I3611IM Slides Lecture Notes

Dr Albert Shikongo

University of Namibia
Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology
Department of Mechanical & Mettalorgical Engineering
Email: ashikongo@unam.na
Phone: +264652324238

March 11, 2023

Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 1 / 23

Overview

Apply differential vector calculus to solve mathematical and

engineering problems.

Apply functions of several variables in solving engineering problems.

Approximate solutions to 2nd order differential equations using power

series.

Describe the basis for complex analysis in engineering problem

solving.

Apply the residual theorem to engineering problems.

Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 2 / 23

CHAPTER I

Vector valued functions.

Limits.

Continuity.

Differentiation.

Normal, binomial, torsion, curvature.

Partial differentiation.

Scalar and vector fields.

Space curves.

Tangent to curves.

Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 3 / 23

Definition of a Vector Valued Function
Definition
A vector-valued function of a real variable is a rule that associates a vector
f(t) with a real number t, where t ∈ D ⊂ R1 (known as the domain of f .
We write f : D → R3 to denote that f denotes a mapping of D into R3 .

OR
Definition
A vector valued function is a function where the domain is a subset of the
set of real numbers and its range is a vector.

Any function that maps real numbers to vectors is refers to as a

vector-valued function. That is in two dimensions
r(t) = x(t)î + y (t)ĵ ≡ ⟨x(t), y (t)⟩ .
and in three dimensions
r(t) = x(t)î + y (t)ĵ + z(t)k̂ ≡ ⟨x(t), y (t), z(t)⟩ .
Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 4 / 23
Limit of a vector-valued function

Example
r(t) = (t − 1)î + t 2 ĵ.
r(t) = 3î + t ĵ + (sin t)k̂.

Example
The real-valued function y (x) = x 3 + 1 can be converted to a
vector-valued function, by setting t ≡ x, to yields r(t) = ti + (t 3 + 1)j or
r(t) = ti + (t 3 + 1)j + 0k.

Example
The function (t) = ⟨cos(t), sin(t), t⟩ can be converted to a scalar function
by setting x = cos(t), y = sin(t), & z = t, to yield z 2 = 1.

Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 5 / 23

Limit of a vector-valued function
Its Domain: The intersection of the domains of the component functions.
Example
√
The domain of r(t) =< ln |t|, 1 − t, t > is Dr(t) = (0, 1].

Homework: Establish the domain of the following:

Example
√
(a) r(t) =< 4 − t 2 , t 2 , −6t >.
(b) r(t) = F (t) × G (t), where √ 1
F (t) =< t 3 , −t, t >, & G (t) =< 3 t, t+1 , t + 2 >.

Introduction to a limit of a function: Make sure that you fully

understand the rigorous explanation we did with f (t) = 2t + 1 with t0 = 2
to establish the following definition.
Definition: Let I and r(t) denote an open interval containing c and
vector-valued function defined on I except possibly at c, respectively.
Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 6 / 23
Limit of a vector-valued function

Then the limit of r(t) as t → c ∈ I expressed as

lim r(t) = L,
t→c

implies that given ϵ ∈ (0, 1) there exists a δ ∈ (0, 1), ∀t ̸= c. If |t − c| < δ,

we have ∥r(t) − L∥ < ϵ.
Taking advantage of Calculus of real-valued functions and capitalize on
the linearity of vector operations:

r1 (t) ± r2 (t) = [< f1 (t), g1 (t) >] ± [< f2 (t), g2 (t) >],
= [< f1 (t), f2 (t) >] ± [< g1 (t), g2 (t) >],
1 1 1
cr(t) = < cf1 (t), cg1 (t) > & r(t) =< f1 (t), g1 (t) >,(1)
c c c
where, c ≠ 0. Thus, the operations in equation (1) enable us to establish
the limit for a plane and space as:

Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 7 / 23

Limit of a vector-valued function

Limit of a space:

h i h i h i
lim r(t) = lim f (t) i + lim g (t) j + lim h(t) k, (2)
t→c t→c t→c t→c

provided that f , g , h have limits as t → c. The limit for a plane can be

deduced easily from equation (1).

Example
Evaluate the following limits.
−4 12
(i) limt→2 < t, tt2 −2t , t >.
(ii) limt→0 < t 2 , sin(t)
t ,e
−t >.

(iii) limt→∞ < e −t , 1t , t 2 t+1 >.

Answers: (i) < 2, 2, 21 >; (ii) < 0, 1, 1 >; (iii) < 0, 0, 0 >.

Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 8 / 23

Limit of a vector-valued function
Homework: Evaluate the following.
 
1– cos(θ) sin(θ) e 2x
(a) lim θ , lim θ , 4 .
θ→0 θ→0
D E
(b) tan(x)
sin(x) , 1−cos(2x) sin(6x)
x 2 , cos(4x) as x → 0.
  3 
(1−cos(x))(1+cos(x)) sin(2x)
(c) 2x 2 (1+cos(x))
, sin(3x) as x → 0.

Hint:

sin(θ)
= 1, as θ → 0.
θ

1– cos(θ)
lim = 0, as θ → 0.
θ→0 θ

Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 9 / 23

Continuity of a vector-valued function
Introduction: A human being walks in a discontinuous fashion (also
known as piece-wise or step functions), whereas a vehicle travels in a
continuous manner (also refers to as a continuous function).
Definition: Let r(t) denotes a vector-valued function defined on an open
interval I containing c,
(i) r(t) is continuous at all c if limt→c r(t) = r(c).
(ii) If r(t) is continuous at all c ∈ I, then r(t) is continuous on I.
Theorem
Let r(t) denotes a vector-valued function defined on an open I containing
c. Then r(t) is continuous at c if and only if, each of its component
functions is continuous at c.

Example
The vector-valued function r(t) =< sin(t) 2
t , t − 3t + 3, cos(t) > is not
sin(t) 2
continuous at t = 0. However, r(t) =< t , t − 3t + 3, cos(t) > is
continuous at t = 1.
Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 10 / 23
Derivative of a vector-valued function
More examples:
Example
Establish the interval I on which the given r(t) is continuous.
(i) r(t) =< t, 1t >.
(ii) r(t) =< 2e −t , e −t , ln |t − 1| >.
√ √
(iii) r(t) =< 8, t, 3 t >.

Answers: (i) R − {0};(ii) (1, ∞); (iii) [0, ∞).

Differentiation:- Parallels that for real-valued functions.
Definition: Let r(t) denotes a vector-valued function. Then the derivative
of r(t) is

r(t + ∆t) − r(t)

r′ (t) = lim ,
∆t→0 ∆t
∀t for which the limit exists.
Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 11 / 23
Derivative of a vector-valued function
Homework: r(t) =< 6t + 8, 4t 2 + 2t − 3 >;r(t) =<
3 cos(t), 4 sin(t) >;r(t) =< e t sin(t), e t cos(t), −e 2t >.
(i) If r′ (t) exists, then r is differentiable at c.
(ii) If r′ (t) exists ∀c ∈ I, then r is differentiable on I.
d
(iii) Notations used are Dt [r(t)] ≡ dt [r(t)] ≡ dr
dr .

Example
Assume that the vector-valued function r(t) denotes a plane. Then

f (t + ∆t)i + g (t + ∆t)j − [f (t)i + g (t)j]

Dt [r(t)] = lim ,
∆t→0 ∆t
[f (t + ∆t) − f (t)]i + [g (t + ∆t) − g (t)]
= lim ,
∆t→0 ∆t
= f ′ (t) + g ′ (t). (3)

Remark: Similarly, the derivative for the space can be easily deduced from
(3).
Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 12 / 23
Derivative of a vector-valued function
Theorem (Properties of the derivative)
Let r, u and f denote differentiable vector-valued and real-valued
functions, respectively, of t, and c denotes a scalar. Then
d
(i) dt [cr(t)] = cr′ (t).
(ii) dt [r(t) ± u(t)] = r′ (t) ± u′ (t).
d
d
(iii) dt [f (t)u(t)] = f ′ (t)u(t) + f (t)u′ (t).
d
(iv) dt [r(t) · u(t)] = r′ (t) · u(t) + r(t) · u′ (t).
(v) dt [r(t) × u(t)] = r′ (t) × u(t) + r(t) × u′ (t).
d
d
(vi) dt [u(f (t))] = u′ (f (t))f ′ (t).
(vii) r(t) · r(t) = constant, then r(t) · r′ (t) = 0.
d
Proofs: Left as homework as well as the prove for dt [u(t) × u(t)] = 0.
Example
If r(t) =< 6t + 8, 4t 2 + 2t − 3, 5t >, u(t) =< t 2 − 3, 2t + 4, t 3 − 3t >,
then find (a) Dt [r(t) · u(t)] (b) Dt [u(t) × u′ (t)].
Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 13 / 23
Derivative of a vector-valued function
Answers: (a) Since r′ (t) =< 6, 8t + 2, 5 >, u′ (t) =< 2t, 2, 3t 2 − 3 >,
then it follows easily that

Dt [r(t) · u(t)] = 20t 3 + 42t 2 + 26t − 16.

(b) Then, from (v), we have

d
[u(t) × u′ (t)] = u′ (t) × u′ (t) + u(t) × u′′ (t)
dt
= 0 + (t 2 − 3)i + (2t + 4)j + (t 3 − 3t)k × 2i + 6tk,
 
 2i j k
 
3

=  t − 3 2t + 4 t − 3t 
 2 0 6t 
= 6t(2t + 4)i − (6t(t 2 − 3) − 2(t 3 − 3t))j − 2(2t + 4)k,
= (12t 2 + 24t)i + (12t − 4t 3 )j − (4t + 8)k.

Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 14 / 23

Scalar and vector fields for a vector-valued function
Example
d
Determine (a) dt [r(t) · r′ (t)] and (b) dt
d
[r(t) × u(t)], where,
2t
r(t) =< cos(t), sin(t), −e > and u(t) =< t, sin(t), cos(t) >.
d
Answers: For (a) dt [r(t) · r′ (t)] = 8e 4t and
d
[r(t) × u(t)] = e 2t (cos t + 2 sin t) + cos 2t) î
dt
+(e 2t (2t + 1)– sin 2t) ĵ + (t cos t + sin t– cos 2t) k̂.
Fields: A vector-valued function defines a vector field, whereas a
real-valued (scalar) function defines a scalar field in that domain or on
that surface or curve.
Example (Fields)
Tangent vectors of a curve, field of normal vectors of a surface, velocity
field of a rotating body and gravitational field are examples of vector fields.
Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 15 / 23
Arc Length in Space
Introduction: To determine the arc length of a curve is equivalent to
think of the curve being a piece of string getting rectified in order to find
its arc length. When rectified, the curve gives a straight line with the same
length as the curve’s arc length.
Therefore, calculating the arc length for a curve in space is similar to
calculating the arc length for a curve in the plane. One only has to recall
the arc length of a plane curve. This imples that the length of a
parameterized curve in space
r(t) = ⟨x(t), y (t), z(t)⟩ , t ∈ [a, b], a, b ∈ R,
is
s 2 2 2
Z b  
dx dy dz
L= + + dt, where, (4)
a dt dt dt
s 2  2  2
dx dy dz
+ + , denotes the magnitude of velocity.
dt dt dt
Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 16 / 23
Arc Length in Space

Thus, the arclength in equation (4) becomes

Z b p Z tp
L= |v |dt or s(t) = |v (τ )|dτ.
a t0

Example
Suppose a student tosses a paper airplane. The paper airplane’s flight
lasts for 2.5 seconds and can be approximated by
r(t) = ⟨1.2 sin(t), 1.2 cos(t), 0.4t⟩. Then, deduce the total distance the
airplane has traveled. Hint: Units are in feet.

Answer: q Then, we easily have

R 2.5 R 2.5 √
L= 0 (1.2 cos(t))2 + (−1.2 sin(t))2 + (0.4)2 dt = 0 1.6dt =
3.162 feet.

Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 17 / 23

Arc Length in Space
Example
Reparametrize ⃗r (t) = ⟨3 cos(2t), 3 sin(2t), 2t⟩ by its arc length starting
from the fixed point (3, 0, 0). Hence, use this information to determine the
position after traveling units.
Answer: Since, at t = 0, we have r(0) = ⟨3, 0, 0⟩, then
Z t Z tq
′ 2 2 2
s(t) = ||r (τ )||dτ = (x ′ ) + (y ′ ) + (z ′ ) dτ
a a
Z tp
s(t) = (−6 sin 2t)2 + (6 cos 2t)2 + (2)2 dτ
0
Z tq
s(t) = 36 sin2 (2t) + 36 cos2 (2t) + 4dτ
0
Z tq t √
Z
2


s(t) = 36 sin (2t) + cos2 (2t) + 4dτ = 36 + 4dτ
0 0
Z t√ √
s(t) = 40dτ = t 40.
0
Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 18 / 23
Arc Length in Space

s(t)
⇒ √ = t.
40
      
s(t) s(t) s(t)
⇒ r(t) = 3 cos 2 √ , 3 sin 2 √ ,2 √ ,
40 40 40
     
2s 2s 2s
∴ r(s) = 3 cos √ , 3 sin √ ,√
40 40 40
√
Then, at s = π 40units, we have.
* √ ! √ ! √ +
√ 2(π 40) 2(π 40) 2(π 40)
r(π 40) = 3 cos √ , 3 sin √ , √ ,
40 40 40
√
r(π 40) = ⟨3 cos(2π), 3 sin(2π), 2π⟩,
√
r(π 40) = ⟨3, 0, 2π⟩.

Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 19 / 23

Unit tangent vector

Since,
ds
= |v (t)| ,
dt
is same as the rate at which something moves along the path of the curve
is equal to its speed, then and v is always tangent to the curve r(t), then
one can determine the a unit vector T that is also tangent to r(t) from
what one already know. That is,
v
T = .
|v |

But then,
dr dt 1 v dr
=v = =T = .
dt ds |v | |v | ds

Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 20 / 23

Unit tangent vector

Example (Unit tangent vector)

Deduce the unit tangent vector of the curve
r(t) = ⟨e t3 , ln(t + 5), 5 cos(t)⟩.

Answer:Then, one easily has

 
dr 2 x3 1
= 3x e , , −5 sin(t) ,
dt x +5
s
ds 1
⇒ = 9x 4 e 2x 3 + + 25 sin2 (t),
dt (x + 5)2
D E
3x 2 e x 3 , 1 , , −5 sin(t)
dr x+5
∴T= =q .
ds 3
9x 4 e 2x + (x+5) 1 2
2 + 25 sin (t)

Dr Albert Shikongo (UNAM) I3611IM March 11, 2023 21 / 23

Unit tangent vector

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Unit tangent vector

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