezesayensi esingakaqinisekiswa ukuthi ngempela siyiqiniso noma
siyaphaphalaza. Ngakho-ke ihayiphothesisi iyisitatimende sezesayensi
“esingahloleka” futhi kuqinisekiswe ubuqiniso baso noma sichithwe
njengombono ophaphalazayo. Uma sekuveziwe futhi kwaqinisekiswa
ukuthi ihayiphothesisi iyiqiniso, yamukelwa njengesitatimende
esiyiqiniso, kanti-ke futhi uma sekuveziwe ukuthi iyaphaphalaza
iyachithwa. Kusemqoka kakhulu ukuthi ihayiphothesisi ibe
yisiphakamiso esibambekayo noma esiphathekayo (empirical)
ngokuthi ibe yinto engahlolwa (iqinisekiswe) ngokuyenza. Uma
sekuqinisekisiwe ukuthi iyisitatimende esiyiqiniso, kungenzeka ibe
ngumthetho wezesayensi – ongathi uma uhlanganiswa neminye
imithetho enjalo – ube wumgomo oyisisekelo wethiyori ethile.
Ihayiphothesisi kumele kube yinto ehlolekayo; futhi uma ingahloleki,
lokho kusho ukuthi akuyona ihayiphothesisi kepha yiphostuleti
(postulate). Amasayensi abizwa “ngamasayensi aqinile” (“hard
sciences”), anjengekhemistri (chemistry) nefiziksi (physics), kanye
“namasayensi athambile” (“soft sciences”) anjengesayikholoji
(psychology) kanye nesosiyoloji (sociology) anemibono ehluke kakhulu
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mayelana nokuthi yini ihayiphothesisi, imithetho kanye namathiyori.

Nakuba ijografi igxamalazile phakathi kamasayensi aqinile kanye
namasayensi athambile, ivamise ukulandela umbono wososayensi
bezefiziksi mayelana nokuthi yini ihayiphothesisi (lokhu kususelwa kwi-
quantification period yeminyaka yawo-1970 nawo-1980), kodwa-ke
akuzange kube yinto eyamukelwa ngumuntu wonke, futhi namanje
akukamukelwa ngumuntu wonke.
Scoping: The process of impact identification. This process follows on the
screening process (see “screening”) and it involves the identification of the impacts
that should be included in the impact assessment and which impacts need not be
included. A proposed development project – as a whole – might potentially pose a
significant impact on the environment, but all aspects or actions involved in the
project might not pose equally severe impacts. All the potentially serious impacts
must be thoroughly investigated during the impact assessment phase, but it would
be a waste of money and time to investigate relatively harmless and insignificant
impacts. The purpose of scoping is to decide which impacts must be investigated
and which need not be investigated. Scoping should identify the key issues that the
impact assessment should focus on. Note that all possible impacts are considered in
the scoping process, but the more harmless ones are then eliminated from further
investigation. There are various methods that could be used to identify the potentially
serious impacts. The scoping process produces a very important document, namely
the terms of reference (ToR) for the environmental assessment phase. The ToR
forms the “blue print” for the impact investigation phase. A poor or incomplete ToR
could result in insufficient investigation of key issues which might eventually result in
serious, expensive or even irreversible harm to the environment. Many
environmental consultants and practitioners regard the scoping as the most
important phase of the entire integrated environmental management procedure.
Scoping is a very complex process, but there are numerous guideline documents on
how it could or should be carried out. It is imperative that all stakeholders have to
be involved and that the process should be well-planned and well-managed.

Ukuhlonzwa komthelela (scoping): Lokhu kusho inqubo

yokuhlonzwa komthelela. Le nqubo ilandela emva kwequbo
yokuhlunga (screening) (bheka i-“screening”) futhi ibandakanya
ukuhlonzwa kwemithelela okumele ibandakanywe ngenkathi kwenziwa
inqubo yokuhlolwa komthelela futhi iyaveza ukuthi yimiphi imithelela
okungamele ifakwe. Umklamo wentuthuko ohlongozwayo – wonkana –
kungenzeka ube nomthelela omkhulu kwimvelo, kodwa-ke akuzona
zonke izingxenye zomklamo noma imisebenzi ephathelene nomklamo
ezingaba nomthelela omubi ngokulinganayo nalokho. Zonke izinto
okungenzeka zibe nomthelela omubi kumele ziphenywe futhi
zicutshungulwe ngokujulile esigabeni sokuhlolwa komthelela, kodwa-ke
kungaba wukumosha imali nesikhathi nje ukuphenya imithelela
engenabo ubungozi futhi engenzi umehluko otheni. Inhloso yokuhlonzwa
komthelela wukuthatha isinqumo mayelana nokuthi yimiphi imithelela
okumele iphenywe noma ifakelwe izibuko, futhi yimiphi
okungadingekile ukuthi iphenywe. Ukuhlonzwa komthelela kumele
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kuhlonze izinto ezibalulekile okumele kugxile kuzona ukuhlolwa

komthelela. Qaphela ukuthi zonke izinto ezingaba nomthelela
ziyacutshungulwa ngenkathi kwenziwa inqubo yokuhlonzwa komthelela,
kodwa-ke lezo ezingenabo ubungozi nomonakalo ongacekela phansi
imvelo ziyakhishwa ngenkathi kuqhutshekwa nophenyo. Kunezindlela
ezihlukahlukene ezisetshenziselwa ukuhlonza izinto ezingaba
nomthelela omkhulu futhi omubi. Inqubo yokuhlonzwa komthelela
ikhiqiza umbhalo osemqoka kakhulu, okuyimigomo
okuzosetshenzelwa phezu kwayo, ama-terms of reference (ToR)
esigabeni sokuhlolwa komthelela kwimvelo. Umbhalo we-ToR
“ungumhlahlandlela” (“blue print”) ozosetshenziswa esigabeni
sokuhlolwa komthelela. I-ToR engenziwanga kahle noma engaphelele
ingaholela ekutheni zingaphenywa ngokugculisayo izinto ezibalulekile,
okungadala umonakalo omkhulu kwimvelo, ongeke neze usalungiseka,
futhi ohambisana nezindleko eziphakeme impela. Abeluleki bezemvelo
kanye nongoti bezemvelo abaningi babona ukuhlonzwa komthelela
njengesigaba esisemqoka kakhulu kuyo yonke inqubo edidiyelwe
yokuphathwa kwemvelo. Ukuhlonzwa komthelela kuyinqubo engelula
neze, kodwa-ke kunemibhalo eminingana eyimihlahlandlela ebonisayo
ukuthi lokhu kumele kwenziwe kanjani. Kusemqoka kakhulu ukuthi
kubandakanywe bonke ababambiqhaza futhi kumele ihlelwe kahle
futhi ilawulwe kahle inqubo yokuhlonzwa komthelela.
Screening: The process of determining whether a proposed action or
development project should be submitted to a full environmental impact assessment
(EIA) or not. This process should determine whether the potential impacts of the
proposed project could/would affect the environment so significantly that a complete
EIA needs to be done in order to obtain permission to proceed with the proposed
project. Note that all proposals must be screened, but some proposed actions or
projects do not pose a potential environmental impact serious enough to merit a full
EIA. Screening differs from scoping (see “scoping”) in that screening considers the
proposed action or project as an entity or a whole, while scoping considers the
individual impacts which might be associated with the action or project. It is not
always easy to make a decision during the screening phase, and with an influential
environmental lobby or a number of active, vociferous environmental NGOs watching
out for the least wrongdoing, the competent authorities in the developed countries
are very hesitant to permit an action or project without demanding an EIA. In order to
assist the authorities, handy checklists have been developed. In South Africa, two
screening lists are used for screening: the List of Activities and the List of
Environments. All activities listed in the first, and any project in an environment listed
in the second, must submit to a full EIA process. Erecting a small, wooden ice-
cream booth along the road main road inside the Cradle of Humankind World
Heritage Site, seems harmless enough, but because it is in a world heritage site the
List of Environments would indicate that an EIA has to be done. Building a nuclear
waste disposal site in the middle of a large, deserted, uninhabited, arid wilderness
might also seem harmless enough, but because it involves radio-active material the
List of Activities would demand a full EIA. Despite these handy lists, the golden rule
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applied in all developed states is: “When in doubt, do an EIA”. In the developing
states, screening is more slack, but that is not desirable as the aforementioned
nuclear waste disposal site might be right in the middle a nomadic clan’s habitual
terrain or even a secret sacred site. A proposal to build an explosives factory in the
heart of a city, does not need any lists to send it directly to the “no-go” class.

Ukuhlunga: Inqubo yokubheka ukuthi isinyathelo

esihlongozwayo noma umklamo wentuthuko kumele uthunyelwe yini
noma cha kwinqubo ephelele yokuhlolwa komthelela kwimvelo (EIA). Le
nqubo kumele ibheke ukuthi ingabe izinto eziphathelene nomklamo
ohlongozwayo zingaba nomthelela omkhulu yini kwimvelo,
kangangokuthi kungadingeka ukuba kwenziwe i-EIA ephelele ukuze
kutholakale imvume yokuqhubekela phambili nomklamo ohlongozwayo.
Qaphela ukuthi zonke iziphakamiso kumele zidlule kwinqubo
yokuhlunga, kodwa-ke ezinye izinyathelo ezihlongozwayo ngeke zibe
nomthelela omkhulu kakhulu kwimvelo, ongadinga ukuba kwenziwe i-
EIA ephelele. Ukuhlunga kuhlukile ekuhlonzweni komthelela (bheka i-
“scoping”) ngoba phela ukuhlunga kucubungula futhi kubheke
isinyathelo esihlongozwayo noma umklamo wonkana, njengento
eyodwa ephelele, kanti ukuhlonzwa komthelela kucubungula umthelela
ngamunye ophathelene nesinyathelo noma umklamo ohlongozwayo.
Kwesinye isikhathi akuyona neze into elula ukuthatha isinqumo
esigabeni sokuhlunga, futhi njengoba kunamashoshozela okuvikelwa
kwemvelo anamandla kakhulu noma ama-NGO amaningi impela,
anomsindo omkhulu, futhi agxeka ngisho nesenzo esincanyana nje
esiphambene nenqubo ebekiwe, lokho kwenza ukuthi iziphathimandla
ezigunyaziwe zamazwe asethuthukile zibe madolonzima ukuvumela
isinyathelo esithile noma umklamo othile ngaphandle kokwenziwa kwe-
EIA. Ukuze kulekelelwe iziphathimandla, sekuthuthukiswe ama-checklist
awusizo kakhulu. ENingizimu Afrika, kunezinhlu ezimbili
ezisetshenziselwa ukuhlunga: uHlu Lwezinto Okumele Zenziwe (List of
Activities) kanye noHlu Lwezindawo Zemvelo (List of Environments).
Zonke izinto okumele zenziwe ezibhalwe ohlwini lokuqala, kanye
nanoma yimuphi umklamo oyingxenye yemvelo obhalwe ohlwini
lwesibili, kumele kudlule kwinqubo ephelele ye-EIA. Ukumisa
isitodlwana samapulangwe esincanyana sokuthengisa eceleni
komgwaqo omkhulu oya e-Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site,
kungabonakala njengento engenabo neze ubungozi kwimvelo, kodwa
ngenxa yokuthi lesi yisizinda esiyigugu lomhlaba, uHlu Lwezindawo
Zemvelo lungabonisa ukuthi kuyadingeka ukuthi kwenziwe i-EIA.
Ukwakha isizinda sokulahla imfucuza yenuzi enkabeni yendawo enkulu
eyihlane, engenabantu futhi enomhlabathi ongavundile, ongakulungele
neze ukulima, nakho kungabonakala njengento engenabo ubungozi
obukhulu, kodwa-ke ngoba lokhu kubandakanya imisebe eyingozi
(radio-active material) uHlu Lwezinto Ezizokwenziwa lungadinga ukuthi
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kwenziwe i-EIA ephelele. Ngaphandle nje kwalezi zinhlu eziwusizo,

umgomo oyisisekelo osetshenziswa kuwo wonke amazwe asethuthukile
uthi: “Uma unokungabaza, yenza i-EIA”. Emazweni asathuthuka,
ukuhlunga akunayo imibandela eqine kakhulu futhi akwenziwa ngaso
sonke isikhathi, kodwa-ke akufanele neze kube njalo, ngoba phela
kungenzeka ukuthi isizinda sokulahla imfucuza yenuzi okukhulunywa
ngaso lapha ngenhla sakhiwe enkabeni yomhlaba osetshenziswa
yisizwe esehla senyuka endaweni ethile noma isizinda esingumhlaba
ongcwele imbala. Isiphakamiso sokwakha ifemu yeziqhumane enkabeni
yedolobha, asidingi nokuthi kuze kube khona uhlu oluthile olubonisa
ukuthi kumele sithunyelwe ngqo esigabeni sezinto esithathwa
njengezinto okungasondelwa neze kuzona esibizwa nge-“no-go” class.
Secondary economic activities: See “development”, “dual economy”,
“countries in transition” and “quaternary economic activities”.

Imisebenzi yezomnotho esekelayo: Bheka i-“development”,

“dual economy”, “countries in transition” kanye nama-“quaternary
economic activities”.
Services: Gainful transactions between willing participants while no tangible
goods need to change hands. One party might have specialised knowledge which
the other party might need. Often, the only thing that changes hands is the money
which the receiving party pays for the specialised knowledge or service of the
service provider. The service sector of the economy includes an extremely wide
variety of services. Educational, medical, legal, cultural, artistic, psychological,
recreational, hospitality, transport, security, and many other services are needed by
everybody in a modern society. The service providers are often registered
professionals with specific qualifications. Illegal services are not generally included,
but in certain countries sexual services form part of the legal array of services.
Services form an immense proportion of the economy in the developed countries
(see “development” and “dual economy”). In the developing countries and countries
in transition, services form a smaller proportion of the economy and production, while
manufacturing still exceeds the service sector in importance. Services form part of
the tertiary sector of an economy (see “countries in transition”, “development”, “dual
economy” and “quaternary economic activities”).

Izinsizakalo: Ukusebenzisana okunenzuzo phakathi

kwababambiqhaza abasebenzisana ngokuzithandela kwabo, futhi
kulokhu akudingekile ukuthi kube nempahla ephathekayo
okushintshiswana ngayo. Omunye walaba kungenzeka kube ngumuntu
onolwazi lobungoti olukhethekile, oludingwa yilona omunye umuntu
owamukela usizo. Esikhathini esiningi, into eyodwa okushitshwana
ngayo lapha yimali ekhokhwa ngumuntu othola usizo, ayikhokhela
ulwazi lobungoti olukhethekile noma usizo aluthole kumhlinzeki
wezinsizakalo. Umkhakha womnotho ohlinzeka ngezinsizakalo
ubandakanya izinsizakalo eziningi impela futhi ezihlukahlukene. Wonke
umuntu ophila esikhathini samanje uyazidinga izinsizakalo
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ezinjengemfundo, usizo lokwelashwa, usizo lwezomthetho, ezamasiko,

ezobuciko, usizo oluphathelene nokusebenza kwengqondo,
ezokungcebeleka, ezokuvakasha nokushaywa wumoya, ezokuthutha,
ezokuvikeleka, kanye nezinye izinsizakalo eziningi. Abahlinzeki
bezinsizakalo kuvamise ukuthi kube ngongoti abarejistiwe futhi
abaneziqu zemfundo ethile ephathelene nemsebenzi wabo.
Ngokuvamile, izinsizakalo ezingekho emthethweni azifakwa lapha,
kodwa-ke kwamanye amazwe izinsizakalo eziphathelene nocansi
ziyingxenye yezinsizakalo ezihlukahlukene ezitholakala kulawo mazwe.
Izinsizakalo ziyingxenye enkulukazi yomnotho emazweni asethuthukile
(bheka i-“development” kanye ne-“dual economy”). Emazweni
asathuthuka kanye namazwe aguqukayo (countries in transition),
izinsizakalo zingxenye encane impela yomnotho nomkhiqizo, kanti
kusenjalo umkhakha wezokukhiqiza ubaluleke ngaphezu komkhakha
wezinsizakalo. Izinsizakalo ziyingxenye ye-tertiary sector yomnotho
(bheka ama-“countries in transition”, “development”, “dual economy”
kanye nama-“quaternary economic activities”).
Social services: The official provision of the tangible and intangible things to
meet the needs of the people in a society. Human beings have needs and they have
wants. The “wants” are the “would like to haves” and people’s existence does not
depend on these. In order to survive, these needs have to be met. Even needs can
be ranged from basic needs (like food and shelter) to higher-level needs such as
advanced education. In any society, there is a common responsibility to provide in
the basic needs of all, even those who cannot afford to pay for it. This societal
responsibility is delegated to the government or some authority which has to execute
the service provision and ensure that the needy receive the necessary services,
such as health-care, basic schooling, secure shelters, enough food, clean water, and
all the basic requirements for survival or even a decent life. Those who can afford it
pay taxes to the authority to provide in the needs of those who cannot afford to pay
for these services. If the basic needs of the poorest in a society are not satisfied,
social unrest and instability may result. Before people lived together in villages and
cities each family group had to provide in its own needs. When family units widened
and formed clans and communities, a sense of society was born. People started to
help one another, and the concept of “social belonging” was born. Nowadays, with
more than 50% of the world population living in cities, service provision is one of the
main considerations in urban planning and development. Spatial analysis is done to
find the optimal locations for schools, hospitals, markets, and so forth.

Izinsizakalo zomphakathi: Ukuhlinzekwa ngokusemthethweni futhi

ngendlela ehlelekile kwezinto eziphathekayo (tangible) kanye nezinto
ezingaphatheki (intangible) ukuze kuhlangatshezwane nezidingo
zabantu emphakathini. Abantu banezidingo baphinde futhi babe
nezimfuno. “Izimfuno” yizinto umuntu angathanda ukuba nazo, kodwa
ukuphila kwabantu emhlabeni akuncikile kulezi zinto. Ukuze abantu
bakwazi ukuphila kumele kuhlangatshezwane nalezi zidingo zabo.
Izidingo zihlukaniswa ngokwezigaba ezihlukahlukene kusukela
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ezidingweni eziyisisekelo (njengokudla nendawo yokufihla ikhanda)

kuyofinyelela ezidingweni ezisezingeni eliphezulu njengemfundo
ephakeme. Kunoma yimuphi umphakathi, kunesibopho esifanayo
sokuhlinzeka bonke abantu ngezidingo eziyisisekelo, kubandakanya
nabantu abangenawo amandla okukhokhela lezo lezo zidingo. Isibopho
somphakathi sokuhlinzekwa kwezidingo sibekwa emahlombe
kahulumeni noma iziphathimandla ezithile, okuyizona okumele
zihlinzeke abantu ngezinsizakalo futhi ziqinisekise ukuthi abantu
abantulayo bayazithola izinsizakalo ezidingekayo, njengosizo
lwezempilo nokwelashwa, imfundo eyisisekelo, izindawo zokuhlala
eziphephile, ukudla okwanele, amanzi ahlanzekile, kanye nazo zonke
izidingo eziyisisekelo umuntu azidingayo ukuze akwazi ukuphila impilo
ekahle negculisayo. Labo abanawo amandla kumele bakhokhe intela
kuhulumeni ukuze kuhlinzekelwe izidingo zalabo abangenawo amandla
okukhokhela lezi zinsizakalo. Uma zinganeliswa izidingo zabantu
abahlwempu emphakathini, kungenzeka kuqubuke izinxushunxushu
nemibhikisho emphakathini. Esikhathini esedlule ngaphambi kokuba
abantu baqale ukuhlala ndawonye ezindaweni ezisemakhaya noma
ezisemadolobheni, amaqoqwana emindeni ehlukahlukene
kwakudingeka ukuthi azihlinzekele ngokwawo izidingo zawo. Ngenkathi
amaqoqo emindeni eseqala ukweluleka nokusabalala, kwasunguleka
izizwe kanye nemiphakathi, futhi kwaqala lapho-ke ukuthi abantu abantu
abahlala endaweni ethile bazibone njengomphakathi owodwa
obumbene. Abantu baqala ukulekelelana, futhi waqala kanjalo-ke
umuzwa “wokuzibona kwabantu njengengxenye yomphakathi othile”.
Kulezi zinsuku, njengoba abantu abangaphezu kwama-50% emhlabeni
sebehlala emadolobheni, ukuhlinzekwa kwezinsizakalo ngenye yezinto
eziseqhulwini ezibhekisiswayo ngenkathi kwenziwa izinhlelo nemiklamo
yokuhlaliswa kwabantu emadolobheni kanye nentuthuko. Kwenziwa
umsebenzi wokuhlaziya indawo ukuze kutholakale indawo efanele,
futhi ekulungele ukwakhiwa kwezikole, izibhedlela, izimakethe, njalo
njalo.
Socio-cultural impacts: People live in social groups that are hierarchically
organised according to their customs and traditions. Their traditions, rituals, religious
practices, social interactions, and so forth, reflect their value system and the way
they view the world. If political instability erupts into war, a community could be torn
apart or they might be forced to leave their habitual area and all the places they
regard as sacred, be compelled to learn a different language, or be swamped by a
mass of migrants or refugees from somewhere else who suddenly arrive to settle in
their area (see “refugee” and “host community”). It will have an enormous impact on
the socio-cultural life of the original community. They are then exposed to foreign
customs, religions, social and cultural practices, and eventually acculturation or
even enculturation might happen (see “acculturation”). The end results of these
impacts are intermarriage with the people who are now hardly foreigners anymore
and ultimately the loss of the original community’s customary practices, milieu and
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identity. The dominance of certain cultures might destroy other cultures either
forcibly or peacefully. When people are so attracted to another way of life, they might
choose to adopt it and abandon their own culture. The American society is an
interesting example. When the African-Americans were initially brought to North
America as slaves, they were ripped from their own socio-cultural practices and were
forced to adopt the practices of the slave-owners. The African slaves were a
completely disrupted people. However, over a period of two hundred years and
many traumatic events, the different peoples in the USA have blended into one
nation which – by and large – shares the same socio-cultural traditions. All the
different peoples of the world have experienced socio-cultural impacts at some stage
or another, they have influenced one another to greater or lesser degree. But the
Europeans, Chinese, Indians, Brazilians, and so forth, are still socio-culturally quite
different from one another. The socio-cultural impact of the internet has already been
significant and its future effect would be interesting to observe.

Imithelela kwinhlalomasiko yabantu: Abantu bahlala emiphakathini

ehleleke ngokwezigaba ezihlukahlukene, ngokwamasiko nezinkambiso
zabo zendabuko. Amasiko abo, imikhuba, izinkambiso zezenkolo,
ukuxhumana kwabo emphakathini, njalo njalo, kubonisa uhlelo
lwezimompilo namagugu abo kanye nendlela ababona ngayo umhlaba
obazungezile. Uma izinxushunxushu zepolitiki ziholela ekuqubukeni
kwempi, umphakathi ungahlukana phakathi noma uhlakazeke, futhi
uphoqeleke ukuthi uyishiye indawo ohlala kuyona, futhi ushiye nalezo
zizinda zawo ezithathwa njengezizinda ezingcwele, ungaphoqeleka
ukufunda ulimi olwehlukile noma uthole indawo yawo seyigcwele
izindimbane zabafuduki noma ababaleki abatheleka ngesivinini esikhulu
bevela kwezinye izindawo noma izifunda bezohlala lapho (bheka i-
“refugee” kanye ne-“host community”). Lokhu kuzoba nomthelela
omkhulu impela kwinhlalomasiko yomphakathi waleyo ndawo, futhi
okuwumphakathi osuhlale lapho isikhathi eside. Abantu bomphakathi
wendawo bazithola sebehlangabezana namasiko abangawazi, izinkolo,
izinkambiso zenhlalo kanye namasiko futhi lokhu kugcina sekuholele
ekutheni luguquke usikompilo lwabo (acculturation) noma kwenzeke
ukuguquka kosikompilo ngempoqo (enculturation) imbala (bheka i-
“acculturation”). Umphumela wale mithelela wukuganana phakathi
kwabantu bendawo nabantu bokufika, ngoba phela ukuguquka
kosikompilo kunciphisa ukuxwayana phakathi kwalaba bantu, futhi lokho
kuholela ekulahlekeni kwamasiko omphakathi wendawo, futhi
balahlekelwe nayindawo yabo abebephila kuyona njengomphakathi
onezici zobunjalo ezithile ezifanayo futhi balahlekelwe nawubunjalo
babo njengamalungu alowo mphakathi ongumsinsi wokuzimilela
endaweni. Ukuba namandla kakhulu kwamasikompilo athile kanye
nokusetshenziswa kwawo kakhulu kungenzeka kucekele phansi amanye
amasikompilo, okuyinto eyenzeka ngempoqo noma ngokuthula. Lapho
abantu bezizwa beheheka futhi befikelwa wuthando losikompilo
okungelona olwabo, kungenzeka baqoke ukwamukela nokusebenzisa
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usikompilo lolo, futhi balahle olwabo. Mayelana nalokhu, umphakathi

waseMelika uyisibonelo esimangalisayo impela. Ngenkathi abantu
abampisholo baseMelika, befika okokuqala eNyakatho Melika
njengezigqila, baphucwa izinkambiso zenhlalomasiko yabo futhi
baphoqelelwa ukuthi bamukele futhi basebenzise izinkambiso
zabanikazi bezigqila. Inhlalomasiko yezigqila ezazidabuka kwelase-
Afrika yacelekela phansi ngokuphelele. Kepha-ke, esikhathini
esiyiminyaka engaphezu kwama-200 futhi emva kokudlula
ezigamekweni eziningi ezishaqisayo, abantu abahlukahlukene base-
USA sebehlangene baba yisizwe esisodwa, ikakhulukazi okuyisizwe
esinenkambiso yenhlalomasiko efanayo. Bonke abantu
abahlukahlukene abaphila kulo mhlaba kukhona isikhathi noma isigaba
emlandweni wabo lapho behlangabezana khona nemithelela ethile
yenhlalomasiko, futhi ngandlelathize abantu bayaba nomthelela
kwabanye, okungenzeka ube mncane noma ube mkhulu. Kodwa-ke
abantu base-Europe, China, India, Brazil, njalo njalo, ayikadungeki
inhlalomasiko yabo, ngakho-ke kulula ukubahlukanisa bokubahlonza
njengezizwe ezingafani. I-inthanethi seyibe nomthelela omkhulukazi
impela kwinhlalomasiko yabantu futhi kungaba kuhle ukuthi
kubhekisiswe nokuthi iyoba nomthelela ongakanani esikhathini esizayo.
Socio-economic accessibility: See “accessibility” and “social services”.

Ukufinyeleleka kwenhlalomnotho: Bheka i-“accessibility”

kanye nama-“social services”.
Soil erosion: The gradual wearing away of the top, fertile layer of the surface
of the Earth. Erosion (see “erosion”) includes the weathering and removal of the
rocks, rock debris, rock fragments and soil, but when we talk about soil erosion we
are referring to the removal of that material which supports vegetated life on the
surface of the Earth. Soil erosion is a natural process that has always occurred and
will probably do so forever. However, over the last few thousand years human
activities have resulted in accelerated soil erosion which is a much faster process
that removes soil faster than it can be formed. This means that we are losing the
productive capacity of the land on which we depend. The soil can be removed by
sheet erosion which is the removal of a fairly uniform layer of soil by means of run-
off water. Advanced sheet erosion progresses to rill erosion when numerous
centimetres deep, small channels form in the surface layer. But as accelerated
erosion continues surface run-off concentrates in the rills and enlarges them to
gullies that are metres deep and hundreds of metres long. At that stage the land
cannot be used for cultivation anymore and all the fertile topsoil has already been
washed away. South Africa, Lesotho and Madagascar contain spectacular examples
of erosion gullies, and that is unfortunately nothing to be proud of. Human activities
that lead to this regrettable condition of millions of hectares of land all over the world
are many and varied, but the main culprits are overcultivation, overgrazing,
injudicious cultivation, slash-and-burn cultivation and general overuse of land. When
too many people have to live off too small pieces of land or on land unsuitable for
their traditional agricultural practices, the entire region might be degraded to a state
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of zero productivity. Millions of hectares in Africa have gone this route. Soil erosion is
the most serious environmental problem humankind is facing, but it gets far less
media coverage and publicity than air pollution, water pollution and global warming.
It is good that people are aware of all the environmental issues, but our priorities are
not always correct. Numerous international conferences and conventions have been
held on air pollution, global warming and water pollution (see “climate change”,
“environmental degradation”, “food security” and “environmental conventions”), but
the most serious environmental problem, namely accelerated soil erosion has never
formed the central focus of such a conference. Legally soils enjoy less protection
than the atmosphere and the water networks, yet the most serious natural resource
issue we are facing is the loss of our fertile topsoil!

Ukuguguleka kwenhlabathi: Ukuguguleka kancane kancane

komhlabathi ovundile osengxenyeni yomhlaba engaphezulu.
Ukuguguleka (bheka i-“erosion”) kubandakanya ukukhumuzeka
nokuguguleka kwamadwala, izimvithi nezicucu zamatshe namadwala
kanye nomhlabathi, kodwa uma sikhuluma ngokuguguleka
kwenhlabathi sikhuluma ngokuguguleka kwengxenye yomhlaba
esekela ukumila nokukhula kwezimila engxenyeni engaphezulu
yomhlaba. Ukuguguleka kwenhlabathi kuyinqubo yemvelo ebilokhu
yenzeka kusukela emandulo futhi mhlawumbe esazoqhubeka yenzeke
kuze kube ngunaphakade. Kodwa-ke, kule minyaka eyizinkulungwane
ezimbalwa edlule, izenzo nemisebenzi yabantu kusheshisa
ukuguguleka kwenhlabathi futhi lokhu kubangela ukuthi isivinini
sokuguguleka kwenhlabathi sibe ngaphezulu kwesivivini sokwakheka
kwenhlabathi. Lokhu kusho ukuthi silahlekelwa ngumhlabathi ovundile
esithembele kuwona, ngoba phela yiwona esilima kuwona izitshalo.
Umhlabathi kuyenzeka uguguleke ngenxa ye-sheet erosion
okuwukuguguleka kwe-layer efanayo yomhlabathi, ngenxa yamanzi
ageleza phezu komhlabathi. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi i-sheet erosion
iyakhula, futhi idlulele esigabeni esilandelayo, okuyisigaba se-rill
erosion lapho kwenzeka imisele emincane enhlabathini, ejule
ngamasentimitha ambalwa. Kodwa-ke ngenkathi kuqhubeka
ukuguguleka kwenhlabathi amanzi agelezayo angena kule misele
ayivule igcine isiyimisele emikhulukazi enezindonga
eziyizinkebenkebe (gullies) ejule ngamamitha amaningi impela futhi
enobude obungamamitha angamakhulu ngamakhulu. Kuleso sigaba-ke
akube kusalimeka kulo mhlaba futhi usuke usuguguleke wonke
umhlabathi ovundile. INingizimu Afrika, i-Lesotho kanye ne-Madagascar
inezibonelo ezimangalisayo zemiselekazi ebangelwa wukuguguleka
kwenhlabathi, kodwa-ke ngelishwa lokhu akuyona neze into
esingaziqhenya ngayo. Yizenzo nemisebenzi yabantu ehlukahlukene
eholela kulesi simo esidabukisayo impela esicekela phansi izigidi
ngezigidi zamahekthare omhlaba, emhlabeni wonke jikelele, kodwa-ke
izenzo ezihamba phambili ezibangela le nkinga wukulinywa komhlaba
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ngokweqile, ukuklabisa imfuyo ngokweqile (overgrazing), ukulima

ngaphandle kwenkathalo nokucophelela, ukulima okubandakanya
umkhuba wokunquma nokushisa izimila zemvelo, kanye
nokusetshenziswa komhlaba ngokweqile. Uma abantu abaningi
ngokweqile beziphilisa ngesiqeshana somhlaba, noma uma beziphilisa
emhlabeni ongazilungele izindlela zokulima zasemandulo
abazisebenzisayo, isifunda sonke singacekeleka phansi (degraded),
kangangokuthi kungabe kusakhiqizeka lutho emhlabathini waso. E-
Afrika ayizigidi ngezigidi amahekthare omhlaba asecekele phansi
ngalolu hlobo. Ukuguguleka kwenhlabathi yinkinga yemvelo enkulu
kakhulu ebhekene nabantu, kodwa kuncane kakhulu okushiwo ngayo
emithonjeni yabezindaba uma iqhathaniswa nokungcoliseka komoya,
ukungcoliseka kwamanzi kanye nesivuvu somhlaba. Kuyinto enhle
ukuthi abantu bayaqwashiswa futhi sebenalo ulwazi mayelana nazo
zonke izinkinga eziphathelene nemvelo, kodwa-ke asivamisile ukwenza
izinto ngendlela okufanele ukuthi zenziwe ngayo, futhi siqinisekise
nokuthi imvelo ibekwa eqhulwini. Ziningi izingqungquthela kanye
nemihlangano yamazwe ngamazwe ebanjiwe, ephathelene
nokungcoliseka komoya, isivuvu somhlaba kanye nokungcoliseka
kwamanzi (bheka i-“climate change”, “environmental degradation”, “food
security” kanye nama-“environmental conventions”), kepha kule
mihlangano yamazwe ngamazwe akukaze kugxilwe kakhulu enkingeni
yemvelo enkulukazi emhlabeni, okuyinkinga yokuguguleka kwenhlabathi
ngesivinini esisabekayo. Nakwezomthetho imbala, inhlabathi ithola
ukuvikelwa okuncane uma iqhathaniswa nokuvikelwa komkhathi kanye
nokuvikelwa kwemithombo ehlukahlukene yamanzi, kodwa kube kuyinto
eyaziwa kahle kamhlophe ukuthi inkinga yemvelo enkulukazi
esibhekene nayo wukulahleka nokuguguleka kwenhlabathi yethu
evundile!
Space-in-time perspective: The way in which geographers interpret the world
we live in. Things on Earth vary from place to place (see “spatial distribution” and
“spatial pattern”) and also from time to time at one and the same place. Geographers
study the spatial patterns formed by the occurrence of people, phenomena and
processes, but all of these change over time. So when we describe them, it is a
description of where they occur at one specific time. In this way we have described
spatial variation at a certain moment in time (time 1). However, geographers also
study the changes in occurrence over time. Should we revisit a certain investigation
a number of years later, we are again studying the spatial patterns, but now at time
2. Sometimes we might be more interested in the rate at which spatial patterns
change, and then we do a longitudinal study, which means that we study the
spatial occurrence patterns continuously or interrupted for a certain period. All spatial
patterns on Earth change over time; that is what geographers are specifically trained
to analyse.
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I-space-in-time perspective: Indlela izazi zejografi ezihumusha

ngayo umhlaba esiphila kuwona. Izinto emhlabeni ziyahlukahluka
ngokwezindawo (bheka i-“spatial distribution” kanye ne-“spatial pattern”)
futhi ngezikhathi ezithile izinto ziyahluka nakuba zisendaweni eyodwa.
Izazi zejografi zicubungula futhi zicwaninge amaphethini okutholakala
kwabantu, izinto kanye nezinqubo ezithile endaweni ethile, kodwa-ke
konke lokhu kuyashintsha ngokuhamba kwesikhathi. Ngakho-ke uma
sichaza amaphethini, sisuke sichaza indawo atholakala kuyona
ngesikhathi esisodwa esithile. Ngale ndlela sichaza ukuhlukahluka
ngokwendawo, ngesikhathi esithile (isikhathi 1). Kodwa-ke, izazi
zejografi zicwaninga futhi nezinguquko eziphathelene nokutholakala
kwamaphethini ngokuhamba kwesikhathi. Uma kwenzeka sibuyekeza
ucwaningo oluthile emva kweminyaka embalwa, sisuke sesiphinda futhi
sicwaninga noma sicubungula amaphethini endawo, kodwa ngaleso
sikhathi sisuke siwacwaninga ngaphansi kwesikhathi 2. Mhlawumbe
singaba nesifiso sokucwaninga izinga lokuguquka kwamaphethini
endawo, futhi lapho-ke sisuke senza ucwaningo olubizwa nge-
longitudinal study, okusho ukuthi sicwaninga amaphethini okutholakala
kwezinto ezithile endaweni ethile ngokuqhubekayo noma-ke
amaphethini anqamukayo ngezikhathi ezithile. Ayaguquka ngokuhamba
kwesikhathi wonke amaphethini endawo emhlabeni; futhi izazi zejografi
ziqeqeshelwe ukuhlaziya khona lokho-ke impela.
Spatial data: The specifics that describe the location or locations of a certain
condition, phenomenon or object under investigation. It describes where a certain
thing occurs and which things happen or occur where. A map can be drawn to
indicate the localities where the subject under investigation occurs. Even if a
phenomenon occurs in one single place or locality only, its intensity might differ from
point to point within the locality; therefore, it describes a spatial distribution pattern
within the area in which it occurs. Geographers always ask “where?” (see “spatial
distribution” and “spatial pattern”), and the answer to that question is spatial data
about the object under investigation. Spatial data is “mapable” (that is, it can be
mapped) and is often called geographical data, and that is not unjustified.
Geographers draw maps of the distributions of the things they investigate.
Geographical data can be mapped (it is “mapable”); if the particulars (variables) of
an investigation cannot be mapped, the research is probably not geographical
research. There are different caves in the Cradle of Humankind world heritage site
and some of them are quite far apart. A visitor to the site would be quite lost and
would never find the different caves without the aid of a map which provides the
spatial data, that is, indicates the locations of the different caves. Even in a
relatively small area such as that formed by a few street blocks in the centre of
Pretoria, one needs spatial data in order to know which streetcorners and alleys
should be avoided for the sake of one’s personal safety. Spatial data and spatial
distribution are two concepts that should not be considered disconnectedly; in fact,
the two cannot be separated (see “spatial distribution”).
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Idatha yendawo: Imininingo echaza indawo/izindawo

okutholakala kuyona/kuzona isimo esithile noma into ethile
ecwaningwayo. Le mininingo ichaza indawo lapho kutholakala khona
into ethile futhi ichaza nokuthi yiziphi izinto ezitholakalayo noma
ezenzekayo endaweni ethile. Ibalazwe lingadwetshwa ukubonisa
izindawo lapho kutholakala khona leyonto ecwaningwayo. Nakuba into
ethile ingatholakala endaweni eyodwa, umthamo noma ubuningi bayo
kungenzeka kungafani noma kungalingani kusuka engxenyeni eyodwa
kuya kwenye ngaphakathi kuyo leyo ndawo eyodwa; ngakho-ke lokhu
kuchaza iphethini lokusabalala kwento ethile ngaphakathi endaweni
okutholakala kuyona leyonto. Umbuzo obuzwa njalo yizazi zejografi uthi
“kuphi”? (bheka i-“spatial distribution” kanye ne-“spatial pattern”), futhi
impendulo yalowo mbuzo yidatha yendawo okutholakala kuyona into
ecwaningwayo. Idatha yendawo iyaboniseka “ngokwebalazwe” (okusho,
ukuthi ingaboniswa ebalazweni), futhi ivamise ukubizwa ngedatha
yejografi, futhi-ke lokho kuyinto engafakazeleka. Izazi zejografi zidweba
amabalazwe okusabalala ngokwendawo kwezinto azicwaningayo.
Idatha yejografi ingaboniswa ebalazweni (iyaboniseka
“ngokwebalazwe”); uma izinto ezicwaningwayo ezitholakala endaweni
ethile zingeke ziboniseke ngokwebalazwe, mhlawumbe lokho kusho
ukuthi lolo akulona ucwaningo lwejografi. Kunemigede ehlukahlukene e-
Cradle of Humankind world heritage site futhi eminye yale migede
igqagqene kakhulu. Umuntu ovakashela lesi sizinda angazithola
eselahlekile, futhi ngeke akwazi ukuthola imigede ehlukahlukene
ngaphandle kokulekelelwa yibalwazwe elihlinzeka ngedatha yendawo,
okusho ukuthi, elibonisa ukuthi ikuphi nendawo imigede
ehlukahlukene. Ngisho nasendaweni encane imbala, njengendawana
eyakhiwe yizitaladi ezimbalwa enkabeni yedolobha lasePitoli, umuntu
udinga idatha yendawo ukuze azi ukuthi yimaphi amakhona ezitaladi
kanye namaphasishi anobungozi okumele awagweme ukuze aphephe
ebugebengwini. Idatha yendawo kanye nokusabalala kwento ethile
ngokwendawo yimiqondo emibili okungafanele icutshungulwe
ngokwehlukana; empeleni, le miqondo emibili ayihlukaniseki (bheka i-
“spatial distribution”).
Spatial distribution: The pattern according to which any variable, such as an
object or a condition, is located. In more common words, it is the answer to
questions like “where are these things?”, “where have these murders occurred?”,
“where is the post office in this town?”, “where in the world do equatorial forests
occur?”, “where do the poor people live?”, and so on. The crucial word is “where”.
The first question any proper geographer ever asks, is “where?”. Geography is a
spatial science and is essentially concerned with the patterns described by the
location of phenomena. Geographers draw maps to indicate (describe) the locations
of phenomena. To graphically describe the spatial distribution, that is, to draw a map
of the occurrence of a phenomenon is any geographer’s first objective. One may
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nearly go as far as to say that if something cannot be mapped, it is not geography,

but that would be slightly extreme. However, to map the phenomenon is one of the
most valuable aspects in the study of the phenomenon. The pattern described by
the spatial location of a phenomenon reveals a multitude of information about the
phenomenon (see “spatial pattern”). To explain the spatial distribution pattern adds
to the understanding of the phenomenon and often explains the cause-effect
relationship. From the question “where?”, a multitude of questions such as “why
there?”, “why not here?”, “why first here and later there?”, could flow and the
answers to these questions are extremely important in the study of anything on
Earth. Geographers are specifically equipped to find answers to these questions
since they are trained and experienced in spatial research techniques.

Ukusabalala ngokwendawo: Iphethini ebonisa ukutholakala

kwento noma isimo esithile endaweni ethile. Uma sisebenzisa amagama
ajwayelekile nje, lokhu kuyimpendulo yombuzo othi “zikuphi lezi linto?”,
“zenzeke kuphi lezi zigameko zokubulawa kwabantu?”, “likuphi iposi
kuleli dolobha?”, “atholakala kuphi ama-equatorial forests emhlabeni?”,
“bahlala kuphi abantu abahlwempu?”, njalo njalo. Igama elisemqoka
kakhulu lapha yigama elithi “kuphi”. Umbuzo wokuqala obuzwa yinoma
isiphi isazi sejografi soqobo uthi “kuphi”? Ijografi yisayensi yendawo
futhi igxile kakhulu kumaphethini achazwa yizindawo okutholakala
kuzona izinto noma izimo ezithile. Izazi zejografi zidweba amabalazwe
ukubonisa (ukuchaza) izindawo okutholakala kuzona izinto noma izimo
ezithile. Ukusebenzisa umdwebo ukuchaza ukusabalala kwento ethile
ngokwendawo, okusho, ukudweba ibalazwe elibonisa indawo
okutholakala kuyona into ethile, kuyinjongo yokuqala yanoma isiphi isazi
sejografi. Umuntu angaqhubekela phambili futhi athi, uma into
ingaboniseki ebalazweni, lokho kusho ukuthi akuyona ijografi, kodwa-ke
mhlawumbe lokho kuwumbono othanda ukuba nehaba kancane.
Kodwa-ke, ibalazwe lento ethile liyingxenye esemqoka kakhulu
ekucwaningweni kwaleyonto. Iphethini elichazwa yindawo okutholakala
kuyona into ethile libonisa ulwazi oluningi impela mayelana naleyonto
(bheka i-“spatial pattern”). Ukuchaza iphethini lokusabalala kwento
ethile ngokwendawo kwenza leyonto iqondakale kangcono futhi
kuvamise ukuchaza ubudlelwano bembangela nomphumela (cause-
effect relationship). Ngokususela embuzweni othi “kuphi?”, kungaqubuka
eminye imibuzo eminingi njengombuzo othi “kungani kwenzeka lapho?”,
“kungani kungenzeki lapho?”, “kungani kwenzeka lapha kuqala bese
ngokuhamba kwesikhathi kwenzeka lapho?” futhi zisemqoka kakhulu
izimpendulo zale mibuzo uma kucwaningwa noma iyiphi into emhlabeni.
Izazi zejografi zikulungele kahle kakhulu ukuthola izimpendulo zale
mibuzo ngoba phela zona ziqeqeshiwe futhi zinolwazi olunzulu
lokusebenzisa izindlela zokwenza ucwaningo lwendawo.
Spatial economy: To make a living, or to enlarge their existing material
wealth, people engage in gainful activities, but these activities take place over space.
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The people themselves might not necessarily travel long distances to do business,
but business transactions (economic activities) usually contain a spatial – or distance
– component and communication networks are intricately involved in these economic
activities. Since economic activities take place over space, they describe spatial
patterns (see “spatial distribution”, “spatial interaction” and “spacio-temporal [or
space-in-time] perspective”) and these are studied by economic geographers.
Economic activities in one specific area are, however, part of an economic network
that might involve a myriad of places on Earth. Especially in the current time, when
economic activities have become completely globalised and multi-national
corporations (MNCs) dominate all economic activity on Earth, spatiality is one of the
most important aspects of all economic activities. A simple example could perhaps
explain it better than a page of text. A farmer who plants cabbage in rural Limpopo
Province, needs a few plastic pipes to irrigate his cabbage plants. He uses his cell-
phone (designed in the USA, but made in Korea) and makes a call (via a cell-phone
service provider based in Johannesburg) to a local store in the nearest town and
orders the pipes he needs. The store owner uses his landline telephone and
contacts the international production company’s call centre and speaks to someone
in Australia to obtain information about the availability and delivery of the pipes,
although the pipes are actually manufactured in Benoni, South Africa. Alternatively,
the store owner might use e-mail to obtain the information. The farmer uses his
vehicle (made in Japan, but assembled in a plant in the Eastern Cape) to drive to
town to collect his pipes. When the cabbages need to be harvested, Zimbabweans
from a nearby refugee settlement walk to his land to cut the cabbages. A contractor
(using a large lorry made in India) transports the cabbages to the market in Pretoria
where retailers (see “retail facilities”) buy it and sell it to consumers in numerous
shops all over Pretoria. Can you imagine how intricate the map of the spatial
distribution and interaction of this relatively simple economic activity is? Although the
regional economy of Limpopo Province is an agricultural one, it is connected to an
increasingly complex network that spans the whole world.

Umnotho wendawo: Ngenhloso yokuziphilisa, noma ngenhloso

yokwandisa ingcebo abanayo njengamanje, abantu benza imisebenzi
ethile ebangenisela imali, futhi leyo misebenzi yenziwa endaweni ethile.
Abantu ngokwabo, kuyenzeka bangahambi amabanga amade
beyokwenza ibhizinisi, kodwa-ke imisebenzi yezebhizinisi (imisebenzi
yezomnotho) ivamise ukubandakanya indawo ethile okwenzelwa kuyona
leyo misebenzi – noma ibanga elithile – kanye namanethiwekhi
ezokuxhumana athile. Njengoba imisebenzi yezomnotho yenzeka
endaweni ethile, ichaza iphethini yendawo (bheka i-“spatial distribution”,
“spatial interaction” kanye ne-“spacio-temporal [noma space-in-time]
perspective”) futhi lokhu kuyinto ecwaningwa futhi ihlaziywe yizazi
zejografi yezomnotho. Kodwa-ke, imisebenzi yezomnotho eyenzeka
endaweni eyodwa ethile, iyingxenye yenethiwekhi yezomnotho
engabandakanya izindawo eziningi futhi ezihlukahlukene emhlabeni.
Ikakhulukazi esikhathini samanje, lapho imisebenzi yezomnotho
seyenzeka ngokuxhumana okukhulu emhlabeni wonke futhi
izikhondlakhondla zezinkampani ezinamagatsha emazweni amaningi
(MNCs) kuyizona eziqhoqhobele yonke imisebenzi yezomnotho
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emhlabeni, udaba lwendawo okwenzeka kuyona le misebenzi lungenye

yezinto ezisemqoka kakhulu kuyo yonke imisebenzi yezomnotho.
Ukunikeza isibonelo esilula mhlawumbe kungayichaza kangcono lento
esikhundleni sokubhala incazelo ende engagcwala ikhasi lonke. Umlimi
otshala amaklabishi esifundazweni saseLimpopo okuyisifundazwe
esisemaphandleni, udinga amaphayiphi epulastiki ambalwa ukuze
anisele amaklabishi akhe. Usebenzisa umakhalekhukhwini wakhe
(odizayinwe e-USA, kodwa owakhiwe kwelase-Korea) ukufona
(ngaphansi kwenethiwekhi kamakhelekhukhwini yenkampani ezinze
eGoli), efonela isitolo sendawo esisedolobheni eliseduze, uku-oda lawo
maphayiphi awadingayo. Umnikazi wesitolo usebenzisa uthelefoni
(landline) wakhe ukuxhumana nezikhungo esamukela izingcingo
senkampani yamazwe ngamazwe ehlinzeka ngemikhiqizo ethile futhi
lapho ukhuluma nomuntu othile ose-Australia ukuthola ulwazi mayelana
nokuthi inkampani inawo yini amaphayiphi futhi athole nemininingwane
ephathelene nokudilivwa kwamaphayiphi, nakuba empeleni
amaphayiphi akhiwa e-Benoni, eNingizimu Afrika. Noma-ke, uma
kungenjalo, umnikazi wesitolo usebenzisa i-imeyili ukuthola ulwazi
aludingayo. Umlimi usebenzisa imoto yakhe (eyakhiwe kwelase-Japan,
kodwa ehlanganiswe efemini yezimoto ezinze eMpumalanga Koloni)
ukuya edolobheni ayolanda amaphayiphi akhe. Uma sekufike isikhathi
sokuvunwa kwamaklabishi, epulazini lakhe kufika abantu abadabuka
kwelaseZimbabwe abahamba ngezinyawo besuka esikhungweni
sababaleki bakwamanye amazwe esiseduzane, abafika lapho benze
umsebenzi wokuvuna iklabishi. Usonkontileka (osebenzisa iloli elikhulu
elakhiwe kwelase-India) uthutha amaklabishi ewahambisa emakethe
ePitoli lapho belithenga khona abathengisi (bheka ama-“retail facilities”)
ukuze nabo balithengisele amakhasimende ezitolo eziningi futhi
ezihlukahlukene ezitholakala edolobheni lasePitoli lonkana. Ake ubheke
nje ngamehlo engqondo ukuthi lingaba yinkimbinkimbi (intricate)
kangakanani ibalazwe lokusabalala ngokwendawo kanye nokuxhumana
okudingekayo okuphathelene nalo msebenzi wezomnotho olula
kangaka? Nakuba umnotho wesifundazwe saseLimpopo ungumnotho
ogxile kakhulu kwezolimo, uxhumene nenethiwekhi ewundendende
(complex) ethubeleza emhlabeni wonke.
Spatial economic development: The growth and evolution of the economic
activities within an area or region and among areas and regions (see “spatial
economy”, “economical development” and “spatial economy”). As the world economy
is globalising, spatial interaction among economic entities is getting more intricate
and involved. Economic geographers study these spatial patterns (see “spatial
pattern”) to establish why certain areas and activities are growing while others are
shrinking. These patterns are, of course, not fixed and they change over time. The
spatial patterns disclose a lot of information about the cause and effects of the
developments. In certain areas or regions economic activity is blossoming, while it is
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shrinking is others. These are the things that economic geographers study. Often a
simple map of the spatial interactions between areas and some economical
information could explain the entire development or lack of it. Of course, other
variables such as political stability and international agreements play important roles
in the development of economic interaction, but there might be a far more involved
cause-effect (or cause-response) relationship, and this often has a political nature.
Political and economic geography cannot really be separated and have to be
considered as one complex phenomenon.

Intuthuko yomnotho wendawo: Ukukhula nokuthuthuka

kwemisebenzi yezomnotho ngaphakathi endaweni ethile noma isifunda,
noma phakathi kwezindawo nezifunda ezihlukahlukene (bheka i-“spatial
economy”, “economical development” kanye ne-“spatial economy”).
Njengoba umnotho womhlaba uthuthuka ngendlela exhumanisa
iminotho yamazwe ngamazwe, ukuxhumana kwezikhungo zomnotho
sekuyinto enkimbinkimbi (intricate) kakhulu futhi okungelula neze
ukuyiqonda. Izazi zejografi yezomnotho zicwaninga lawa maphethini
endawo (bheka i-“spatial pattern”) ngenhloso yokuthola ukuthi kungani
izindawo kanye nemisebenzi ethile kukhula, kepha ezinye izindawo
nemisebenzi kona kuncipha esikhundleni sokukhula. Kodwa-ke, lawa
maphetheni awamile ndawonye, isimo sawo siyaguquka ngokuhamba
kwesikhathi. Amaphethini endawo aveza ulwazi oluningi mayelana
nezimbangela nemithelela yemisebenzi yentuthuko kanye nemisebenzi
yokwakha eyenziwayo. Ezindaweni noma ezifundeni ezithile
iyadlondlobala imisebenzi yezomnotho, kodwa futhi iyancipha kwezinye
izindawo. Lokhu yikona impela-ke okucwaningwa yizazi zejografi
yezomnotho. Esikhathini esiningi, ibalazwe elilula nje elibonisa
ukuxhumana phakathi kwezindawo ezithile futhi elibonisa nolwazi
oluthile lwezomnotho, liyakwazi ukuchaza intuthuko ephelele eyenziwa
endaweni ethile noma-ke ukungabi khona kwentuthuko kuleyo ndawo.
Ngokuqinisekileyo, zikhona ezinye izimo ezinomthelela omkhulu impela
ekuthuthukisweni kokuxhumana ngokwendawo, okuyizimo
ezinjengezinxushunxushu zepolitiki kanye nezivumelwano zamazwe
ngamazwe, kodwa-ke kungenzeka kube nobudlelwano obujulile
bembangela nomphumela (noma imbangela nempendulo), futhi lokhu
kuvamise ukubonisa isimo sobunjalo sezepolitiki. Ijografi yezepolitiki
neyezomnotho akumele neze kuhlukaniswe futhi kumele
kucutshungulwe njengento eyodwa eyinkimbinkimbi (complex).
Spatial entity: A process, variable or phenomenon which occurs at a specific,
definable, describable place or point on the Earth’s surface. We can plot it on a map
to describe its place of occurrence (see “locality”). A spatial entity could be an object
occurring at a certain point, but also a phenomenon occurring within a specific area
or even in different areas. It might, however, also be a process or activity that occurs
in a certain definable area (see “location”) that can be demarcated and mapped (see
“demarcation”). For geographers, the important aspect is that the locality of the entity
could be mapped.
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Into yendawo: Inqubo, into noma isehlakalo esenzeka endaweni

noma ephoyintini elithile elisemhlabeni, elichazekayo futhi
elikhombekayo. Lento singayidweba ebalazweni ukuze sichaze noma
sibonise ukuthi itholakala kuphi nendawo kanye nesimo sayo (bheka i-
“locality”). Into yendawo ingaba yinto etholakala endaweni ethile, futhi
lokhu kungaba yisehlakalo esenzeka endaweni ethile noma ezindaweni
ezihlukahlukene. Lokhu kungaba futhi yinqubo noma umsebenzi
owenzeka endaweni ethile echazekayo (bheka i-“location”) engaklanywa
futhi iboniswe ebalazweni (bheka i-“demarcation”). Into esemqoka
okumele yaziwe yizazi zejografi wukuthi indawo okutholakala kuyona
into ethile ingadwetshwa, iboniswe ebalazweni.
Spatial interaction: The permanent or temporary movement of people and/or
goods and/or information from one place (point) on the Earth’s surface to another
point. Since the occurrence of people, conditions and phenomena vary over the
Earth’s surface (see “spatial distribution”, “spatial variation” and “spatial economy”),
people have always interacted with people that are separated from them by space.
The volume of interaction over space has increased as technology has developed. A
hundred years ago, if took weeks by sea to get from London to Cape Town, today it
requires a few hours by air. Together with people, objects also move around. Goods
are transfered all over by means of communication networks such as roads,
railways, shipping routes, courier services, the airways and so on. The development
of the internet immeasurably added to spatial interaction on Earth. Enormous
volumes of information are transferred over space by means of the Internet. Despite
modern technology spatial interaction is still restricted by distance, and the further
things are apart the less interaction takes place between them. This is called
distance decay. And the gravity model – based on Newtonian physics that a larger
body exerts a strong gravitational attraction on a smaller body – is still as much part
of geographic theory as it has always been.

Ukuxhumana ngokwendawo: Ukuhamba kwabantu

kanye/noma izimpahla kanye/noma ulwazi, unomphela noma
okwesikhashana, besuka endaweni (iphoyinti) ethile emhlabeni beya
kwenye. Njengoba ukutholakala kwabantu, izimo noma izehlakalo
kuhlukahlukile emhlabeni (bheka i-“spatial distribution”, “spatial variation”
kanye ne-“spatial economy”), abantu bebelokhu bexhumana njalo
nabanye abantu abangekho eduze kwabo, okusho ukuthi, abakwenye
indawo. Umthamo wokuxhumana kwabantu abangekho ndawonye
ukhulile impela njengoba ubuchwepheshe sebuthuthukile. Eminyakeni
eyikhulu edlule, uhambo lwasolwandle olusuka e-London luya eKapa
lwaluthatha amaviki amabili, kodwa namuhla seluthatha amahora
ambalwa nje uma umuntu ehamba ngendiza. Njengoba kwenzeka
nakubantu, izinto nazo ziyasuka endaweni ethile ziye kwenye. Izimpahla
zithunyelwa ezindaweni ezihlukahlukene emhlabeni wonke jikelele
ngamanethiwekhi ezokuxhumana, anjengomgwaqo, ujatshi wesitimela,
imizila yemikhumbi, ama-courier services, imizila yamabhanoyi, njalo
njalo. Ukuthuthukiswa kwe-inthanethi sekukukhuphule kakhulu impela
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ukuxhumana phakathi kwezindawo ezihlukahlukene emhlabeni.

Luyizindimbane ngezindimbane ulwazi oluthunyelwa phakathi
kwezindawo ezihlukahlukene ngokusebenzisa i-inthanethi. Nakuba
bukhona ubuchwepheshe besimanje manje, ukuxhumana ngokwendawo
kusenayo imikhawulo noma izithiyo ezibangelwa yibanga nokugqagqana
kwezindawo, futhi uma izinto zigqagqene kakhulu kuyancipha
ukuxhumana okwenzekayo phakathi kwazo. Lokhu kubizwa
ngokuncipha kwamathuba okuxhumana (distance decay). Futhi
nemodeli yamandla omhlaba adonsela phansi izinto (gravity model)
– esuselwa kwifiziksi ka-Newton, ethi into enkulu inamandla amakhulu
adonsela phansi kunento encane – namanje iseyingxenye yethiyori
yejografi njengoba bekulokhu kunjalo nasekuqaleni.
Spatial interpolation: The generalisation of data found at a few points (places)
within an area as if it applies to the entire area. In ordinary terms it means that we
assume that what was found at a few points within an area, would be found
anywhere in the entire area. Hence conditions found at a few sample points are
ascribed to an entire area. In geography spatial interpolation is often necessary,
but geographers know that the exact same conditions do not necessarily apply to
every point in the relevant area. Every single point could, of course, not be sampled
or investigated, so geographers apply the method with the acknowledgement that
generalisation is fraught with dangers. Other scientists who are not as spatially
oriented as geographers, use spatial generalisation without the least hesitation. As a
research technique generalisation cannot be condemned, but researchers should
realise that they are making assumptions. Geographers use spatial interpolation all
the time, but from their training they know the idiographic principle (see
“geodiversity”) and are aware of the implications of intra-area spatial variability,
while other scientist do not and are often not even aware of this.

I-spatial interpolation: Ukunikeza umbono wokucabangela noma

ukuqagela ngobuhlakani mayelana nedatha etholakale emaphoyintini
(izindawo) ambalwa angaphakathi endaweni ethile, ngokuthatha
ngokuthi idatha etholakale engxenyeni eyodwa yendawo ethile
iyasebenza nakuzo zonke ezinye izingxenye zaleyo ndawo.
Ngamagama ajwayelekile nje, lokhu kusho ukuthi sithatha ngokuthi
lokho okutholakale emaphoyintini ambalwa angaphakathi endaweni
ethile kuyatholakala nakwamanye amaphoyinti ayo yonke leyo ndawo.
Ngakho-ke izimo ezitholakale emaphoyintini ambalwa ahloliwe zithathwa
njengezimo ezitholakala kuyo yonke indawo. Kujografi idingeka njalo
i-spatial interpolation, kodwa izazi zejografi ziyazi ukuthi ukufana
kwezimo ncamashi akusho ukuthi lezo zimo zitholakala kuwo wonke
amaphoyinti aleyo ndawo okukhulunywa ngayo. Ngokuqinisekileyo,
njengoba kungelula ukucwaninga wonke amaphoyinti noma izingxenye
zendawo ethile, izazi zejografi zisebenzisa le ndlela yokucabangela
noma yokuqagela ngobuhlakani, kepha lokho zikwenza zibe zazi kahle
kamhlophe ukuthi lokhu kunobungozi obuningi impela. Abanye
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ososayensi abangenalo ulwazi olunzulu njengezazi zejografi,

bayisebenzisa ngaphandle kokungabaza le ndlela yokucabangela
mayelana nokutholakala kwedatha ezindaweni ezithile. Njengenqubo
yocwaningo, indlela yokuqagela ngobuhlakani ngeke igxekwe noma
ibukelwe phansi, kepha abacwaningi kumele bazi ukuthi lapha
bayacabangela. Izazi zejografi ziyisebenzisa ngaso sonke isikhathi i-
spatial interpolation, kodwa-ke njengabantu abaqeqeshiwe, bayawazi
umgomo wobunjalo obuhlukile bezinto ezihlukahlukene
(idiographic principle) (bheka i-“geodiversity”) futhi bayawazi
umthelela wokuhlukahluka kwezinto ezitholakala ngaphakathi endaweni
eyodwa, kanti abanye ososayensi bona abawazi lo mgomo, futhi
esikhathini esiningi basuke bengenalo ulwazi oluphelele mayelana
nalokhu.
Spatial pattern: The way objects or conditions or phenomena are distributed in
in a specific region or area on the Earth’s surface. When geographers have plotted
the areas or the points (places) of occurrence, a certain pattern is immediately
recognisable to the trained eye. A graphic representation of a spatial distribution
pattern reveals a multitude of information about the subject being investigated. The
occurrences might be clustered together in one part of the study area, they might be
concentrated in a few specific locations within the area or might be randomly
distributed all over the entire area, or be arranged along a discernible line such as a
river, road or railwayline, and so forth. The spatial arrangement of a phenomenon is
never a mere coincidence; there are reasons why they occur in such a specific
arrangement. By studying the spatial pattern of the occurrence of a phenomenon,
geographers can glean an amazing amount of information about the object under
investigation. To a geographer, one map might say much more about the
phenomenon than many pages of text. In order to discern spatial patterns, maps are
geographers’ most important tool. (See “spatial distribution”.)

Iphethini lendawo: Indlela yokusabalala kwezinto noma izimo noma

izehlakalo esifundeni esithile noma endaweni ethile emhlabeni. Uma
izazi zejografi sezizidwebile izindawo noma amaphoyinti okutholakala
kuwona izinto ezithile, umuntu onolwazi olufanelekile usheshe alibone
iphethini elithile elivelayo lapho. Umfanekiso wephethini lokusabalala
kwezinto ezithile ngokwendawo libonisa ulwazi oluningi impela
mayelana nento ecwaningwayo. Izinto eziningi kungenzeka ziqoqane
engxenyeni eyodwa yendawo ecwaningwayo, noma zigcwale kakhulu
ezingxenyeni ezithile zendawo ethile noma zisabalale endaweni
yonkana, noma zishaye ujenga noma zihleleke ngokulandelana
emgqeni othile ocacile, njengomfula, umgwaqo, ujantshi wesitimela,
njalo njalo. Ukuhleleka ngokwendawo kwesahlakalo esithile akuyona
neze into eyenzeka ngephutha noma ngokuziqondanela kwezinto nje;
kunezizathu zokuthi kungani lokho kuhleleke ngendlela ethile okuhleleke
ngayo. Ngokucwaninga iphethini lendawo okwenzeke kuyona isehlakalo,
izazi zejografi ziyakwazi ukuqoqa ulwazi oluningi ngendlela
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emangalisayo mayelana nento ecwaningwayo. Kumuntu oyisazi

sejografi, ibalazwe elilodwa nje vo lihlinzeka ngolwazi oluningi mayelana
nesehlakalo esithile, futhi olungaphezulu kakhulu kwamakhasi amaningi
ombhalo ochaza ngaleso sehlakalo. Ukuze izazi zejografi zikwazi
ukuhlukanisa phakathi kwamaphethini endawo, amabalazwe ayithuluzi
elisemqoka kakhulu angalisebenzisa. (Bheka i-“spatial distribution”.)
Spatial queries: Legitimate inquiries about the spatiality of a specific variable. In
a nutshell, it is the type of question that geographers try to find answers for. We need
spatial data (see “spatial data”) and do spatial analysis in order to answer the
questions, but often it is impossible to collect spatial data on that specific variable.
Then we must use the spatial data of other variables that are related – causally or
otherwise – to the variable in question. If I wanted to erect an ice-cream booth in the
Cradle of Humankind world heritage site, I would have to apply for permission to do
so. My application has to state the exact location where I want to erect my booth.
Which point on the site would I choose? Remember that the site covers a number of
square kilometres. Which variables would be most important for both my application
and my business to succeed? Firstly, there are areas within the site where actual
research is in progress and visitors are not allowed to those areas. A map depicting
these areas is obviously required. Secondly, there are wilderness areas where some
visitors wander through, but do not really linger and small children cannot walk that
far, so few children are likely to visit these areas. These areas can now be added to
the map depicting the active research areas. Thirdly, there are the different caves in
the site and not all of them are equally popular. Some of the caves are visited by an
average of five visitors per week, while others are visited by an average of 80 visitors
per day. Over weekends, people even have to queue and await their turn to enter, so
an ice-cream would probably be most enjoyable while they wait. A map depicting the
numbers of visitors in the different areas of the site could be drawn. And then there is
the museum which is visited by just about every visitor to the site and children enjoy
all the activities of the exhibition so much that they spend enough time there to be
rather hungry when they leave. However, around the museum there is a restriction
zone where food and beverages are forbidden and the same restriction applies at
some of the more popular caves. Another map is obviously needed. But neither the
elderly nor the very young visitors could walk very far to buy an ice-cream. So
another map can be added to the pile. Then all the spatial imperatives connected to
museums and world heritage site status will contribute to the growing pile of maps.
Lastly, we have to bear in mind that the entire site is riddled with dormant and active
sinkholes which have also been mapped. All of these masses of spatial data could
be fed into a modern-day GIS which would overlay all of these maps and provide me
with a map indicating the optimum position for my ice-cream booth. At long last I
have an answer to my spatial query (but I doubt that I have enough money left to
build it!).

Imibuzo ephathelene nendawo: Imibuzo efanelekile mayelana

nokutholakala kwento ethile endaweni ethile. Ngamafuphi nje, lolu
wuhlobo lwemibuzo okumele izazi zizame ukuyitholela izimpendulo.
Sidinga idatha yendawo (bheka i-“spatial data”) futhi senze nohlaziyo
lwendawo ukuze sikwazi ukuphendula imibuzo, kodwa esikhathini
esiningi kuyinto engenakwenzeka ukuqoqa idatha yendawo,
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ephathelene naleyonto etholakala kuleyo ndawo. Ngakho-ke kumele

sisebenzise idatha yendawo yezinye izinto ezihlobene naleyonto
ecwaningwayo – okungenzeka kube wubuhlobo obuzenzekelayo noma-
ke obunye nje. Uma ngifuna ukwakha isitodlwana sokuthengisa u-ice-
cream (ice-cream booth) e-Cradle of Humankind world heritage site,
kudingeka ukuba ngifake isicelo sokwakha leso sitodlwana. Isicelo sami
kumele sikubeke ngokucacile ukuthi ngifuna ukusakha kuphi nendawo
isitodlwana sami. Yiliphi iphoyinti engizoqoka ukwakha kulona kulesi
sizinda? Khumbula ukuthi lesi sizinda sinobude nobubanzi obungama-
square kilometres amaningi impela. Yiziphi izinto ezibaluleke kakhulu
ezingenza ukuthi kuphumelele kokubili, isicelo sami kanye nebhizinisi
lami? Okokuqala, kunezindawo ngaphakathi kulesi sizinda lapho
kuqhutshwa khona ucwaningo njengamanje futhi abavakashi
abavumelekile kulezo zindawo. Ngakho-ke kusobala ukuthi liyadingeka
ibalazwe elibonisa lezi zindawo. Okwesibili, kunezindawo eziyihlane
lapho abanye abavakashi bezulazula khona, kodwa-ke abahlali isikhathi
eside lapho futhi izingane ezincane azikwazi ukuhamba ibanga elide
lapho, okusho ukuthi zincane izingane okungenzeka zivakashele lezi
zindawo. Manje sezingafakwa-ke lezi zindawo ebalazweni elibonisa
izindawo okuqhutshwa kuzona ucwaningo. Okwesithathu, kunemigede
ehlukahlukene kulesi sizinda futhi imigede ayithandwa ngendlela
efanayo. Eminye imigede ivakashelwa ngabantu abalinganiselwa
kwabahlanu ngeviki, kanti eminye ivakashelwa ngabantu
abalinganiselwa kwabangama-80 ngosuku. Ngezimpelasonto,
kudingeka ngisho nokuthi abantu bame emgqeni balinde ithuba labo
lokungena emgedeni, ngakho-ke abantu bangakuthokozela impela
ukuzidlela u-ice cream ngenkathi belindile. Mhlawumbe kungakuhle
ukuthi kudwetshwe ibalazwe elibonisa amanani abavakashi ezindaweni
ezihlukahlukene zalesi zizinda. Futhi kusenjalo, kukhona
nesigcinamagugu esivakashelwa cishe yibona bonke abavakashi
abavakashela lesi sizinda futhi izingane ziyithokozela kakhulu imidlalo
yemibukiso otholakala lapho, kangangokuthi zichitha isikhathi eside
impela lapha futhi uma seziphuma zisuke sezilambile. Kepha-ke,
ngaphakathi kulesi sigcinamagugu kunezindawo lapho abavakashi
bengavumelekile ukungena nokudla noma iziphuzo, futhi ikhona
imithetho enjengalena nakweminye imigede ethandwa kakhulu
ngabavakashi. Kusobala-ke ukuthi kudingeka elinye ibalazwe. Kodwa
abantu asebekhulile ngokweminyaka kanye nabavakashi abasebancane
kakhulu ngeke bakwazi ukuhamba ibanga elide beyothenga u-ice
cream. Ngakho-ke kudingeka ukuthi kwengezwe elinye ibalazwe. Futhi-
ke izinto ezisemqoka eziphathelene nendawo ezixhumene
nezigcinamagugu kanye nesimo sesizinda esiyigugu lomhlaba
zizoholela ekutheni likhuphuke inani lamabalazwe adwetshwayo.
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Okokugcina, kumele sikhumbule ukuthi lesi sizinda sonkana sigcwele

amabhobe (sinkholes), futhi kukhona lawo ame ndawonye (dormant)
kanye nalawo anwebekayo noma akhulayo (active), futhi wonke
abonisiwe ebalazweni. Zonke lezi zinqwabanqwaba zedatha yendawo
zingafakwa kwi-GIS yesimanjemanje engaxhumanisa wonke lawa
mabalazwe bese ingihlinzeka ngebalazwe elibonisa indawo ekahle
kakhulu okumele ngakhe kuyona isitodlwana sami sokuthengisa u-ice
cream. Ekugcineni, sengiyitholile impendulo yombuzo wami mayelana
nendawo okumele ngakhe kuyona (kodwa-ke angazi ukuthi ngizoba
nayo yini imali yokwakha isitodlwana sami!).
Spatial referencing: The locational description of every point on Earth. There
is a number of systems of locational description, but normally we use the ones most
commonly used, namely absolute location or relative location (see “location”). With
all the newer satellite techniques, computerised mapping techniques and
sophisticated geographical positioning systems available to us, spatial referencing
has become a very exact science. It has also entered the public sector in the form of
global poisoning systems (GPSs) which are today found in just about every car on
the road. There is, however, one fixed system of reference, namely the grid of
latitude and longitude and that is still the accepted and most accurate way of
describing the position of any point or object or person on Earth. New technology
has simply given us new ways (like GPSs in cars) of using this system (see
“location”).

I-spatial referencing: Ukuchaza nokubonisa ukuthi indawo ethile

itholakala kuphi emhlabeni. Kunezinhlelo eziningana ezisetshenziselwa
ukuchaza nokubonisa indawo, kodwa ngokujwayelekile sisebenzisa lezo
zinhlelo okuyizona ezisetshenziswa kakhulu, okusho, uhlelo olubonisa
isimo soqobo sendawo noma indawobukhoma (absolute location) noma
uhlelo oluhlonza ukuthi ikuphi indawo ethile ngokuyiqhathanisa nenye
indawo edumile (relative location) (bheka i-“location”). Njengoba
sekukhona zonke lezi zinqubo zesathelayithi zesimanje manje, izinqubo
zokwenza amabalazwe ngekhompyutha kanye nezinhlelo zesimanje
manje zokubonisa isimo sendawo (geographical positioning systems), i-
spatial referencing seyibonisa ukuba yisayensi yoqobo futhi enembayo.
Futhi lokhu sekungenile impela nasemkhakheni womphakathi ngenxa
yokusetshenziswa kwama-global poisoning systems (GPSs),
okuyizinhlelo esezitholakala cishe kuzo zonke izimoto ezisemgwaqeni
kulezi zinsuku. Kodwa-ke, kunohlelo olulodwa nje lokubonisa indawo
olusalokhu luhamba phambili futhi olwamukelwa kakhulu njengendlela
enemba kakhulu yokuchaza nokubonisa isimo sanoma yiliphi iphoyinti
noma into, noma umuntu emhlabeni, okuwuhlelo lwe-grid of latitude and
longitude. Ubuchwepheshe obusha besimanje manje sebusinikeze
izindlela ezintsha (njengama-GPS ezimotweni) zokusebenzisa lolu hlelo
olushiwo ngenhla (bheka i-“location”).
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Spatial scales: The methods and degree to which an area is proportionally

“shrank” to a size that could be represented on a sheet of paper or a computer
screen with the least amount of distortion or loss of detail. We cannot make a map of
the Earth on a one-to-one (1:1) scale which would mean we need a sheet of paper
as large as the earth itself. So we had to device the technique of scaling so that a
short distance on our map represents a long distance on the Earth. On a small scale
map one centimetre might represent a thousand kilometres in reality (that is, on the
Earth’s surface). On a large scale map one centimetre might represent a short
distance like a kilometre. The scale is chosen according to the purposes of the map.
Engineers habitually use large-scale maps, but maps of the entire globe will always
have to use small scales. Very little detail can be, of course, be given on a small
scale map, but large scale maps can convey detailed spatial information.

Izilinganiso zobungako bendawo: Izindlela kanye nezinga

“lokuncishiswa” kobungako bendawo ukuze leyo ndawo ikwazi
ukuboniswa kwiheheba lephepha noma esikrinini sekhompyutha, futhi
lokhu kumele kwenzeke ngendlela engeke iholele ekulahlekeni
kwemininingwane yendawo eboniswayo ebalazweni noma kuholele
ekuhlinzekweni kwemininingwane ephaphalazayo. Ngeke neze sikwazi
ukwenza ibalazwe lomhlaba elibonisa umhlaba njengoba unjalo, okusho
ukuthi ngokwesilinganiso esingu one-to-one (1:1) ngoba phela lokhu
kusho ukuthi kumele sithole iphepha elilingana nomhlaba wonke.
Ngakho-ke kwadingeka ukuthi siqhamuke nendlela yokwenza
izilinganiso ukuze ibanga elifushane elisebalazweni lethu likwazi
ukubonisa ibanga elide lesimo soqobo somhlaba. Ebalazweni
elinesilinganiso esincane, isentimitha elilodwa lingalinganiswa
namakhilomitha ayinkulungwane esimo soqobo somhlaba (okusho, i-
Earth’s surface). Ebalazweni elinesilinganiso esikhulu, isentimitha
elilodwa lingabonisa ibanga elifushane, njengekhilomitha. Isilinganiso
siqokwa ngokubheka izinjongo zebalazwe. Onjiniyela banomkhuba
wokusebenzisa amabalazwe anezilinganiso ezinkulu, kodwa-ke
amabalazwe omhlaba wonke kufanele ngaso sonke isikhathi asebenzise
izilinganiso ezincane. Ngokuqinisekileyo, mincane kakhulu
imininingwane engahlinzekwa ebalazweni elinesilinganiso esincane,
futhi amabalazwe anezilinganiso ezinkulu ayakwazi ukubonisa ulwazi
oluningi mayelana nendawo ethile.
Spatial variation: The occurrence of phenomena differs from place to place on the
Earth’s surface, and places on Earth differ from one another. Simply put: different
things occur in different places, and certain things occur in some places, but not in
others. Geographers study the occurrence of phenomena to detect the patterns
according to which they occur. In order to detect the spatial variation patterns, maps
are drawn and the spatial locations of the phenomena being studied are indicated on
the maps. On these graphic representations, the spatial variation patterns are easily
identifiable. From such spatial variation patterns geographers can deduce a variety
of information, causal relationships might be detected and spatial interaction patterns
(see “spatial distribution” and “spatial interaction”) might be explained. (See
“geodiversity”, “space-in-time perspective”, “spatial data” and “spatial pattern”.)
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Ukuhlukahluka ngokwendawo: Ukutholakala kwezinto noma

izehlakalo kuyahluka ngokwendawo nendawo emhlabeni, futhi nazo
izindawo ngokwazo azifani. Uma sikubeka ngendlela elula nje: izinto
ezihlukahlukene zitholakala ezindaweni ezihlukahlukene, futhi izinto
ezithile ziyatholakala ezindaweni ezithile, kodwa futhi azitholakali
kwezinye. Izazi zejografi zicwaninga ukwenzeka kwezahlakalo ezithile
noma ukutholakala kwezinto ezithile ngenhloso yokubona nokuhlonza
iphethini lokwenzeka kwezehlakalo noma iphethini lokutholakala
kwezinto. Ukuze kutholakale noma kuhlonzwe amaphethini
okuhlukahluka kwezinto ngokwendawo, kudwetshwa amabalazwe bese
kulawo mabalazwe kuboniswa izindawo okwenzeke kuzona izehlakalo
ezithile ezicwaningwayo, noma izindawo okutholakala kuzona izinto
ezithile. Kule mifanekiso, ahlonzeka kalula amaphethini okuhlukahluka
kwezinto ngokwendawo. Kulawo maphethini okuhlukahluka kwezinto
ngokwendawo izazi zejografi ziyakwazi ukutomula ulwazi oluzokwenza
zikwazi ukubeka imibono ethile, futhi zichaze nobudlelwano
besikhashana phakathi kwezinto kanye namaphethini okuxhumana
kwezinto ngokwendawo (bheka i-“spatial distribution” kanye ne-“spatial
interaction”). (Bheka i-“geodiversity”, “space-in-time perspective”, “spatial
data” kanye ne-“spatial pattern”.)
Strategic environmental assessment (SEA): Concern for the environment
has become one of the prime drivers of decision-making at international, national
and local scale in our modern world (see “greening mainstream politics”). Therefore,
the environment has to be taken into consideration in all policies and large-scale
developments, plans and programmes (PPPs). (Note: Do not confuse the
abbreviation PPP used for policies, plans and programmes with PPP when it is used
for public-private partnerships. [See “public-private partnerships”.]) In fact, concern
for the environment should form the very basis of all PPPs. Just as economical and
socio-cultural considerations have to be taken into account in developmental policies
and programmes, the environment has to be considered. This is what is called “triple
bottomlining” and it means that a development policy should be economically,
socioculturally as well as environmentally sustainable, and it is today an unavoidable
imperative for all developmental planning and official permission to execute the
policies, plans and programmes. SEA is very wide in scope and it does not deal with
the finer details of any development project (such as the waste management in an
international heritage site), but it safe-guards the interests of the environment when
national economic strategies (such as the NEPAD strategy in South Africa) are
designed. SEA belongs to what is called “second generation” environmental
management and it has not yet attained universal usage even in the developed
countires, while it is hardly considered in the developing countries, including South
Africa. National and regional economic strategies and policies in South Africa should
provide for heritage sites, and such sites should be a basic component in all
development programmes. Planning for north-western Gauteng should be
constructed around the Cradle of Humankind world heritage site, and development
strategies and programmes in the northern part of Limpopo should be planned
around the Mapungubwe world heritage site. At the time of writing a large mining
project is threathening the very essence of the Mapungubwe site, and since South
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Africa still does not have a tradition of SEA, some of these mining activities have
been permitted under the NEMA legislation (see “environmental management”) and
environmentalist as well as NGOs are experiencing a tough battle on behalf of the
human and natural heritage conserved in the region. It is an ironic situation, because
South Africa was the very first country in the world to enshrine environmental
concerns in its Act of Constitution, no 108 0f 1996, which implies that SEA would
form the basis of economic development of every kind. Perhaps environmental
management has now finally matured to a stage where SEA might come to its right.
The controversial coal mining north of the Soutpansberg Mountain in the Limpopo
valley has now become a very serious threat to agriculture, the Vhembe biosphere,
certain traditional communities, a number of nature reserves and resorts, and the
water supplies in the region. A number of governmental departments, local
environmental conservation bodies, community-based organisations, stakeholder
groups, organised agriculture, traditional communities and one coal-mining company
are embroiled in an emotional dispute over mining rights and activities in the region.
It seems that only a comprehensive strategic environmental assessment would be
able to break to stalemate and a formal request for such an assessment for the
entire region has been submitted. This SEA would be the first for South Africa. It is
ironic that an SEA is being used to solve a thorny issue, instead of having been done
before the awarding of the mining rigths and thereby all the ensuing events could
have been prevented.

Ukuhlolwa kwemvelo ngobuqhinga (SEA): Ukukhathazeka

ngesimo semvelo sekungenye yezinto ezihamba phambili
ezigqugquzela ukuthathwa kwezinqumo ezingeni lamazwe ngamazwe,
kuzwelonke kanye nasendaweni, kulo mhlaba wesimanje manje esiphila
kuwona (bheka i-“greening mainstream politics”). Ngakho-ke, imvelo
kufanele ibekwe eqhulwini kuzo zonke izinqubomgomo, imisebenzi
yentuthuko emikhulu kanye nezinhlelo (PPPs) ezicutshungulwayo.
(Qaphela: Ungaphambanisi isifinyezo esithi PPP esisetshenziselwa
izinqubomgomo nezinhlelo, nesifinyezo esithi PPP esisetshenziselwa
ubambiswano phakathi komkhakha kahulumeni nomkhakha ozimele.
[Bheka ama-“public-private partnerships”.]) Empeleni, ukukhathazeka
ngemvelo kumele kube yisisekelo sawo wonke ama-PPPs. Kumele
ibhekelelwe futhi ibekwe eqhulwini imvelo, ngendlela efanayo
okuqhakambiswa ngayo ezomnotho kanye nenhlalomasiko. Lokhu
kubizwa nge-“triple bottomlining” futhi kuchaza ukuthi inqubomgomo
yentuthuko kumele isimame ngokwezemnotho, ngokwenhlalomasiko
nangokwemvelo, futhi namuhla kuyinto ephoqelekile futhi engeke neze
igwemeke ukuthi ukuhlelwa kwemisebenzi yethuthuko nokuhlinzekwa
kwezimvume kumele kuqalise ukusebenza kwezinqubomgomo kanye
nezinhlelo. I-SEA ibanzi kakhulu futhi ayibandakanyi imininingwane
ejulile yanoma yimuphi umklamo wentuthuko (njengokuphathwa
kwemfucuza endaweni eyisizinda samagugu omhlaba), kodwa
iyazivikela izidingo zokubhekelelwa kwemvelo ngenkathi kwenziwa
amasu kazwelonke ezomnotho (njengesu le-NEPAD eNingizimu Afrika).
I-SEA ingena ngaphansi kwalokho okubizwa “ngesizukulwane sesibili”
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(“second generation”) sokuphathwa kwemvelo, futhi akuwona wonke

amazwe omhlaba ayisebenzisayo, ngisho namazwe asethuthukile
imbala, futhi ayikho neze eqhulwini emazweni asathuthuka,
kubandakanya neNingizimu Afrika. Amasu nezinqubumgomo
zezomnotho zikazwelonke kanye nezezifunda eNingizimu Afrika kumele
kuhlinzekele noma kubhekelele izizinda zamagugu, futhi izizinda
ezinjengalezo kumele zibe yingxenye eyisisekelo sazo zonke izinhlelo
zentuthuko. Umsebenzi wokuhlela oqondene nengxenye esenyakatho-
ntshonalanga ye-Gauteng kumele wenziwe ngokubeka eqhulwini i-
Cradle of Humankind world heritage site, futhi amasu nezinhlelo
zentuthuko engxenyeni esenyakatho yesifundazwe sase-Limpopo
kumele kwenziwe ngokubeka eqhulwini i-Mapungubwe world heritage
site. Esikhathini sokuhlanganiswa kwalo mbhalo, bekunomklamo
omkhulukazi wokusungulwa kwemayini osubeke engcupheni i-
Mapungubwe site, futhi njengoba iNingizimu Afrika ingenalo isikompilo
lokuphoqelela i-SEA, eminye yemisebenzi yezimayini ihlinzekwe
ngemvume ngaphansi komthetho we-NEMA (bheka i-“environmental
management”) futhi izishoshovu ezingabavikeli bemvelo kanye nama-
NGO abhekene nempi enzima impela, ayiqhuba egameni lezinto
ezingamagugu ezakhiwe ngabantu noma ezitholakala ngokwemvelo
ezilondoloziwe kulesi sifunda. Into exakayo ngalokhu wukuthi iNingizimu
Afrika yilizwe lokuqala ngqa wemhlabeni jikelele ukufaka isidingo
sokubhekelelwa ngokuvikelwa kwemvelo kuMthethosisekelo walo,
uMthetho ongunombolo 108 we-1996, okuyinto echaza ukuthi kahle-
kahle i-SEA kumele ibe yisisekelo sanoma yiluphi uhlobo kwentuthuko
yezomnotho. Mhlawumbe njengamanje ezokuphathwa kwemvelo
sezifinyelele esigabeni sokuvuthwa ngokwanele lapho sizobona khona
ukusetshenziswa kwe-SEA ngendlela efanelekile. Umklamo osudale
impikiswano enkulu wokumbiwa kwamalahle enyakatho nentaba i-
Soutpansberg e-Limpopo usudale isimo esikubeka engcupheni enkulu
ezokulima, umkhathimpilo (biosphere) wase-Vhembe, imiphakathi
yomdabu ethile, iziqiwu nezikhungo zokuvakasha, kanye nokuphakelwa
kwamanzi kulesiya sifunda. Kunombango omkhulu oqhubekayo
njengamanje ophathelene namalungelo okumba amalahle kanye
nemisebenzi ehlobene nalokho kulesi sifunda, okuwumbango ophakathi
kwemayini yamalahle eyodwa kanye neminyango kahulumeni
ehlukahlukene, izinhlangano zokulondolozwa kwemvelo zasendaweni,
izinhlangano zomphakathi, amaqembu ababambiqhaza nabantu
abathintekayo, izinhlangano zabalimi abahlelekile kanye nemiphakathi
yomdabu. Kubonakala sengathi yinye kuphela into engaxazulula isimo
sikangqingetshe okubhekenwe naso kuleya ndawo, okuwukuhlolwa
kwemvelo ngokuphelele, futhi sesifakiwe isicelo esisemthethweni
sokuba sihlolwe ngokuphelele sonke lesiya sifunda. Le SEA kuzoba
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ngeyokuqala ngqa ukwenziwa eNingizimu Afrika. Kuyinto exakayo

impela ukuthi kusetshenziswa i-SEA ukuxazulula lolu daba olubucayi
kangaka, ngoba phela kufanele ngabe yenziwa ngaphambi kokukhishwa
kwamalungelo okumba amalahle, futhi ukuba kwenziwa lokho ngabe
sagwemeka lesi simo esiqhubekayo sokubhekana ngeziqu zamehlo.
Sustainability: The ability of a system to continue existing despite forces that
might extinguish it. In geography, environmental management and related sciences,
the term is mostly used in connection with the survival of ecosystems (see
“ecosystem”) threatened by natural or human-made (anthropogenic) changes. While
natural changes usually take place so slowly that the system might adapt to the new
circumstances, human activities take place too fast for the system to adapt and
consequently it collapses. In geography and environmental management, it is hardly
possible to separate the concept of sustainability and that of development.
Sustainable development is the ultimate aim of environmental management (see
“sustainable development”).

Ukusimama: Amandla okuqhubeka kohlelo isikhathi eside nakuba

kukhona izimo eziluphazamisayo futhi okungenzeka zilucekele phansi.
Kwezejografi, nakwezokuphathwa kwemvelo kanye nakumasayensi
ahlobene nalokhu, leli temu lisetshenziswa ikakhulukazi mayelana
nokusimama kwama-ekhosistimu kanye nokuba khona kwawo isikhathi
eside (bheka i-“ecosystem”), nakuba ebekwe engcupheni yizinguquko
ezibangelwa yimisebenzi yabantu noma ezizenzekela ngokwemvelo.
Izinguquko zemvelo zenzeka ngesivinini esincane kakhulu, futhi lokho
kunikeza izinto eziphila kwi-ekhosistimu ithuba lokuguqula isimo sazo
ukuze simelane nezinguquko zemvelo ezenzekile, kodwa ngalokunye
uhlangothi imisebenzi eyenziwa ngabantu yenzeka ngokushesha
okukhulu, okwenza i-ekhosistimu ingakwazi ukuguquka ngendlela
ezohambelana nalezo zinguquko ezisheshayo ezenzekile futhi
umphumela walokho-ke wukubhidlika kwe-ekhosistimu. Kwezejografi
kanye nakwezokuphathwa kwemvelo, kuyinto enzima kakhulu
ukuhlukanisa phakathi komqondo wokusimama kanye nomqondo
wentuthuko. Intuthuko esimeme iyona inhloso enkulu yezokuphathwa
kwemvelo (bheka i-“sustainable development”).
Sustainable development: Economic progress which meets the needs of the
present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their needs. This often used definition of sustainable development does not
recognise the fact that social, environmental and economic needs must be fully
integrated if sustainability is to be achieved. (See “development’, “economic
development”, “economic growth, “environmental management” and “resources”.)

Intuthuko esimeme: Inqubekelaphambili yezomnotho ekwaziyo

ukuhlangabezana nezidingo zesizukulwane esikhona njengamanje,
ngaphandle kokubeka engcupheni amandla ezizukulwane zangomuso
okuhlangabezana nezidingo zazo. Le ncazelo, evamise
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ukusetshenziswa kakhulu yentuthuko esimeme, ilishaya indiva iqiniso

elingephikiswe lokuthi izidingo zenhlalo yomphakathi, imvelo kanye
nezomnotho kumele kudidiyelwe ngokuphelele ukuze kufezekiswe
ngokuphelele ukusimama. (Bheka i-“development’, “economic
development”, “economic growth, “environmental management” kanye
nama-“resources”.)
Sustainable living: A way of living that meets the basic needs of the current
society in a just and equitable manner without compromising the ability of future
generations to do the same. The important thing is that needs, not greeds and
averice, are central to this way of life. Sustainable living requires an entire shift in
the current worldview of most societies on Earth. Some affluent societies will have to
adopt a lifestyle in which they enjoy life more by consuming less. A simpler life does
not necessarily mean a less satisfying one. Less affluent societies should be
assisted to enjoy a more satisfying and easier life, without causing environmental
degradation. People should not need to exploit and degrade the environment to eke
out a living. It is perhaps wise to remember Mahatma Mohandas Gandhi’s
principle of enoughness: “The Earth provides enough to satisfy every person’s
need, but not every person’s greed. When we take more than we need, we are
simply taking from each other, borrowing from the future, or destroying the
environment and other species”.

Ukuphila ngendlela esimeme: Indlela yokuphila ekwaziyo

ukwanelisa izidingo zabantu abakhona njengamanje emhlabeni,
ngendlela engachemile, enobulungiswa futhi elingene, ngaphandle
kokubeka engcupheni amandla ezizukulwane zangomuso okwenza into
efanayo. Into esemqoka lapha wukuthi izidingo zabantu yizona
eziseqhulwini, futhi eziwumgogodla walolu hlobo lwempilo, hhayi
ubugovu kanye nomgolo. Ukuphila ngendlela esimeme kudinga ukuthi
iguqulwe ngokuphelele le ndlela yokubuka izinto ekhona njengamanje
emiphakathini eminingi emhlabeni. Eminye imiphakathi ephila impilo
entofontofo futhi engomacaphuna kusale kuyodingeka ukuthi ishintshe le
mpilo eyiphilayo njengamanje, ngokuthi izame ukuthokozela impilo
kakhudlwana kepha inciphise ngasohlangothini lobukhazikhazi
obuwumgogodla wezimpilo zawo njengamanje. Ukuphila impilo elula
akusho ukuphila impilo engagculisi kahle. Imiphakathi ehlwempu kumele
ilekelelwe ukuze nayo ithokozele impilo egculisayo futhi elula kunaleyo
abayiphilayo njengamanje, kodwa-ke lokho kumele kwenzeke
ngaphandle kokucekelwa phansi kwemvelo. Asikho neze isidingo
sokuthi abantu baxhaphaze noma bacekele phansi imvelo ukuze
bakwazi ukuziphilisa. Mhlawumbe kungaba wubuhlakani ukukhumbula
umgomo wokwaneliseka ka-Mahatma Mohandas Gandhi (Mahatma
Mohandas Gandhi’s principle of enoughness) othi: “Umhlaba
uhlinzeka ngemithombo yempilo eyanele ezokwazi ukugculisa zonke
izidingo zomuntu, hhayi ukwanelisa bonke ubugovu bomuntu. Uma
sithatha okungaphezulu kwalokho esikudingayo, lokho kusho ukuthi
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sithatha nezinto eziqondene nabanye abantu, siboleka izinto zesikhathi

esizayo, futhi sicekela phansi imvelo kanye nezinye izinto eziphilayo”.
T
Temporal change: Variation over time. Geographers study the world from a
space-in-time or spacio-temporal perspective. (See “space-in-time perspective”.)

Ukushitsha kwesikhathi: Ukuguquguquka kwezinto

ngokuhamba kwesikhathi. Izazi zejografi zicwaninga umhlaba ngeso
lokubheka indawo nokuhamba kwesikhathi (space-in-time noma spacio-
temporal perspective). (Bheka i-“space-in-time perspective”.)
Tertiary economic activities: See “dual economy” and “countries in transition”.

Ama-tertiary economic activities: Bheka i-“dual economy” kanye

nama-“countries in transition”.
Theory: Albert Einstein said “theories are the free creations of the human
mind”. This quote does not really tell us what a theory is, and it might come as a
shock to realise that nobody can satisfactorily define “theory”. Yet the development
of theory is at the heart of all explanation, and no observation, explanation or
description is ever theory-free. A theory is actually a system of statements which
contribute to the understanding of certain empirical observations. At its simplest a
theory may be described as a “language” for discussing the facts that a theory is
intent on explaining. Well-known scientific theories are those of plate tectonics,
survival of the fittest (see “natural selection”), extinction of species, evolution (see
“evolution” and “natural selection”), urban development, economic development and
population transition (see “development”). Geographical models are all anchored in
theory. Some theories are hypothetically verifiable through observation and
experimentation, others are not and therefore they are not hypotheses, but
postulates which cannot be verified. However, geographical theories can usually be
verified by a lot of empirical knowledge and they form the paradigms (think-and-do
frameworks) for geographical knowledge.

Ithiyori: U-Albert Einstein wathi “amathiyori yizinto ezakhiwa

ngumqondo womuntu ngokukhululeka”. Lesi sicaphuno asisitsheli ukuthi
kahle-kahle yini ithiyori, futhi kungabamangalisa abantu abaningi
ukuzwa ukuthi akekho umuntu ongalichaza ngendlela egculisayo itemu
elithi “ithiyori”. Kepha-ke nakuba kunjalo, ukuthuthukiswa kwethiyori
kuwumongo wazo zonke izincazelo, futhi awukho umbono noma
incazelo engenayo ithiyori. Empeleni ithiyori wuhlelo lwezitatimende
ezilekelelayo ekutheni abantu baqonde imibono ethile esuselwa
ezintweni eziphathekayo. Indlela elula kakhulu yokuchaza ithiyori,
wukuchaza ithiyori “njengolimi” lokuxoxisana ngalawo maqiniso ehlose
ukuwachaza ithiyori. Amathiyori ezesayensi adumile yi-plate tectonics
(ithiyori yokwakheka komhlaba ngamakhekheba amapuleti
amakhulukazi), survival of the fittest (ukusinda noma ukuphumelela
kwezinto ezinamandla) (bheka i-“natural selection”), ukuphela
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nokushabalala kwezinto eziphilayo, uguqukosimo (evolution) (bheka i-

“evolution” kanye ne-“natural selection”), intuthuko yezindawo
ezisemadolobheni, intuthuko yezomnotho kanye noguquko lomphakathi
(bheka i-“development”). Wonke amamodeli ejografi asekelwe phezu
kwethiyori ethile. Amanye amathiyori ayafakazeleka ngokuqagela
ngobuhlakani emva kobukela izinto ezithile ezibonakala ngamehlo noma
emva kokwenza ama-eksperimenti, kepha futhi amanye awafakazeleki,
ngakho-ke wona awayona imibonosiqagelo eyenziwa ngobuhlakani
noma amahayiphothesisi, kodwa ayiziqagelo nje noma amaphostulethi
angenakuqinisekiswa ukuthi ayiqiniso noma cha. Kepha-ke, esikhathini
esiningi amathiyori ejografi ayaqinisekiseka ngokufakazi obuningi
obubambekayo obungama-paradigm (izinhlaka zemigomo
yokucabanga nokwenza) olwazi lwejografi.
Thematic mapping: A graphic representation that describes the spatial
distribution pattern (see “spatial distribution” and “spatial pattern”) of a specific
object, condition, phenomenon, problem or any other occurrence. The aim of a
thematic map is to describe the distribution of one specific variable; consequently,
it contains less information about unrelated variables. The nature of the variable
being mapped determines whether dots, lines or patches would be used. If the
theme being mapped is the global distribution of active volcanoes, dots would be
ideal. If the theme is rainfall distribution, isolines (specifically isohyets which are lines
that join points receiving the same amount of rain) would be used on the map.
Patches and lines would be used on a thematic map of the national parks and
conservation areas in South Africa, with the patches representing the national parks
(that is, the theme of the map) and the lines representing the roads leading to those
parks and areas (the “patches”).

I-thematic mapping: Umfanekiso ochaza ukusabalala ngokwendawo

(bheka i-“spatial distribution” kanye ne-“spatial pattern”) kwento ethile,
isimo, isehlakalo, inkinga kanye nanoma iyiphi into eyenzekayo
endaweni ethile. Inhloso ye-thematic map wukuchaza nokubonisa into
eyodwa ethile etholakala endaweni ethile; ngenxa yalokho-ke, iqukethe
ulwazi oluncane impela mayelana nezinye izinto ezingahlobene nento
ecwaningwayo. Ubunjalo besimo sento eboniswa ebalazweni yibona
obuzosho ukuthi kumele kusetsheziswe amachashazi, imigqa noma
amabala. Uma ingqikithi (theme) eboniswa ebalazweni kuwukusabalala
emhlabeni jikelele kwezintabamlilo ezivuthayo, kungaba kuhle ukuthi
kusetshenziswe amachashazi. Uma ingqikithi eboniswayo
kuwukusabalala kwemvula, ebalazweni kumele kusetshenziswe ama-
isolines (ikakhulukazi ama-isohyets, okuyimigqa ehlanganisa izindawo
ezithola umthamo wemvula ofanayo). Amabala kanye nemigqa kumele
kutshenziswe kwi-thematic map ebonisa iziqiwu zikazwelonke
nezindawo zokulondolozwa kwemvelo eNingizimu Afrika, futhi lapha
amabala abonisa iziqiwu zikazwelonke (okusho, ingqikithi yebalazwe)
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kanti imigqa yona ibonisa imigwaqo eya kulezo ziqiwu nezindawo

zokulondolozwa kwemvelo (“amabala”).
Topocadastral map: A map that contains all the general descriptive
information of a topographical map and the cadastral (or administrative)
information (such as farm, district, provincial and national boundaries) of a cadastral
map is a topocadastral map. This type of map is very commonly used by a wide
variety of scientists as well as the lay public. The famous 1:50 000 topocadastral
map series of South Africa is probably the most widely used official map series in the
country. These maps are extremely accurate, user-friendly, beautifully rendered and
worthy of praise. (See “topographic map” and “cadastral map”.)

I-topocadastral map: I-topocadastral map yibalazwe eliqukethe lonke

ulwazi olujwayelekile lwe-topographical map oluchaza into ethile
kanye nolwazi lwe-cadastral map olubonisa ubunikazi bomhlaba
(ulwazi oluphathelene nokuphatha nokulawula) (njengolwazi olubonisa
imingcele yamapulazi, izifunda, izifundazwe kanye namazwe). Lolu
hlobo lwebalazwe luvamise ukusetshenziswa kakhulu ngososayenzi
abahlukahlukene kanye namalungu omphakathi ajwayelekile nje.
Uchungechunge lwamabalazwe aseNingizimu Afrika odumo, okungama-
1:50 000 topocadastral map series, mhlawumbe yilona uchungechunge
lwamabalazwe asemthethweni olusetshenziswa kakhulu kuleli lizwe.
Lawa mabalazwe ahlinzeka ngolwazi olungembayo impela,
asebenziseka kalula, anemifanekiso emihle eboniswe kahle, futhi
kufanele impela anconywe futhi adunyiswe. (Bheka i-“topographic map”
kanye ne-“cadastral map”.)
Topographical map: A map that describes a certain portion of the Earth’s
surface very comprehensively and accurately. It could be called a general
descriptive map as it depicts the location of a wide variety of both natural and
human-made features. Topographic maps show mountains, coastlines, beaches,
rivers, sand dunes, vegetation, wetlands, rocky outcrops, hills, plains, river valleys,
roads, railways, aerodromes, landing strips, police stations, hotels, hospitals,
schools, sports fields, villages, cities, churches, footpaths, monuments, and any
other features that could be fitted on the map without limiting its usability by
cluttering. The fact that these maps show altitude by means of contourlines and spot
heights vastly increases their value. If we want to know what occurs in an area and
where these things are located, we need a good topographic map. Topographical
maps can be drawn to any scale, but the larger the scale, the more detail information
can be indicated on the map. Most countries in the world publish official
topographical map series on generally used scales such as 1: 50 000 and 1: 125 000
and all of these maps are very useful, although the topocadastral map series are
used even more often (see “topocadastral map”).

I-topographical map: Leli yibalazwe elibonisa futhi lichaze

ngokuphelele, futhi ngokunembayo, ingxenye ethile yomhlaba. Leli
balazwe libizwa ngebalazwe elijwayelekile elinikeza incazelo
njengoba libonisa indawo okutholakala kuyona kokubili, izinto
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ezizenzekele ngokwemvelo kanye nalezo ezakhiwe ngabantu

ezihlukahlukene. Ama-topographic maps abonisa izintaba, izindawo
ezigudle ulwandle, amabhishi, imifula, izindunduma zesihlabathi, izimila
zemvelo, amaxhaphozi, izixhobo zamatshe noma amadwala
asemanzini, amagquma, amathafa, izigodi zemifula, ojantshi bezitimela,
izikhumulo zezindiza, imizila okuhlala kuyona izindiza, iziteshi
zamaphoyisa, amahhotela, izibhedlela, izikole, izinkundla zemidlalo,
izindawo zokuhlalisa abantu ezisemakhaya, amadolobha, amasonto,
izinyathuko (izindlela zabantu abahamba ngezinyawo), izindawo
zesikhumbuzo (monuments), kanye nanoma yiziphi ezinye izinto
ezingafakwa ebalazweni ngaphandle kokuligcwalisa ngokweqile,
okungenza lingabe lisabonakala kahle futhi lingasebenziseki. Awusizo
olukhulu impela lawa mabalazwe ngoba abonisa ibangakuphakama
ngaphezu kolwandle (altitude) ngokusebenzisa ama-contourline (imigqa
ezungezayo ebonisa ukuphakama) kanye nama-spot height (izindawo
eziphakeme). Uma sifuna ukwazi ukuthi yini etholakala endaweni ethile
kanye nokuthi izinto zitholakala kuphi nendawo, kumele sithole i-
topographic map edwetshwe kahle futhi enemininingwane efanele. Ama-
topographical maps angadwetshwa ngokwanoma yisiphi isilinganiso
sobukhulu, kepha-ke uma sisikhulu isilinganiso lokho kusho ukuthi
kungaboniswa imininingwane eminingi ebalazweni. Amazwe amaningi
emhlabeni ashicilela uchungechunge lwama-topographical map
asemthethweni ngokweilinganiso esivamise ukusetshenziswa kakhulu
esinjengo 1: 50 000 no 1: 125 000 futhi wonke lawa mabalazwe awusizo
olukhulu, kodwa-ke uchungechunge lwama-topocadastral map yilona
oluvamise ukusetshenziswa kakhulu impela (bheka i-“topocadastral
map”).
Topology: Describing the location of a place or a phenomenon without
considering distance, orientation or straightness. It is a very old technique as people
have always drawn topological maps to describe where certain farms, buildings,
rivers, bridges or sacred sites are located or even where a great treasure is buried! A
general leading an army in a war, will often draw a sketch map with a stick in the
sand to explain the attack strategy to his men, and if you quickly drew a sketch map
to guide a friend to your house, the general and you have both drawn topological
maps. Topology was recognised as a formal scientific technique in the 1700s and
there are certain rules, basic ingredients, terms of transformation and even
mathematical relationships involved in the methodology of topology. A topological
map is not drawn to scale and neither the shapes nor directions nor the distances
are accurate, but one will be able to find the place you are looking for. Certain easily
seen or generally known landmarks feature prominently on a topological map,
although they might not even be indicated in their correct locations, and the
distances between them would not be indicated accurately. The military and the
tourism industry use topological maps all the time. From a tourist information booth
one can easily acquire a flyer or brochure about the Cradle of Humankind world
heritage site, and it will usually contain a topological map which would direct you to
the site and to the different places of interest within the site.
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Ithopholoji: Incazelo yokuthi indawo ethile itholakala kuphi noma

isehlakalo esithile esenzekile, ngaphandle kokubheka ibanga, noma
ukuma kwayo noma ukuqonda kwayo. Lena yinqubo endala kakhulu
ngoba phela kusukela kudala abantu babelokhu bewadweba ama-
topological maps ngenhloso yokubonisa nokuchaza ukuthi atholakala
kuphi amapulazi athile, izakhiwo, imifula, amabhuloho noma izizinda
eziyingcwele, ngisho nezindawo okugqitshwe kuzona umcebo omkhulu
imbala! Ujenene ohola amasosha empini uvamise ukudweba ibalazwe
ngenduku esihlabathini ngenhloso yokuchazela amasosha akhe ngesu
lempi abalizolisebenzisa, futhi uma ungadweba ngokushesha ibalazwe
elibonisa umngani wakho ukuthi kumele ahambe kanjani futhi ngayiphi
indlela uma eza ekhaya lakho, wena nojenene nidwebe ama-
topological maps. Ithopoloji yamukelwa njengenqubo yezesayensi
esemthethweni ngeminyaka yowe-1700s futhi kunezinto eziyingxenye
yenqubo yethopholoji, njengemithetho ethile, izakhi eziyisisekelo,
imigomo yoguquko kanye nobudlelwano bezemethamathiki imbala. I-
topological map ayidwetshwa ngokwesilinganiso sobukhulu esithile futhi
izimo (shapes) noma ama-direction noma amabanga, akuqukethe
imininingwane enembayo, kepha noma kunjalo umuntu uyakwazi
ukuthola indawo ayifunayo. Izindawo ezithile ezibonakala kalula noma
ezidumile ziyingxenye esemqoka kakhulu futhi ehamba phambili kuma-
topological map, nakuba kungenzeka ukuthi indawo eboniswe kuyona
ayinembi ngokuphelele, futhi kungenzeka ukuthi nebanga phakathi
kwalezi zindawo ezidumile lingaboniswa ngendlela enembayo. Imboni
yezempi kanye neyezokuvakasha zisebenzisa ama-topological maps
ngaso sonke isikhathi. Kwigunjana lokuhlinzeka abavakashi ngolwazi
umuntu angazitholela kalula ipheshana eliqukethe ulwazi oluphathelene
ne-Cradle of Humankind world heritage site, futhi lelo pheshana livamise
ukuba ne-topological map ezokubonisa ukuthi zikuphi izindawo
ezihlukahlukene ezingaphakathi kulesi sizinda.
Tourism resources: Natural and human-made sites, places, sights, facilities,
services, spectacles, events or any other entity that would attract visitors. It might
vary from nature reserves such as the Kruger National Park, to fantasy sites such as
Disneyland, to events like pop concerts such as Oppikoppi and festivals such as
Woodstock, to cultural heritage sites such as the Cradle of Humankind world
heritage site. All of the mentioned entities are tourist destinations (see “destination”),
but the visitors require services, such as accommodation, food, transport,
information, guidance, and hospitality which provide opportunities for other people to
make money from the tourists that are visiting the destinations. The people who
provide in the needs of the visitors are also tourism resources, albeit resources of a
human kind. Since many foreign visitors are fascinated by the South African
townships like Soweto and Gugulethu, these townships have become tourist
destinations, and the individuals or companies that provide tours to the townships as
well as the individuals who have established restaurants and bed-and-breakfast
accommodation in the townships as well as the facilities and services they provide,
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are also tourism resources. The tourists themselves could be regarded as a

resource. (See “destination”, “carrying capacity”, “sustainability”, “sustainable
development”, “eco-lodges” and “environmental business”.)

Imithombo yezokuvakasha: Izizinda zemvelo kanye nalezo

ezakhiwe ngabantu, izindawo, izimangaliso ezikhangayo emehlweni,
izikhungo, izinsizakalo, imibukiso, imicimbi noma okunye okuheha
abavakashi. Lokhu kungaba yimothombo ehlukahlukene kusukela
eziqiwini ezinjenge-Kruger National Park, kuya kwizizinda zemibukiso
emangalisayo ezinjenge-Disneyland, amakhonsathi omculo we-pop
anjenge-Oppikoppi, amadili omculo anjenge-Woodstock kanye nezizinda
zamagugu ezinjenge-Cradle of Humankind world heritage site. Zonke
lezi zinto ezishiwo lapha ziyizindawo eziheha abavakashi (bheka i-
“destination”), kodwa-ke abavakashi bayazidinga nezinsizakalo
ezinjengendawo yokulala, ukudla, izinto zokuthutha, ulwazi,
ukuphelezelwa ziboniswe izindawo, kanye nezindawo ezamukela
abavakashi, zibahlinzeke ngezidingo zabo, futhi konke lokhu kuhlinzeka
nabanye abantu ngamathuba okuzenzela imali kubavakashi
abavakashela lezi zindawo ezibalwe ngenhla. Abantu abahlinzeka
izidingo zabavakashi nabo bangumthombo wezokuvakasha, nakuba-ke
bona beyimithombo engabantu. Njengoba abavakashi abavela
emazweni angaphandle bekhangwa kakhulu ngamalokhishi
aseNingizimu Afrika anjenge-Soweto kanye ne-Gugulethu futhi
bekuthokozela impela ukuwavakashela, lawa malokishi asephenduke
izizinda eziheha abavakashi, kanti nabantu abasebenza ngabodwana
kanye nezinkampani ezihlinzeka ngezinkambo zokuvakashela
emalokishini, nalabo abanezindawo ezithengisa ukudla kanye
nezindawo zokulala ezingama-bed-and-breakfast ezisemalokishini
nezinsizakalo abazihlinzekayo, konke lokhu nakho kuyimithombo
yezokuvakasha. Abavakashi ngokwabo nabo bangathathwa
njengemithombo yezokuvakasha. (Bheka i-“destination”, “carrying
capacity”, “sustainability”, “sustainable development”, “eco-lodges”
kanye ne-“environmental business”.)
Transport problems: Difficulties of people and goods to move or be moved
from point A to point B. Natural features such as long distances, mountain ranges
and water bodies cause transport problems which can largely be overcome with
modern-day technology. But a volcanic eruption could release volcanic dust that
remains in the atmosphere for days or weeks and jet-engined (turbo-prop) planes
cannot fly in such circumstances. A volcanic eruption in Iceland in 2012 caused the
grounding of all flights in Europe for days and caused an enormous amount of
international transport problems. A derailed train may affect regional transport for
weeks. Every day millions of people all over the world are faced with local transport
problems in the form of urban traffic jams. In South Africa, trains, busses and
minibus taxis form the backbone of local commuter transport in every city. Union
actions, strikes and price increases often cause transport problems that affect the
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entire economy and commuting workers might lose days of work and pay. When
truck-drivers strike, many economies come to a halt.

Izinkinga zokuthutha: Ubunzima obubhekene nabantu kanye

nezimpahla mayelana nokuhamba noma ukuthuthwa besuka endaweni
ethile beya kwenye (besuka kuphoyinti A beya kuphoyinti B). Izinto
zemvelo ezinjengamabanga amade, izintaba, imifula namachibi konke
kungadala izinkinga kwezokuthutha, kodwa lezi zinkinga zingaxalululwa
ikakhulukazi ngobuchwepheshe besimanje manje. Kodwa-ke ukuqubuka
kwentabamlilo kungakhafula uthuli lwentabamlilo oluhlala izinsuku
ngezinsuku noma amaviki amaningi emkhathini, futhi amabhanoyi
anezinjini zohlobo lwe-jet (turbo-prop) awakwazi ukundiza ngaphansi
kwezimo ezinjalo. Ukuqubuka kwentabamlilo okwenzeka kwelase-
Iceland ngowezi-2012 kwabangela ukuthi kumiswe zonke izinkambo
zezindiza e-Europe, futhi lokhu kwaqhubeka izinsuku eziningana impela,
okuyinto eyadala izinkinga zokuthutha ezinkulu emazweni ngamazwe.
Isitimela esiphaphalaze emzileni waso, singaphazamisa ezokuthutha
esifundeni kuze kuphele amaviki ngamaviki. Nsuku zonke, abantu
emhlabeni wonke jikelele bavamise ukuhlangabezana nezinkinga
zokuthutha endaweni abahlala kuyona noma abasebenza kuyona
ngenxa yesiminyaminya sezimoto emgwaqeni yasemadolobheni.
ENingizimu Afrika, izitimela, amabhasi kanye namakhumbi
kuwumgogodla wezokuthuthwa kwabagibeli kuwo wonke amadolobha
akuleli. Iziteleka zezinyunyana, imibhikisho kanye nokukhuphuka
kwemali yokugibela kuvamise ukudala izinkinga zokuthutha
ezinomthelela omubi emnothweni wonkana futhi abasebenzi
abasebenzisa izinto zokuthutha kuyenzeka bahluleke ukuya
emsebenzini kuze kuphele izinsuku eziningi impela, ngalokho-ke
balahlekelwe ngumholo wezinsuku abafikanga ngazo emsebenzini. Uma
betelekile abashayeli bamaloli, iminotho eminingi iyama nse.
Turbidity Reduced transparency of either the atmosphere or the water in a water
body, caused by absorption and scattering of light by suspended solid or liquid
particles. Turbidity is one of the standards routinely tested for by water utility
companies, and high turbidity can easily and cheaply be treated by the addition of
certain harmless chemicals. High atmospheric turbidity cannot be treated and in
certain circumstances might cause delays in air traffic.

Ukudungeka Ukungcola komkhathi noma ukudungeka kwamanzi

emithonjeni, okubangelwa wukumunceka nokugqagqana kwemisebe
yokukhanya ngenxa yezibhidi nezinhlayiya eziqinile noma eziwuketshezi
ezintantayo. Ukudungeka kwamanzi ngelinye lamazinga avamise
ukuhlolwa yizinkampani eziphakela amanzi, futhi amanzi adungekile
ahlanzeka kalula nje ngokuthi kufakwe kuwona amakhemikhali athile
angenabo ubungozi. Ukungcola komkhathi kakhulu kuyinto
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engalungiseki futhi kwezinye izikhathi kungabambezela ukuhamba

kwamabhanoyi.
U
Urban ecology: The interrelationships among the organic (living) and inorganic
(non-living) components within the confines of a city scape (see “ecology”). Since
there are so many things and living beings in a city, the interaction network is
extremely complex. It is difficult to imagine that there could be an interaction
between two buildings (call them A and B), but there is. One of them might interfere
with the access to the other; one might be the workplace of so many workers that
infrastructure cannot cope with the demand, hence employees working in building A
often arrive late because the public transport systems could not cope with the
number of employees that works in building B. In much the same way all the human-
made features in any city interact. In addition to that, the live beings in a city
(including humans as well as domestic and wild animals) also interact with one
another, and also with the physical features in the city. Ecology is a relational term
and a city is nothing other than an ecosystem (see “ecosystem”). The sustainability
of any ecosystem depends on feedback loops (see “feedback loop”). There are
numerous feedback loops in urban systems. Just as in natural ecosystems these
feedback loops are crucially important. Should they break down the entire urban
complex (or environment) will fall into disarray and chaos where only vice, crime and
corruption will thrive. (See “gentrification”.)

I-ekholoji yezindawo ezisemadolobheni: Inhlaliswanobudlelwano

(interrelationships) phakathi kwezinto eziphilayo kanye nezinto
ezingaphiliyo, ezitholakala ezindaweni ezisemadolobheni (bheka i-
“ecology”). Njengoba kunezinto eziningi kangaka eziphilayo
nezingaphiliyo ezitholakala edolobheni, inethiwekhi yokuxhumana
phakathi kwalezi zinto iyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu (extremely complex).
Kunzima ukucabanga ukuthi kungaba khona ukuxhumana phakathi
kwezakhiwo ezimbili (esingazibiza ngesakhiwo A kanye no-B), kodwa-ke
kukhona ngempela ukuxhumana okwenzekayo. Isakhiwo esisodwa
kulezi ezimbili singaphazamisa umsebenzi wesinye; isibonelo, esisodwa
kungenzeka sibe yindawo yokusebenzela enabasebenzi abaningi
kangangokuthi ingqalasizinda iyahluleka ukwanelisa izidingo
zabasebenzi ngendlela efanele, ngakho-ke abasebenzi abasebenza
esakhiweni A bavamise ukufika emva kwesikhathi emsebenzini ngenxa
yokuthi uhlelo lezithuthi zomphakathi luyahluleka ukuthutha ngendlela
efanele abasebenzi abaningi abasebenza kwisakhiwo B. Futhi-ke zonke
izinto ezakhiwe ngabantu kunoma yiliphi idolobha zixhumana ngendlela
efana nalena echazwe ngenhla, yokuxhumana phakathi kwezakhiwo
ezimbili. Ngaphezu kwalokho, izinto eziphilayo ezitholakala edolobheni
(kubandakanya abantu, izilwane ezifuywe ekhaya kanye nezasendle)
nazo ziyaxhumana futhi zinobudlelwano obuthile phakathi kwazo, futhi
ziyaxhumana nezinto ezingaphiliyo ezitholakala kulelo dolobha. I-
ekholoji yitemu elinomqondo oncike ezimweni ezithile futhi empeleni
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idolobha ngokwalo liyi-ekhosistimu (bheka i-“ecosystem”). Ukusimama

kwe-ekhosistimu kuncike kwimijikelezo yebuyisambiko (bheka i-
“feedback loop”). Kunemijikelezo yebuyisambiko eminingi futhi
ehlukahlukene ezinhlelweni zezindawo ezisemadolobheni. Ngokufanayo
nama-ekhosistimu emvelo, le mijikelezo yebuyisambiko isemqoka
kakhulu. Uma kwenzeka iwohloka, isimo semvelo sedolobha lonke
singaphazamiseka kakhulu futhi kugcine sekunesiphithiphithi
nezinxakanxaka lapho kudlange khona izenzo ezingekho emthethweni,
ubugebengu kanye nenkohlakalo. Bheka i-“gentrification”.)
Urbanisation: The process by which an increasing proportion of the total
population of a country lives in cities and large towns. Although people have always
under certain circumstances moved to live near neighbours and family, only 3% of
the world population lived in urban areas in 1800. In 2000, nearly 50% of the people
in the world were urbanised, and this percentage is predicted to rise to 60% by 2025.
In the developed countries (see “developed countries”) roughly 50% of the
population have been urbanised since about 1950, but since then the percentage
has rapidly increased and even in the developing countries (see “developing
countries”) about half of the population are now urbanised. A thousand years ago,
security was perhaps the most important reason for moving to one of the cities which
were walled and provided safety against enemy raids and bands of marauders.
Since then economic reasons have become the most important reason for
urbanisation. Mining, industrial development and manufacturing created employment
and people leave the land to work in the cities where gainful employment could be
found. Simultaneous with urbanisation has been the growth of large cities. While
growth causes service provision, transport, accommodation, crime and all sorts of
other problems in the cities, the rural areas experience problems because of
shrinking population. Since the rural population is so small, service provision
becomes uneconomical and people have to commute to the cities to find medical,
educational, professional, commercial and other services. Too few people to work
the land results in decreasing food production in the developing countries. In the
industrialised developed countries, agricultural production does not decrease
because mechanical implements replace the farm labourers. Urbanisation causes
diverse problems for both the urban and the rural areas, but those are the problems
the world now has to face because large cities and depopulated rural areas have
come to stay.

Ukufudukela emadolobheni: Inqubo yokukhula kwesibalo sabantu

bezwe elithile abahlala amadolobheni namadolobhakazi. Ngonyaka we-
1800, bangama-3% kuphela abantu emhlabeni ababehlala
emadolobheni, nakuba abantu bevamisile njalo, ngaphansi kwezimo
ezithile, ukuthutha bayohlala eduze komakhelwane babo noma eduze
komndeni. Ngowezi-2000, babelinganiselwa kuma-50% abantu abahlala
emadolobheni emhlabeni, futhi kubukeka sengathi lesi sibalo
sizokhuphuka sifinyelele kuma-60% ngaphambi kowezi-2025. Emazweni
asethuthukile (bheka ama-“developed countries”) babalelwa kuma-50%
abantu abase behlala emadolobheni kusukela ngowe-1950, kodwa-ke
lesi sibalo sesikhuphikile futhi lokho kuyinto eyenzeka ngesivinini
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esikhulu, kanti emazweni asathuthuka (bheka ama-“developing

countries”) cishe isigamu sabantu bakulawo mazwe sebehlala
emadolobheni. Eminyakeni eyinkulungwane eyadlula, ukuvikeleka
yikona okwakwenza abantu baqoke ukuthutha bayohlala kwelinye
lamadolobha ayebiyelwe ngezindonga ezinde futhi ayehlinzeka
ngokuphepha nokuvikeleka ekuhlaselweni yizitha noma ngamaqembu
ezigelekeqe. Kusukela lapho, izizathu zomnotho yizona
eseziyimbangela enkulu yokufudukela kwabantu emadolobheni.
Izimayini, ukuthuthukiswa kwezimboni kanye nezokukhiqizwa
kwempahla sekuvule amathuba omsebenzi futhi ngenxa yalokho-ke
abantu bashiya umhlaba wabo ezindaweni zasemakhaya bayosebenza
emadolobheni lapho kutholakala khona imisebenzi namatoho angenisa
imali. Ukufudukela kwabantu emadolobheni kwenzeke ngesikhathi
esifanayo nokukhula kwamadolobha amakhulu. Ngenkathi ukukhula
kwamadolobha kulekelela ekuhlinzekweni kwezinsizakalo, ezokuthutha,
nendawo yokufihla ikhanda, kusenjalo futhi kudala nobugebengu kanye
nazo zonke ezinye izinkinga ezenzeka emadolobheni kanti izindawo
zasemakhaya zona zibhekene nenkinga ebangelwa wukuncipha
kwabantu. Njengoba abantu abahlala ezindaweni zasemakhaya
beyingcosana kangaka, sekumba eqolo ukubahlinzeka ngezinsizakalo
futhi lezo ezikhona ziyingcosana kakhulu, okuphoqelela abantu ukuthi
bavakashele emadolobheni uma bedinga izinsizakalo ezinjengosizo
lokwelashwa, imfundo, usizo longoti emikhakheni ehlukahlukene, usizo
oluphathelene nezimali nokuhwebelana, kanye nezinye izinsizakalo.
Ukuncipha kakhulu kwesibalo sabantu abalimayo sekuholele
ekuncipheni kokudla okukhiqizwayo emazweni asathuthuka. Emazweni
asethuthukile, umkhiqizo wezolimo akawinciphi ngoba phela imishini
yokulima seyithathe indawo yabasebenzi basemapulazini. Ukufudukela
kwabantu emadolobheni kudala izinkinga ezihlukahlukene, kukho
kokumbili, izindawo ezisemadolobheni kanjalo nezindawo
ezisemakhaya, kodwa-ke lezo yizinkinga okumele umhlaba uzame
ukuzitholela ikhambi ngoba kuyacaca ukuthi ayohlala ekhona
amadolobha amakhulu futhi kusazoqhubeka nokuncipha kwabantu
ezindaweni zasemakhaya.
Utilities: Anything useful or serviceable. In geography the term “utility” is mostly
used as a synonym for “service”. It is something that satisfies a human need, and
could be anything from a bus, to a school, to clean water or safe shelter, or the
availability of a midwife. (See “services”.)

Izinsiza (utilities): Lokhu kusho noma iyiphi into ewusizo noma

esebenzisekayo. Kujografi, itemu elithi “utility” lisetshenziswa
ikakhulukazi njengetemu elinomqondo ofanayo netemu elithi “isevisi”
(“insizakalo”). Lokhu yinto eyenelisa isidingo somuntu futhi kungaba
yizinto ezihlukahlukene, njengebhasi, isikole, amanzi ahlanzekile,
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indawo yokufihla ikhanda ephephile, noma ukutholakala kombelethisi.

(Bheka ama-“services”.)
V
Vulnerability: Something tangible or intangible that is fragile and could easily
be damaged. In geography the term is used in many different contexts. A political
grouping or an agreement could be vulnerable (eg Palestine and the EU); the supply
line of emergency food might be vulnerable (eg Southern Sudan and Somalia); a
starving population might be vulnerable (eg Darfur and Somalia); the stalactites in
any limestone cave are extremely vulnerable because of tourists exhaling CO 2 and
radiating heat; an entire ecosystem might be vulnerable (eg the entire Niger Delta
which is threatened by oil exploration); a city or country located in the floodplain of a
large river might be vulnerable (eg New Orleans and just about the entire
Bangladesh); an entire city built across a faultline is vulnerable (eg San Francisco
and Los Angeles); and every metre of land on the African continent is vulnerable to
erosion and irreversible degradation. In fact, the entire Earth and everything on it are
vulnerable. We tend to regard the natural as well as human-made environments as
strong and resilient, but when we realise how vulnerable they actually are, we might
view and treat them with more respect and care.
Isimo sokuba sengcupheni (vulnerability): Into ephathekayo noma
engaphatheki enobuntekenteke obuthile, futhi elimala kalula. Kujografi,
leli temu lisetshenziswa ngaphansi kwezimo eziningi futhi
ezihlukahlukene. Iqembu labantu eliphathelene nezepolitiki noma
isivumelwano kungaba sengcupheni (isib. i-Palestine kanye ne-EU;
ukuthunyelwa nokuhlinzekwa kokudla okuqondene nesimo
esiphuthumayo kungaba sengcupheni (isib. e-Southern Sudan kanye
nase-Somalia); umphakathi wabantu ababhuqwa yindlala ungaba
sengcupheni (isib. e-Darfur kanye nase-Somalia); imicu ecijile elenga
phezulu, ngaphakathi emgedeni we-limestone, ebizwa ngama-stalactites
isengcipheni enkulu ngenxa yabavakashi abakhiqiza isikhutha i-CO2
futhi abadala ukushisa ngaphakathi emgedeni; i-ekhosistimu yonke
ingaba sengcupheni (isib. isifunda sonke sase-Niger Delta ngenxa
yokumbiwa kukawoyela); idolobha noma izwe elisendaweni eyithafa
eduze komfula omkhulu kungaba sengcupheni ngenxa yezikhukhula
(isib. i-New Orleans kanye nezwe lase-Bangladesh lonkana); lingaba
sengcupheni futhi nedolobha lonke elakhiwe phezu komfantu womhlaba
(faultline) (isib. i-San Francisco kanye ne-Los Angeles); futhi nemitha
ngalinye lomhlaba wezwekazi lase-Afrika lisengcupheni ngenxa
yokuguguleka komhlaba kanye nokucekeleka phansi kwemvelo
okungeke kusalungiseka neze. Empeleni, umhlaba wonkana
usengcupheni kanye nazo ezikhona ngaphakathi kuwona. Sivamise
ukucabanga ukuthi izinto ezakheke ngokwemvelo kanye nezinto
ezakhiwe ngabantu kuqinile futhi kungamelana nanoma yisiphi isimo,
kodwa uma singabona nje ukuthi eqinisweni lokhu kusengcupheni
engakanani, singakuphatha ngenhlonipho nangokucophelela.
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Valuation: See “economic valuation”.

Ukuhlonzwa kwesilinganisonani (valuation): Bheka i-

“economic valuation”.
W
Waste management: The environmentally responsible discarding of any
substance that humankind has no use for anymore. Waste may be solid, liquid or
gaseous. It might be bulky, but harmless or small and highly toxic. It might require
treatment like incineration (see “incineration”). Years before environmental
management became a recognised field of study and integrated environmental
management systems were developed, various waste management systems were
already used in different parts of the world and humankind had attempted to manage
waste disposal. Now it is a specialised branch of environmental management. (See
“environmental management” and “hazardous waste”). Always remember the most
important environmental rule is: “there is no away”.

Ukuphathwa kwemfucuza: Ukulahlwa ngendlela evikela imvelo

kwanoma iyiphi into angasayidingi umuntu. Imfucuza ingaba yinto eqinile
(solid), ewuketshezi noma ewumoya. Kungaba yinto eningi futhi
eyinqwaba, kepha engenabo ubungozi noma into encane, kodwa
enobungozi obukhulu. Lokhu kungenzeka kudinge ukuthi kushiswe
ngendlela efanele (bheka i-“incineration”). Eminyakeni eminingi
ngaphambi kokuthi umkhakha wokuphathwa kwemvelo wamukeleke
njengesifundo esisemthethweni futhi ngaphambi kokuthi kuthuthukiswe
izinhlelo zokuphathwa kwemvelo ezididiyelwe, kwasekuqalile kakade
ezingxenyeni ezihlukahlukene zomhlaba ukusetshenziswa kwezinhlelo
ezihlukahlukene zokuphathwa kwemfucuza futhi abantu babenza
imizamo yokuphatha nokulawula ukulahlwa kwemfucuza. Namuhla,
lokhu sekuwumkhakha okhethekile wezokuphathwa kwemvelo. (Bheka i-
“environmental management” kanye ne-“hazardous waste”). Kumele
uwukhumbule ngaso sonke isikhathi umthetho wemvelo osemqoka
kakhulu othi: “there is no away” (“ngeke neze sikwazi ukuhlukana
ngokuphelele nezinto ezithile”.
Waterlogging: A layer (bed) or layers of porous soil, regolith or substrate (rock)
that is completely saturated with water, which means that all the available interstitial
pores (spaces between the particles) are filled with water (see “aquifer”). This
material cannot absorb more water. Some materials, such as clayey and silty soils
are more likely to become oversaturated than highly porous sandy material.
Compression of sandy material would probably force some of the interstitial water
out of the mass of material, but that does not apply to clayey and silty material.
Waterlogging might be an exceedingly hazardous condition in regions where
landslides and mudflows (see “mass wasting”) are likely to occur as the addition of
more water may result in the collapse of the material. It might also be a costly and
frustrating condition for farmers who cannot work their land when it is waterlogged,
and any construction projects or building activities are forced into costly downtime.
However, waterlogging is the normal condition for wetlands like marshes and
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swamps. Wildlife in wetland environments are adapted to these conditions, provided

the water is not polluted and contaminated by hazardous substances.

Ukugcwala kwamanzi ngokweqile enhlabathini noma edwaleni

(waterlogging): Ungqimba (layer) lomhlabathi noma idwala elidlulisa
amanzi kalula, elichichima amanzi, okusho ukuthi zonke izikhala
phakathi kwezinhlayiya zomhlabathi noma zedwala sezigcwele amanzi
ngokweqile (bheka i-“aquifer”). Lolu ngqimba lomhlabathi noma idwala
alusakwazi ukumunca amanzi ngaphezu kwamanzi eseliwamumethe.
Ezinye izinhlobo zomhlabathi, ezinjengobumba (clayey) noma udaka
(silty soil) zivalise ukugcwala nokunqwabelana amanzi ngokweqile uma
ziqhathaniswa nomhlabathi odlulisa amanzi kalula, onjengesihlabathi.
Ukuqina kwezinhlayiya zesihlabathi kwenza adlule ngenkani amanzi
phakathi kwezinhlayiya zaso, okuyinto engenzeki emhlabathini
owubumba noma owudaka. Ukugcwala ngokweqile kwamanzi kungaba
yisimo esinobungozi obukhulu impela ezifundeni lapho kuvamise ukuthi
kube nezigameko zokunyibilika komhlabathi noma udaka (bheka i-“mass
wasting”) ngoba phela ukwengezeka kwamanzi kuleyo ndawo
kungaholela ekutheni umhlabathi ubhidlike. Futhi lokhu kungadala
izindleko nokulahleka kwemali engenayo, okuyinto eyinkinga kakhulu
kubalimi ngoba phela ngeke bakwazi ukulima ngenkathi umhlaba wabo
ugcwele amanzi ngokweqile, futhi nemiklamo yokwakha nayo
iyaphazamiseka ngoba umsebenzi wokwakha awukwazi ukuqhubeka
ngaphansi kwesimo esinjalo, okuyisimo esidala izindleko ezinkulu.
Kodwa-ke, ukugcwala kwamanzi ngokweqile yisimo esijwalelekile kulezo
zindawo ezingamaxhaphozi. Izinto zemvelo eziphila emaxhaphozini
zakheke ngendlela ehambelana nendawo eyixhaphozi futhi ziphila kalula
kuleyo ndawo, ngaphandle uma amanzi engcolisekile futhi kunezinto
ezinobungozi kuleyo ndawo.
Water quality: The characteristics of water that make it either potable (safe for
people to drink) or not potable, but suitable as drinking water for animals, or safe as
irrigation water, or water that should not be used before treatment. Water quality is
determined by the content of the water, that is, what impurities and other substances
are present in the water. Water supplied as drinking water to people in urban areas
is routinely tested. Water testing is these days a very easy and quick chemical
analysis since easy testing procedures have been developed because they are used
so often and by so many laboratories. Certain tests can even be done in the field, but
their accuracy is not as high as proper testing in a well-equipped laboratory. Drinking
water must meet stringent standards. These standards stipulate that the water must
contain less than specific concentrations of certain chemical compounds, and may
not contain any harmful organic material of which Escherichia Coli or E. coli is the
most important. E. coli comes from faecal matter and causes potentially fatal disease
in human beings. Its presence always indicates that raw sewerage is or was polluting
the water supply. The standards for human drinking water are more or less identical
all over the world, but in certain countries the standards are less stringently applied.
Waste water from certain mining activities often contain radioactivity or arsenic or
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other hazardous substances (see “hazardous waste”) and may not be used for any
purposes at all and have to be treated before being released to the environment.
This is currently a very high-profile issue in South Africa since many mines are
releasing hazardous waste water into the environment. These mines have never
been under the legal requirements of our current, stringent environmental legislation
and the mines’ waste treatment practices are therefore outdated and not in the
interest of the environment or the people downstream of the point where they
release their waste water. It is a consolation that only water of the very highest
quality is used in the food industry and very specifically for the manufacture of baby
foods and formula milk. The ordinary drinking water supplied to people in South
African cities and towns, is of an excellent quality, but not good enough to use for
the manufacture of baby formula and needs further purification before it might be
used for that purpose.

Ikhwalithi yamanzi: Izici zobunjalo (characteristics) bamanzi ezenza

amanzi abe ngamanzi okuphuza (potable) noma amanzi
angakufanele ukuphuzwa ngabantu (not potable), kepha-ke
akulungele ukuphuzwa yizilwane, futhi aphephile uma esetshenziselwa
ukunisela izitshalo, futhi lawa ngamanzi okungamele aphuzwe ngabantu
uma engakahlanzwa ngendlela efanele. Ikhwalithi yamanzi ihlonzwa
ngokuhlola izinto eziqukethwe ngamanzi, okusho, izibhidi nokungcola
okutholakala kulawo manzi ahlolwayo. Amanzi okuphuza aphakelwa
abantu ezindaweni ezisemadolobheni ahlolwa ngokuqhubekayo.
Ukuhlolwa kwamanzi kulezi zinsuku sekungumsebenzi olula kakhulu
futhi osheshayo wokuhlaziywa kwamakhemikhali, njengoba
sekuthuthukiswe izindlela zokuhlola amanzi ezilula ezisetshenziswa
kakhulu ngamalabholethri amaningi impela. Sekukhona ngisho
nezindlela zokuhlola amanzi emithonjeni yawo, ngaphandle kokuthi
athwale asiwe emalabholethri, kodwa-ke ukunemba kwalolo hlobo
lokuhlola amanzi akuphakeme njengokuhlolwa kwamanzi kwangempela
okwenziwa emalabholethri anazo zonke izinsiza nemishini yokuhlola
amanzi ngendlela efanele. Amanzi okuphuza kumele abe sezingeni
elilingana nezindinganiso eziqine kakhulu ezibekiwe. Lezi zindinganiso
zikubeka ngokucacile ukuthi amanzi kumele abe nomthamo wengxube
yamakhemikhali ongaphansi kwezinga elithile elibekiwe, futhi amanzi
okuphuza akufanele neze abe nezinto ezinobungozi noma ezinoshevu,
futhi okubaluleke kakhulu kulokhi yi-Escherichia Coli noma i-E. coli. I-E.
coli itholakala ezintweni eziqukethe indle futhi ingadala izifo eziyingozi
kakhulu futhi ezibulalayo kubantu. Ukuba khona kwe-E. coli kuhlala
njalo kubonisa ukuthi umthombo wamanzi uqukethe indle engcolisa
amanzi. Amazinga abekiwe aqondene namanzi aphuzwa ngabantu
cishe ayalingana emhlabeni wonke jikelele, kodwa-ke kwamanye
amazwe ukuthotshelwa kwamazinga abekiwe akuphoqelelwa ngendlela
efanayo. Amanzi angcolile aphuma emisebenzini ethile eyenziwa
ezimayini aqukethe imisebe enobungozi, ushevu noma ezinye izinto
ezinobungozi (bheka i-“hazardous waste”) futhi akufanele neze
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asetshenziswe ukwenza nanoma yimuphi umsebenzi futhi kumele

ahlanzwe noma akhucululwe ngaphambi kokuba achithwe noma
adedelwe ayongena kwimvelo. Njengamanje lolu wudaba olusematheni
eNingizimu Afrika njengoba izimayini eziningi zikhiqiza amanzi
anobungozi, angena kwimvelo. Lezi zimayini bezingakaze zifakwe
ngaphansi kwemithetho yakuleli ekhona njengamanje, kanye nemithetho
eqinile yezemvelo, futhi ngenxa yalokho-ke seziphelelwe yisikhathi
izinkambiso zalezi zimayini zokuhlanzwa nokukhucululwa kwamanzi
angcolile eziwakhiqizayo, futhi lezo zinkambiso aziyikhathaleli imvelo
noma abantu abahlala ezindaweni ezisezansi kwalapho zikhiphela
khona amanzi azo angcolile. Kodwa-ke kuyaduduza ukwazi ukuthi
embonini yezokudla kusetshenziswa kuphela amanzi asezingeni
eliphezulu impela, ikakhulukazi ezimbonini ezikhiqiza ukudla
kwabantwana kanye nobisi oluyimpuphu oludliwa ngabantwana. Amanzi
ajwayelekile aphakelwa abantu abahlala emadolobheni eNingizimu
Afrika asezingeni eliphezulu kakhulu, kepha-ke noma kunjalo
awakulungele neze ukusetshenziswa ekukhiqizweni kobisi lwabantwana
oluyimpuphu futhi adinga ukuthi aphinde ahlanzwe futhi akhucululwe
ngaphambi kokuba asetshenziselwe lowo msebenzi.
Watershed: The boundary between two adjacent drainage basins (see
“drainage basin”). It is an imaginary line in the landscape that joins all the highest
points between two drainage basins. Rain that falls on the one side of the imaginary
line flows in one direction, while that which falls on the other side of the line flows in
the other direction. Often it is extremely difficult to see the watershed in the actual
landscape, but gravity ensures that every drop of precipitation that becomes runoff
(overland flow) “knows” exactly in which direction to flow. On a contour map a
watershed can easily be indicated by joining the highest points to form a line.
Interpolation is used to establish the height between any two points or contour lines
(see “interpolation”).

Umdladlathi noma imfunda yomfula (watershed): Umngcele

ophakathi kweziziba (bheka i-“drainage basin”) ezimbili ezakhelene
noma ezisondelene. Lona wumugqa obonakala ngamehlo engqondo
(imaginary line) oxhumanisa izicongo zezindawo eziphakeme
eziphakathi kweziziba ezimbili. Imvula ewela ngasohlangothini olulodwa
lomugqa obonakala ngamehlo engqondo igeleza ibheke
ngasohlangothini olulodwa, bese kuthi imvula ewela ngakolunye
uhlangothi nayo igeleze ibheke ngakolunye uhlangothi. Esikhathini
esiningi kunzima kakhulu ukubona i-watershed kwi-landscape yoqobo,
kodwa-ke amandla omhlaba adonsela izinto phansi (gravity)
ayaqinisekisa ukuthi iconsi ngalinye nemvula eliba yingxenye yamanzi
emvula agelezayo (amanzi ageleza phezu komhlaba) “lazi” kahle ukuthi
kumele ligeleze libheke ngakuluphi uhlangothi. I-contour map ye-
watershed ingaboniswa kalula ngokuxhumanisa izicongo zendawo
eziphakeme ukuze kwakheke umugqa. I-interpolation ingasetshenziswa
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ukuthola ubude nokuphakama phakathi kwanoma yimaphi amaphoyinti

amabili noma ama-contour lines (bheka i-“interpolation”).
Weather: Patterns of atmospheric circulation, temperature, and precipitation at a
certain place over short time periods such as days and even hours. Nowadays short
term weather forecasting is so accurate that we can be informed of the expected
maximum and minimum temperatures for that specific day. The sunshine, rain or
snow that you can see out of the window at any moment is in fact the weather of that
place at that time. It differs from climate in that climate is a long-term atmospheric
condition. Climate is the average of reported weather conditions over a long period,
such as 20 or preferably 35 years. (See “climate”.)

Isimo sezulu: Amaphethini okujikeleza komoya emkhathini,

namazinga okushisa kanye nemvula endaweni ethile esikhathini
esifushane, njengosuku noma amahora ambalwa imbala. Kulezi zinsuku
isibikezelo sezulu sesikhathi esifushane siyanemba kakhulu,
kangangokuthi sithola ulwazi mayelana namazinga okushisa aphezulu
kanye naphansi aqondene nosuku oluthile. Ukukhanya kwelanga, imvula
noma iqhwa olibona ngaphandle noma nini uma ulunguza efasiteleni,
empeleni yisimo sezulu saleyo ndawo ngaleso sikhathi. Isimo sezulu
sihlukile kubunjalozwe (climate) ngoba ubunjalozwe yisilinganiso-simo
sesikhathi eside. Ubunjalozwe yisilinganiso sesimo sezulu sesikhathi
eside, esilinganiselwa eminyakeni engama-20 kodwa-ke kungaba kuhle
impela uma lesi silinganiso kuba ngeseminyaka engama-35. (Bheka i-
“climate”.)
Weathering: The chemical and/or mechanical breakdown of rocks and rock
fragments to smaller particles or dissolved material. (See “erosion”.) Weathering
takes place all over the world in all climates all the time. Mechanical weathering
(disintegration) does not change the chemical composition of the weathering
products so their chemical composition is still exactly the same as that of the rocks
from which the fragments have originated. Chemical weathering (decomposition)
involves chemical processes and the weathering products have different chemical
compositions than the original rock. Weathering does not include the removal of the
weathering debris. (See “erosion”.)

Ukukhumuzeka kwamadwala: Ukudleka nokukhumuzeka

kwamadwala okubangelwa yisenzo samakhemikhali kanye/noma izimo
zemvelo esinjengesimo sezulu esishisayo noma esibandayo kanye
nokunye, okuholela ekutheni amadwala kanye nezingcezu zawo kudleke
kuze kube yizinhlayiya ezincane noma kube yinto esincibilikile. (Bheka i-
“erosion”.) Ukukhumuzeka kwamadwala kwenzeka emhlabeni wonke
jikelele ngaphansi kobunjalozwe obuhlukahlukene futhi kwenzeka ngaso
sonke isikhathi. Ukukhumuzeka okubangelwa yizimo zemvelo
(ukuqhephuka) akusiguquli isimo samakhemikhali ayingxenye yalawo
madwala akhumuzekayo, futhi izingcezu zedwala ezihlephukile
ziyaqhubeka nokuba nenhlanganisela yamakhemikhali afana ncamashi
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nedwala ezixebuke kulona. Ukukhumuzeka okubangelwa yisenzo

samakhemikhali (decomposition) kubandakanya izinqubo eziphathelene
namakhemikhali futhi izinto ezikhumuzekayo zigcina sezinesakhiwo
sokwakheka kwamakhemikhali esingafani nesedwala ezixebuke kulona.
Ukukhumuzeka kwedwala akubandakanyi ukuguguleka kwezimvithi
zedwala elikhumuzekile. (Bheka i-“erosion”.)
Wetlands: Water dominated areas with poor drainage and soils that are water
saturated for the larger part of the year or all-year round. Wetlands are known by
many names: marshes, bogs, swamps, pans, vleis, floodplains and riverbanks up to
10 metres below the ten-year flood-mark. Wetlands support a specialised type of
vegetation like waterlilies and hyacinths, reeds, rush, bamboo, swamp grass and
watergrass. Wetlands play an extremely varied and important role in the
environment: it supports specific animals, fish, amphibians (frogs, toads), mammals
(otters and beavers), reptiles (crocodiles, iguanas, terrapins), insects, waterbirds and
birds that live on fish or breed in the specialised wetland environments. Wetlands
serve as sponges that delay runoff water, it replenishes groundwater resources, it
prevents flooding of cities and towns by delaying the floodwater of rivers, and it
purifies polluted water by filtering the water and some of the vegetation absorbs
some chemical substances. Human activities have already destroyed most of the
wetlands on earth. Crops like rice have been planted in them; they have been
drained for the cultivation of other crops; their water supplies have been cut off by
damwalls and irrigation canals and the wetlands have simply dried out; mines have
released hazardous waste water into wetlands and all the animals have either fled or
died, while the hazardous substances have seeped into the underground water
resources and have thus spread the pollution. Years ago environmentalists realised
that without wetlands the global ecosystem is at serious threat. The protection of the
few remaining ones and the rehabilitation of degraded wetlands has become a high-
profile international issue. At the Ramsar Convention in 1975 certain wetlands in all
parts of the world were declared as internationally important and enjoy special
protection. South Africa boasts quite a number of Ramsar sites, like the St Lucia
estuary, the Wakkerstroom wetlands, and Nylsvley near Modimolle. It is our
responsibility to protect not only the Ramsar wetlands but all other wetlands in the
country. Under the aegis of the National Department of Water Affairs, a special
organisation, called “Working for Wetlands” developed under the umbrella body
called “Working for Water”. It is a co-operation between the public and private
sectors, and has already made a laudable contribution to saving our most crucial
resource, namely water!

Amaxhaphozi: Umhlaba ogcwele amanzi, futhi lapho amanzi

engagelezi kalula, futhi umhlabathi waleyo ndawo uhlala uchichima
amanzi engxenyeni enkulu yonyaka noma unyaka wonke. Amaxhaphozi
adume ngamagama amaningi, njengalawa: marshes, bogs, swamps,
pans, vleis, floodplains kanye nama-riverbanks angafinyelela ebangeni
elingamamitha ayi-10 ngaphansi kwe-flood-mark yeminyaka eyi-10.
Amaxhaphozi asekela izinhlobo ezikhethekile zezimila zemvelo
ezinjengama-waterlilies nama-hyacinths, imihlanga, incema, uqalo,
utshani obumila emaxhaphozini kanye notshani obumila emanzini.
Amaxhaphozi adlala indima ehlukahlukile futhi esemqoka kakhulu
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kwimvelo: asekela ukuphila kwezilwane ezithile, izinhlanzi, izilwane

eziphila ezweni nasemanzini (amaxoxo, amadwi), izilwanyana
ezincelisayo (umthini wasemanzini kanye namabhiva), izilwane
ezihuquzela ngesisu (izingwenya, oxamu, izimfudu), izinambuzane,
izinyoni zamanzi kanye nezinyoni eziphila ngokudla izinhlanzi noma lezo
eziphila ezimweni zemvelo ezingamaxhaphozi. Amaxhaphozi asebenza
njengeziponji ezibambezela amanzi agelezayo, agcwalisa kabusha
imithombo yamanzi atholakala ngaphansi komhlaba, avimbela
izikhukhula ezingagugula amadolobha namadolobhana ngoba
abambezela ukugeleza kwezikhukhula ngenkathi ziyongena emifuleni,
ahlanza futhi akhuculule ukungcoliseka kwamanzi ngokucwenga
ukungcola okusemanzini futhi izimila zemvelo ezithile zimunca
amakhelikhali athile. Izenzo nemisebenzi yabantu sekucekele phansi
amaxhaphozi amaningi emhlabeni. Izitshalo ezinjengelayisi zitshalwa
emaxhaphozini; futhi kwamanye amaxhaphozi ayakhishwa amanzi
ukuze kutholakale umhlaba wokulima izitshalo ezithile; ayavinjelwa
amanzi angena emaxhaphozini ngokuthi kwakhiwe izindonga
zamadamu kanye nemisele yokunisela futhi ngenxa yalokho agcina
eseshile wonke amanzi akhona emaxhaphozi, okuholela ekutheni ome
amaxhaphozi futhi agcine esefile; izimayini zikhiqiza amanzi angcolile
anobungozi angena emaxhaphozini futhi ngenxa yalokho zigcina
sezibalekile noma sezifile zonke izilwane ebeziphila lapho, futhi
kusenjalo ubuthi bungena ngaphansi komhlaba buyofinyelela emanzini
atholakala ngaphansi komhlaba, okuyinto esabalalisa ukungcoliseka
kwamanzi. Eminyakeni eminingi edlule, izishoshovu zokuvikelwa
nokulondolozwa kwemvelo zaqaphela ukuthi ngaphandle
kwamaxhaphozi i-ekhosistimu yomhlaba isengcupheni enkulu.
Ukuvikelwa kwamaxhaphozi ambalwa asele kanye nokuvuselelwa
kwalawo asecekeleke phansi sekuwudaba olubekwe eqhulwini
emhlabeni jikelele. Engqungqutheleni yase-Ramsar eyabanjwa ngowe-
1975 amaxhaphozi athile kuzo zonke izingxenye zomhlaba
amanyezelwa njengamaxhaphozi asemqoka kakhulu emhlabeni futhi
athola ukuvikeleka okukhethekile. INingizimu Afrika inamaxhaphozi
angama-Ramsar sites amaningi impela, njenge-St Lucia estuary,
amaxhaphozi ase-Wakkerstroom, kanye ne-Nylsvley eduze kwase-
Modimolle. Kuyisibopho nomsebenzi wethu ukungagcini nje kuphela
ngokuvikela ama-Ramsar wetlands kodwa ukuvikela wonke amanye
amaxhaphozi kuleli lizwe. Ngaphansi kwesandla soMnyango
Kazwelonke Wezamanzi, kwasungulwa inhlangano ekhethekile ebizwa
nge-“Working for Wetlands” eyathuthukiswa ngaphansi kophiko
oluyinhloko olubizwa nge-“Working for Water”. Le nhlangano
yasungulwa ngenxa yobambiswano phakathi komkhakha kahulumeni
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ekuvikeleni umthombo wethu osemqoka kakhulu, amanzi!

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