Soil 111 Complete Module

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Module 1 Fundamental Concepts and Definitions
Lesson 1
Basic Principles in the Study of Soils
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Objectives Introduction
At the end of this lesson, you
are expected to: It takes a genius to study the obvious, hence
demystifying the secrets of the Earth’s skin requires
Explain the components of the
unsurmountable efforts and devoted desires to
global ecosystem
understand and explain perplexing contexts that no
Define and describe the one has ever tried. In this, you are one of the few
importance and function of who have the courage to know the tangled web of
soil
truth behind the soil. To begin with your journey,
Differentiate between this lesson is specifically designed to let you explore
pedological and edaphological the dynamic nature of soils and the importance of
approach in studying soil
science
studying soils. It will also lead you to know when
and how the study of soils begins, the networks of
Discuss the history and scientific field of studies it has today, and its role in
classify the division of soil
science
addressing issues of the modern times. Upon
culmination of your voyage in this lesson, you will
Key Concepts reflect the importance of soils to the perpetuation of
life in the planet where we live. Enjoy and do not
a. Components of Global
Ecosystem forget the dirt while you learn.
b. Soil
c. Soil Boundaries
d. Landscape
e. Ecosystem
f. Functions of Soil
Section 1.1
Observe Reflect Soil: A Living or Non-living Entity
Is it living or nonliving? In this activity, you will observe soil in the environment to evaluate if it
is living or nonliving and watch video to reflect the nature and importance of soil.
Procedure
1. In your locality, observe the status and use of soil.

2. Record your observation.
3. Visit www.youtube.com and search the video of FAO-UNESCO entitled, “Let’s talk about
soil”, and watch it.
4. Upon finishing watching the video and observing soil in your locality, evaluate whether
soils is a living or non-living body and reflect the nature and importance of soils in a
brochure formatted output.
Analysis
1. Compare and contrast your observation and reflection to your classmates.

2. Explain why we need to study soils.
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Components of Global Ecosystem
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1. Atmosphere: air surrounding the Earth.
2. Biosphere: environment in which living
organisms are found, and with which they
interact
3. Hydrosphere: total body of water that exists on
or close to the surface of the Earth.
4. Lithosphere: upper (oceanic and continental)
layer of the solid Earth
5. Pedosphere: The envelope of the Earth where
soils occur and where soil-forming processes are
active.
Soil Horizon
Figure 1. Imagine the pedosphere to
Properties of the pedosphere affect the other components the peelings of the orange. The
orange peel is the outermost part of
of the global ecosystem. For example, accelerated the orange that is exposed to the
decomposition of organic matter in the pedosphere causes elements.
abnormally high CO2 levels in the atmosphere (note CO2
is a greenhouse gas)
Soil
 living, dynamic system which forms at the interface

between the atmosphere and lithosphere in Note: highlighted words are the
response to forces exerted by climate and living five factors of soil formation and
organisms acting on parent material as will be discussed separately.
conditioned by topography/relief over a period of
time
 collection of porous natural bodies on the earth's

surface, containing living matter, and supporting or Dirt your Mind!
capable of supporting plants.
 As a rule, particles are considered
 An independent 3-dimensional natural body “soil particles” if they pass
through the 2-mm sieve.
occupying the earth’s surface and capable of
 Traditionally, soil scientists focus
supporting plant growth. Its properties are result on the porous material that are
from integrated effects of climate and living within 2 m from the surface
organisms acting upon a parent material as
conditioned by topography and time.
Reminder Soil horizon is used in this module as word denoting important concepts in soil
science.
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Dimensions involved in the study of soils
1. Classic Concept:
 Soil is a 3-dimensional body
o Length
Note: These are space dimensions o Breadth
o Depth
2. Modern Concept:
 Soil is a space-time structure
o Length
Note: Addition of time dimension. o Breadth
o Depth
Soil Boundaries
 Upper Boundary - generally considered as air-

solid surface interface or free water-solid
surface interface.
Dirt your Mind!  Lateral Boundary - deep water or barren areas

of rock, ice, salt, or shifting desert sand dunes
 Lower Limit - difficult to define, but generally
thought of as the common rooting depth
 Sediments at depths (shallow in deserts, deep in humid tropics) of
greater than where the native perennial plant
emergent plants grow is
not considered as soil.
Soil as part of Landscape & Ecosystems
Landscape -Three-dimensional section of the Earth’s

surface with specific pattern of topography, rocks, soil,
water, and flora and fauna
Ecosystem - Is an interacting system of biologic

community and its non-living environment
Study Tips
Review Where in the landscape is there significant growth of biota?
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Importance of the Soil
Civilization depends on soil and water resources

for food production
 Soil resources were and are an important factor

in shaping history and development. Survival of
humans and animals is dependent on light,
water, air, and soil.
 Cultivation of plants for food allowed humans
to convert from a nomadic hunting and
gathering lifestyle to a more settled existence. “History is largely a record of human
struggle to wrest land from nature,
 Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates because man relies for sustenance on the
River in what is now Iraq shows evidence of products of the soil. So direct is the
very early civilization. Writings dating to 2500 relationship between erosion, the
productivity of the land and the history of
B.C. mention fertility of the land. Fertility was the people that the history of mankind to
due to annual flooding of the land, and a system a degree at least, may be interpreted in
of canals were built for irrigation of crops. terms of the soil and what has happened
to it as a result of human use”.
Hugh H. Bennett circa, 1930’s
Functions of Soil
1. Production Function
• Soil acts primarily as a medium for the growth of natural vegetation.
• Soil assures the supply of food, feeds, energy, and raw materials
2. Ecological Regulator
• Soil resists sudden change in its chemical balance thereby protecting the
multitude of organisms living in it.
• Soils acts as buffer, filter, and transformer of various substances in or that are
added to the soil
3. Habitat and Living space
• Soil is a habitat of a multitude of flora and fauna.
• The largest quantity of organisms on the earth is in the soil.
4. Engineering Function
• Support for building foundations
• Construction materials for roads and dams
5. Cultural Heritage Function
• Conceals and preserves remnants of past civilizations, plants and animal life
which are of great value for understanding history of civilization and history of
the earth
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Two Concepts of Soils
 Pedology - study of soil as a natural entity -

origin, classification, and description
Why Study Soils?  Edaphology - study of soil from the standpoint
of plant growth
 To understand
how soil chemical
and physical
properties affect A person's concept of soil depends on his/her
various uses of viewpoint and experiences...
soils
 To learn how to 1. Engineer - loose or broken rock material at
conserve and the earth's surface. This material can be used
utilize soils for building purposes.
properly. 2. Geologist - highly weathered rock. Part of the
material that makes up outer mantle of the
 To understand earth.
how soil 3. Horticulturist - material that needs sterilizing
properties can and modification before using for plant growth
be modified to in greenhouses.
improve their 4. Farmer and Agronomist - material at earth's
quality for a surface with biological, chemical, and physical
particular use properties that enable it to support plant
growth.
Reflections Check Explain the components of the global ecosystem and how does it influence with each other.
Give your own definition of soil.
Discuss the importance of the soil and why we need to study.
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Soil Science History in a Nutshell
 Starting in the 19th century, Soil Science was already

Soil Horizon
considered as a natural science that deals with a
natural body –the soil.
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Soil science is originally

 Major applications were initially toward addressing a branch of Geology that
developed into an
agricultural concerns and has greatly contributed to independent natural
the increased food production worldwide. science
 Worsening environmental problems and the
increased realization that the soil can treat
contaminants has dramatically changed the focus of
soil science.
Periods in the Development of Soil Science
Ancient Pre-Soil Science Early Soil Science
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Soil Science History in a Nutshell
Chinese attempted to 4,000 Years Ago
classify the soil
2,000 years Greeks and Romans

ago started simple soil
studies
Theophrastus gave the 371-286 BC

soil the name “edaphos”
and described soil
properties that affect
growth
371-286 BC Cato developed a

classification system of
arable soils and
emphasized the Henri Darcy
suitability of soils for developed the key
farming law in Soil Physics
(Darcy’s Law) that
describes water
1803-1873 flow in soils 1817-1901
J. Von Liebig 1803-1929 Joseph Henry Gilbert

established established first
agricultural chemistry systematic long-term
and formulated the field fertilizer
mineral theory of plant experiment in the
nutrition –The Law of world-famous
Minimum Rothamsted
1794 – 1877 F. A Fallou - in his book
Experimental Station
“Pedology or General
and Special Soil
Science” (1862), he
argued for the
recognition of Soil
Science as an
independent natural
science. Founder of
Soil Science
V.V. Dokuchaev - in his 1846-1903

book “Russian Chernozem”
(1883), he discussed the
factors of soil formation
and he introduced the ABC
horizon nomenclature
system. Father of Modern
Hans Jenny - in 1941 published “Factors Soil Science
of Soil Formation” s = f (cl, o, r, p, t, ...)
1833-1893
1899-1992 E. W. Hilgard - one of the first to apply

soil science to solve problems in
agriculture and is considered the “Father
of American Soil Science”
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Divisions of Soil Science
Soil Horizon
 Soil genesis
Soil Science has  Soil survey & classification
international  Soil physics
organization entity
 Soil microbiology and biochemistry/ soil
The International Union ecology
of Soil Sciences (IUSS)
 Soil fertility
 The global
scientific  Soil mineralogy and chemistry
organization of soil  Soil and water conservation
scientists and soil
science
practitioners
 A full member of
the International
Council for Sciences
(the governing Reflections Check Share your thoughts on the development
body for the of soil science as a natural science.
sciences composed Explain the relevance of understanding
the history of soil science
…………………
of 25 international
science unions)
Section 1.2 Application
Understand Soil Horizons

Think like a Scientist! Soil Horizon
1. Define pedosphere?
2. Provide a definition of the soil that
includes all the five factors of soil
7. Explain the science behind of the study formation.
soils. 3. Discuss the boundaries of the three-
dimensional body that is considered
8. WRITING in Soil Science the soil?
4. Differentiate the pedological and
edaphological concepts of the study of
Write a Newsletter featuring key
the soil.
issues relevant to modern soil science 5. Share your thoughts on the
as well as the functions of soil in the recognition of Dokuchaev as the
context of sustainable agriculture and Father of Soil Science
development. 6. Discuss the different roles and scope
of the division of soil science.
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References
Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition. Pearson
Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105 pp.
Recommended Website to Explore
www.iuss.org; www.fao.org; www.bswm.da.gov.ph

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Module 1 Fundamental Concepts and Definitions
Lesson 2
The Earth
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are expected to: Soil science deals with the dynamic and complex
topmost layer of the Earth’s crust which is the
 Explain the earth’s product of Earth’s surface processes. Hence, a basic
origin, composition, knowledge of the origin, composition, structure, and
and its major spheres history as well as certain geologic processes is
 Illustrate movements necessary for a better understanding of the origin
of continents and nature of the soil. Geology is the science of the
Earth from which soil science branched out in the
Key Concepts 19th century. Upon conclusion of your travel in this
g. Solar Nebular lesson, you will reflect the importance of
Hypothesis understanding the Earth in contemplating the
h. Atmosphere intertwined web of concepts in the study of soils.
i. Biosphere Enjoy and do not forget to continue cultivating the
j. Lithosphere dirt.
k. Hydrosphere
l. Pedosphere
m. Plate tectonics
Section 1.2
Connection to Earth Everything is Connected to Everything Else
Are we all connected? In this activity, you will observe again soil in the environment and
evaluate the connection that soil has contributed in the continuance of life in this planet.
Procedure
 Let us dig into your basic Earth Science memories.

 Review on the components of the Earth ecosystem.
 List the component’s characteristics.
 Build their connections using an illustrative representation.
Analysis
 Explain the importance of studying Earth in the study of soils.

 Describe how the components of Earth ecosystem interact and affects soils.
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Origin, Structure and Composition of the Earth
Origin
 The most widely accepted hypothesis about the Soil Horizon
origin of the Earth is the Solar Nebular
Hypothesis (SNH).
 The SNH states that the Earth was formed from The 4.6 billion years’ age of the
condensing gas and dust about 4.6 billion years earth was determined by
ago. radiometric dating of oldest rocks
 Gravitational forces caused the gas and dust and meteorites that have been
particles to come together with heavier particles found on Earth.
gravitating to the center and lighter ones
collecting outside.
Radiometric dating is used to
 The contraction of the mass-produced heat that determine the age of rocks and
caused melting and gradual formation of the other natural materials by means
Earth’s layers: core, mantle, and crust. of their radioactive contents.
Structure and Composition
 Based on the properties of seismic waves (waves

that travel through the Earth), scientists have
determined that the Earth consists of three
layers:
o crust, the thinnest and rigid outermost
layer; The
o mantle, the middle layer which is largely Earth
plastic; and and its
o core at the center which is liquid on the layers
outside but solid inside.
 The liquid portion of the outer core generates the
earth’s magnetic field. The abrupt boundary
between the crust and the mantle is called Moho
discontinuity.
 There are two types of crust: oceanic crust and
continental crust.
000000
o Oceanic crust is about 6 km thick and
basaltic in composition; while
o Continental crust is typically about 35 km
thick and granitic in composition.
Beneath plateaus and mountains, the
continental crust may be as much as 70
km thick.
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Elemental Composition of the Earth (Davies et al., 1975)
Rank Element Symbol Percent by Weight

1 Iron Fe 34.6
2 Oxygen O 29.5
3 Silicon Si 15.2
4 Magnesium Mg 12.7
5 Nickel Ni 2.4
6 Sulfur S 1.9
7 Calcium Ca 1.1
8 Aluminum Al 1.1
9 Sodium Na 0.57
10 Chromium Cr 0.26
The Earth's Major Spheres

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Composition of the Atmosphere A. Atmosphere
Concentration  Atmosphere is the layer of

Gases Symbol
(%) gases and suspended particles
Oxygen O2 20.9 surrounding the earth from
ground level upwards that
Ozone O3 trace
greatly affects the
Nitrogen N2 78.1 environmental conditions on
the Earth’s surface.
Argon Ar 0.90
Methane CH4 trace  It has no definite outer edge
and it gradually becomes
Carbon
CO2 0.03 thinner until it merges into
Dioxide
space.
Water H2O variable
Ammonia NH3 negligible
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B. Hydrosphere
 Hydrosphere includes all water bodies on the

surface of the Earth: oceans, lakes, rivers, Dirt your mind!
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underground water and water as glacier or
snow.
Water surface area
 The hydrosphere is closely linked to the other
comprises 70.8% of the
spheres particularly the atmosphere through the
Earth's total area which is
hydrologic cycle (or water cycle), the continual
largely (97%) ocean.
flow of water from the ocean to the atmosphere
to the land and back to the ocean again.
 Since the quantities of water in each phase of the
cycle are closely linked, any changes in the
amount of rainfall, evapo-transpiration, or
storage of water on the land, affects the entire
hydrologic cycle.
 The two types of liquid water in the
hydrosphere, seawater and river or fresh water, Soil Horizon
greatly vary in composition. Seawater is mainly
a Na+ and Cl- solution while river water is a The table shows a comparison
of the composition of sea
Ca+2 and HCO3- solution (Murray, 2004).
water and river water. Much
of the elements in the
seawater came from the
weathering of rocks and soil
erosion in terrestrial
ecosystems over millions of
years.
……
Chemical composition of seawater and river water
Seawater Riverwater
Chemical Ions
mmol kg-1
Chloride (Cl-) 546 0.22
Sodium (Na+) 468 0.26
Magnesium (Mg2+) 53.1 0.17
Sulfate (SO4-) 28.2 0.11
Calcium (Ca2+) 10.3 0.38
Potassium (K+) 10.2 0.07
Bicarbonate (HCO3-) 2.39 0.96
Bromide (Br-) 0.84 ---
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C. Biosphere
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 The biosphere is also called the zone of life since
it is the inhabited part of the Earth.
Soil Horizon  It is a thin envelope extending about 8 to 10 km

above the earth’s surface and a few to several
meters into the pedosphere.
 About 95 percent of the
biosphere is composed of  The myriad organisms living in the biosphere
six elements: C, H, O, N, P (plants, animals, microorganisms, and man) owe
………….………………………………
and S. their existence to the sun’s energy and its
 These are the major interactions with the elements and compounds
constituents of the living of the biosphere.
tissue.
 Their growth and distribution are determined
by water, light, altitude, and soil characteristics.
Effects of living organisms on the earth's atmosphere (Lovelock, 1988)
Composition Earth without life Earth with life

Carbon Dioxide (%) 98 0.03
Nitrogen (%) 1.9 79
Oxygen (%) 0 21
Argon (%) 0.1 1.0
Methane (%) 0 1.7
Surface Temperate (°C) 240-340 13
Pressure (bars) 60 1
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D. Lithosphere
 Lithosphere is the term given for the rigid crust

and the upper portion of the mantle of about
100 km thickness.
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Dig the Earth!

 The upper crustal portion is of particular
interest since it is the portion that interacts The crust is composed of
directly with the other spheres for the cycling of various kinds of rocks
elements. which are grouped into
three types: igneous,
 These rocks are largely composed of eight
metamorphic, and
elements.
sedimentary.

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The 15 most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust (Bland and Rolls,
1998)
Rank Element Symbol Percent by Weight

1 Oxygen O 46.67
2 Silicon Si 27.72
3 Aluminum Al 8.13
4 Iron Fe 5.00
5 Calcium Ca 3.60
6 Sodium Na 2.83
7 Potassium K 2.59
8 Magnesium Mg 2.09
9 Titanium Ti 0.44
10 Hydrogen H 0.14
11 Phosphorus P 0.12
12 Manganese Mn 0.10
13 Fluorine F 0.08
14 Sulfur S 0.05
15 Chlorine Cl 0.05
Soil Horizon
Plate Tectonics
 The theory of plate tectonics explains the mechanism by which the Earth’s
continents and oceans are moving and rearranging themselves.
 Its origin is credited to Alfred Wegener (1880-1930), a German meteorologist and
geophysicist, who proposed in his book Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane
(The origin of continents and oceans) of 1915 that continents are drifting.
 He advanced the idea that the present continents originated from a single
supercontinent which he called Pangaea (meaning, all earth).
o The modern version of Wegener’s theory, known as Plate Tectonics.
 Plate Tectonics states that the lithosphere is divided into several rigid plates that
float and drift on the plastic ASTHENOSPHERE.
 The plates vary in thickness from 70 to 80 km under the oceans and 100 to 150 km
under the continents.
 The major plates include the Pacific Plate, American Plate, Eurasian Plate, African
Plate, Australo-Indian Plate and the Antarctic Plate.
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Let us Dig Deeper!
 The Pacific Plate is the largest

and one of the most active
plates. It moves in a northwest
direction at a rate of about 70
mm per year colliding with the
Eurasian continent.
 This collision resulted in the
formation of the Philippine
Archipelago, Taiwan and
Japan on the crumpled edge of
….………………….………………………………
the Eurasian continent due to Pacific Ring
volcanism and it explains the of Fire
occurrence of thousands of
volcanoes around the Pacific
Ocean known as the Ring of
Fire.
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E. Pedosphere
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Soil Horizon
 It ranges in thickness from a few

centimeters to about 50 meters
Pedosphere is the thin
depending on the environmental soil cover formed
conditions. from the weathering
of the rocks in the
 It functions as a reactor where
upper portion of the
biological processes interact with
crust.
chemical processes at the interface of
the lithosphere, biosphere, atmosphere,
and hydrosphere
Reflections Check Compare and contrast the different components of Earth ecosystem.
Share your thoughts on the importance of understanding the Earth towards the
study of soils.
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Think like a Pro!

Soil Horizon
1. Discuss the five
components (earth’s major
5. Explain Why is the study of the earth spheres) of the global
and its origin important in Soil ecosystem.
Science? 2. Explain the Solar Nebular
Hypothesis.
6. WRITING in Soil Science 3. Discuss the Plate Tectonics
theory.
Write a Newsletter featuring the key 4. Explain how life on earth affect
connections between the study of soils the concentration of gases in the
and the study of Earth. You may atmosphere.
showcase the current global issues that
1.
soil science addresses and how the
concept of Earth Science facilitates in
addressing such issues.
References
Plummer, C.C., McGeary, D., and D.H. Carlson. 2005. Physical Geology 10th edn. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc. 1221 Avenue of the American, New York, N.Y. 620 pp.
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Module 2 Basic of Soil Genesis
Lesson 1
Soil Formation
……………………………………………………………………………………………
are expected to: Soil is formed from disintegration of rocks (parent
materials) with the action of climate and living
Discuss soil formation organisms, as conditioned by topography, over a
Elucidate how climate, period of time. As soil is formed, various processes
living organism, relief occur that develop the layers of the soil. In this
parent materials and time lesson, emphasis will be given on the concepts of soil
affect soil formation
formation, particularly the five factors that governs
Explain the process of the formation of soil and how does these factors
disintegrations of rocks and condition the properties of the soil that will be
minerals into soil particles.
formed. Upon culmination in this lesson, you will
appreciate the effect of these factors and its
Key Concepts
relevance in forming the soil that we use today.
n. Soil Formation Enjoy and do not forget the dirt while you learn.
……………………
o. Soil Development
p. Weathering
q. Soil Profile
r. Soil Horizon
Section 2.1
Connect Interpret Factors of Soil Formation
Apply the concepts. The soil is formed through the

interconnected action of climate, living organisms, parent
material, topography, and time.
Procedure
 Do a research works on the influence of each factor
in the formation of soils.
 Make a summary.
 From your summary, make a diagram showing the
interrelationship of each factor in forming the soil
Analysis
 Compare and contrast your output with your
classmates.
 Discuss your diagram together with the output of
Excerpt from: http://www.civileblog.com/wp-
your classmates content/uploads/2015/09/soil-formation.jpg
 Synthesize relatedness and make a holistic
interpretation.
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Soil Formation
 formation of the soil with special reference to the

processes or soil forming factors responsible for
the development of the true soil from
unconsolidated parent material
Five factors control the formation of soils (concepts of Soil Horizon

Hans Jenny):
The relationship of each of these
 Parent material (texture, structure, chemical factors to each other is seen in the
composition) following sentence:
 Climate (temperature and precipitation)
"Soil is a product of climate, living
 Topography
organisms, and topography acting
 Biotic (Vegetation and animals) factor or Living
on parent material over a period of
Organisms
time."
 Time
Soil= f (parent material[p],
climate[c], relief/topography[r],
Parent Material
living organisms[l], time[t])
Soil = f (clorpt)
 The parent material determines the mineralogy
and the nutrition status of the soil.
 Example:
o SiO2 (quartz) – does not contribute to the
fertility status of the soil.
o KAl(Mg,Fe)3Si3O10(OH)2 - (Biotite) –
contributes K, Mg and Fe
General categories of parent materials:

1. Residual/Sedentary
Rocks and minerals that are original to a location
that gave rise to a soil (via physical and chemical
processes)
2. Transported
a. Alluvial – transported by rivers
b. Colluvial – transported by gravitational
action
c. Eolian – wind deposits
d. Lacustrine – lake deposits
e. Marine – sea or ocean bottom deposits
Study Tips
As you read on the factors of soil formation, list the distinguishing features that
significantly affect the formation of the soil.
 Read more on the Nature and Properties of Soil (Brady and Weil, 2017)
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Climate and Living Organisms
 Climate and living organisms are considered the

“ACTIVE FACTORS” of soil formation and
Soil Horizon greatly determine the degree and rate of soil
formation.
Temperature has a direct effect  Most important climatic parameters are:
on the amount of organic matter o Temperature
that is produced. Organic matter Temperature changes can cause enough
production increases as expansion and contraction to crack hard
temperature increases, provided rock.
there is rainfall for good plant o Precipitation:
growth. Rainfall affects weathering and the
amount of organic matter production and
As rainfall increase, the
decomposition.
possibility of erosion losses
increases. When rainfall
increases, organic matter Topography
production increases provided
the temperature is high enough  The topography or relief of the location of the
for good plant growth.
parent material influences the effect of the
“active factors”.
 Soil formation is less extensive in steep slopes
where soil disturbance is extensive (erosion)
and degree downward water flow (through the
soil surface) is low.
Time
 Soil-forming processes take time to show their

effects.
 The weathering of rock generally creates only
0.01–0.1 mm of new soil material per year, the
rate of soil formation depending on the
environmental factors
 Time zero in soil formation is a point in time
when a catastrophic event is completed, and
sufficient new material is exposed at the land
surface
Let us now dig the soil!

Soils have different features because of differences or changes in these five factors.
These different effects show up as different soil horizons and soil profiles.
20
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………
Soil Genesis
 The study of soil formation

 This means interpreting the origin of soil. Soil Horizon
 It is important to understand the beginning of
anything so that you have a foundation for the
future. A thorough
understanding of soil
formation processes is a
Weathering valuable tool to use in
interpreting soils for
specific uses.
 the totality of chemical, physical, and biological
processes resulting in the degradation of the
parent material and the subsequent formation of
the soil.
 breakdown / disintegration and decomposition
of rocks and minerals
Weathering is important because it:

 Produces unconsolidated material (parent
material) from which soil is formed.
 Provides plant nutrients
 Results in the formation of secondary minerals,
the most important group being the clay
minerals.
Note: Rocks are the starting point for the weathering processes
Basic Processes in Weathering:
1. Mechanical/Physical process
a. temperature (expansion and
contraction, freezing and thawing of
water)
b. wind effects
c. force exerted by plant roots
2. Chemical process
a. hydrolysis
b. hydration
c. acid solution
…………
d. oxidation-reduction
e. dissolution
21
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………
Mechanical/Physical Process
a. temperature (expansion and contraction,

freezing and thawing of water)
b. wind effects
c. force exerted by plant roots
Chemical Process
Rocks undergoing exfoliation, the effect
a. Hydrolysis of thermal differences.
Excerpt from: https://i.ytimg.com/vi/x-
It is due to the dissociation of H2O into H+ and taMPWMTI4/maxresdefault.jpg
OH- ions which chemically combine with
minerals and bring about changes, such as
exchange, decomposition of crystalline structure
and formation of new compounds.
b. Hydration
Chemical combination of water molecules with a
substance or mineral leading to a change in
structure.
c. Acid Solution
Some substances present in the rocks are
directly soluble in water. The soluble substances
are removed by the continuous action of water
Abrasive effects of winds in weathering
and the rock no longer remains solid and form
physically rocks.
holes, rills or rough surface and ultimately falls Excerpt from:
into pieces or decomposes. The action is https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
considerably increased when the water is commons/7/7c/Arbol_de_Piedra.jpg
acidified by the dissolution of organic and
inorganic acids.
d. Oxidation-Reduction
The process of addition and/loss absence of
oxygen to minerals. The absorption is usually
from O2 dissolved in soil water and that present
in atmosphere
e. Dissolution
Dissolution equally means leaching. It the
process by which the rocks are dissolved when
Roots of the trees can cause cracks in
exposed to rainwater.
rocks.
Excerpt from:
…………
https://www.worldatlas.com/r/w728-h425-
c728x425/upload/56/b0/3c/shutterstock-
212736478.jpg
22
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………
Reflections Check Compare and contrast the different factors of soil
formation.
Share your thoughts on the process of weathering and
its importance in the study of soil genesis.
Think like an Artist! Understand Soil Horizons
Soil Horizon
1. Define soil
5. Explain Why is parent material formation using your own
considered the primary determinant of context.
the soil’s chemical properties?
2. Discuss the five factors of soil
6. Arts in Soil Science formation.
3. Compare and contrast residual
Make a short Scientific Documentary and transported parent
(Short Film) that features the material.
formation of soils in various ecological
systems 4. Differentiate mechanical
weathering to chemical
weathering.
References

…………
23
Module 2 Basic of Soil Genesis
Lesson 2
Soil Development
……………………………………………………………………………………………
are expected to: Soils are quite variable from one location to another.
They have different physical appearances and
Discuss soil development properties which are a result of chemical and physical
Differentiate soil horizon to processes occurring in the environment. Soil
soil profile. horizons are soil features that are easy to observe. As
Discuss master horizons such, when parent materials are weathered and soils
and other common are formed, the factors of soil formation continuously
diagnostic horizons act on it, developing the properties, innate to every
type of soil. Upon culmination in this lesson, you will
Key Concepts know the difference between soil formation and soil
s. Soil Horizon development. Enjoy and do not forget the dirt while
t. Soil Profile you learn.
u. Master Horizon
……………………
v. Pedon
w. Diagnostic Horizon
Section 2.2
Label Interpret Soil Profile and Soil Horizon
Interpret the figure. You are already aware that soils have
different features because of differences or changes of the
five factors of soil formation. These different effects show up
as different soil horizons and soil profiles.
Procedure
 Do a research works on soil profile and soil horizon.
 Label the picture and discuss based on the result of
your research.
Analysis
 Compare and contrast your output with your
classmates.
 Discuss the relevance of soil profile and soil horizon
in the study of soils.
A typical soil profile.
24
Soil Development
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
 The changes in the soil profile brought about
by natural processes of leaching,
translocation of colloids, accumulation of
organism matter, and continued rock and
mineral weathering
Soil Horizon
 A layer of soil approximately parallel to the land
surface and differing from adjacent genetically
related layers in physical, chemical, and
biological properties or characteristics such as
color, structure, texture, consistency, kinds and
number of organisms present, degree of acidity
or alkalinity etc.
Soil Profile
 A vertical section of soil through all its
horizons, extending into the parent material.
Characteristics of Different Master Horizon
Master
Characteristics
Horizon
organic material at the surface (top of) soil -- leaves, twigs, branches, dead grass
O etc. These horizons are usually seen in forested soils and wetlands, generally not in
cultivated soils.
horizon where decomposed O.M. accumulates -- usually has a dark color area where
most biological activity occurs most - soil microbes are here, as are earth worms etc. -
A usually at the surface. If the field is plowed this horizon extends to the depth of
cultivation. Therefore, it is called the plow layer. Area of clay and chemical loss. It is
called the zone of eluviation.
horizon of maximum removal or leaching. This is also a zone of eluviation. Maximum
E clay and chemical losses have occurred here. -- generally light colored and sandy
horizon where the material from the A and E horizon will collect. This horizon is
B known as the zone of illuviation. -- clay and chemicals are generally at maximum levels
layer of nearly unaltered mineral material. no biological activity here. neither a zone of
eluviation nor illuviation. No changes have really taken place. Very little if any rooting
C has occurred in this horizon. Generally considered to be the lower limit of the soil. --
This is called the soil's parent material.
R the underlying bedrock, such as limestone, sandstone, or granite.
25
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Schematic representation of soil profile with the master horizon.
There are 4 processes involved in horizon

differentiation:
 Additions to the soil
 Losses from the soil
 Translocations within the soil
 Transformations within the soil
All these processes are going on at the same time in the soil. They are
all working together to help form the different horizons.
26
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
 Soil profiles do not give any
information on irregularities in
a. Additions horizon thickness.
 water as precipitation,  To take care of these irregularities,
condensation, or runoff soil scientists study a volume of
 O2 and CO2 from the soil known as the soil pedon.
atmosphere
 N, Cl, and S from the  The soil pedon is a three-
atmosphere and precipitation dimensional soil body.
 organic matter from biotic  Pedon is the smallest volume that
activities may represent a soil. It is
 material from sediments generally 1 to 10 meters across
 energy from the sun and hexagonal in shape.
b. Losses  If similar pedons are put together,

 water by evapotranspiration we get a polypedon. The pedons in
 N by denitrification a polypedon have similar features
 C as CO2 from oxidation of O.M. and characteristics.
 soil by erosion  Polypedons are put together into
 energy by radiation groups known as Soil Series.
 water and material in solution
or suspension  There are over 14,000 soil series
throughout the world.
c. Translocations  Each of these series has different
 clay, organic matter, iron chemical and physical properties
oxides, and chemicals by water that affect management.
 nutrients circulated by plants
 soluble salts in water
 soils by animals Diagnostic Horizons:
 Horizons that are indicative of
d. Transformations certain types of soil
 decomposition of organic
development. Horizons having
matter
specific soil characteristics that
 reduced particle size by
are indicative of certain classes
weathering of soils
 mineral transformations
(primary to secondary) o Epipedons – diagnostic
 clay and organic matter horizons that occur at the
reactions surface
o Diagnostic subsurface
horizon – diagnostic
horizons below the
surface
27
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Common Diagnostic Horizons
Diagnostic
Symbol Characteristics
Horizon
Mollic A Thick, dark-colored, good structure
Histic O Very high in organic matter content, wet during some
part of the year
Oa Most highly decomposed – very few fibers are
identifiable
Oe Intermediate degree of decomposition
Oi Least degree of decomposition, with readily identifiable
fibers
Argillic Bt Silicate clay accumulation
Albic E Light colored, clay, Fe and Al oxides most likely removed
Oxic Bo Highly weathered, primary mixture of Fe or Al oxides,
rust-colored
Spodic Bhs Organic matter, Fe and Al oxide accumulation
Calcic Bk Accumulation of CaCO3 or CaMgCO3
Duripan Bqm Hardpan, strongly cemented by silica
Fragipan Bx Brittle pan, usually loamy textured, dense
Reflections Check Compare and contrast soil formation and soil development.
Differentiate soil profile and soil horizon.
Discuss the importance of diagnostic soil horizon in the study of soils.

Think like an Artist!
Soil Horizon
1. Discuss soil
6. Explain the relevance of
development in your own
understanding soil profiles in the
context.
study of soils.
2. Differentiate soil profile
7. Arts in Soil Science from soil horizons.
3. Describe the Master
Make a short Scientific Documentary Horizons.
(Short Film) that features the 4. Discuss what is pedon?
formation and development of soils
in various ecological systems 5. Discuss what is diagnostic
horizons?
28
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
References
Buol, S.W., R.J. Southard, R.C. Graham and P.A. McDaniel. 2011. Soil Genesis and
Classification. John and Wiley and Sons, Inc., Iowa. 556 p.
Carating, R.B., Galanta R.G. and C.D. Bacatio. 2014. The Soils of the Philippines. Springer
Dordrecht Heidelberg New York: London. 363 pp.
29
Module 3 Soil: A Three Phase System
Lesson 1
Basic composition of the soil
……………………………………………………………………………………………
are expected to: For many of us we can readily identify and observe the
soil as solid in nature as we step on it almost everyday.
Discuss the components of However, the liquid and air part can also be present
the soil
and has equal importance in terms of its role in the
Discuss roles of the
different soil components support for biological growth within and on the soil
Differentiate rocks from surface. Thus, soil is referred to as three-phase
minerals system because it consists of solid particles, liquid,
and air. Upon culmination in this lesson, you will know
Key Concepts
the different roles of each soil components and its
x. Soil Air
interactions among its components. So, enjoy and note
y. Soil Water that this lesson is our gateway to help us appreciate
z. Soil Solid soils and its importance in the support of life.
aa. Rocks
……………………
bb. Minerals
Section 3.1
Let’s Dirty! What’s in the soil clod?
Feeling the soil. In this activity, we will use our senses

(touch, smell, and sight) to let us have a better understanding
on the basic components of soil
Procedure
 Go outside and get a clod of soil. A typical soil clod
 Examine the clod and identify the three components
using your touch, sight and sense of smell.
Analysis
 Order the the three components from the most
obvious to the less obvious.
 In your own context Order the different components
according to their importance to plant growth.
30
Components of the three phase system
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
 Soil Air
 Soil Water
 Soil Solid
For medium textured soils, volume percentage of the

various components are shown above:
Solids
mineral
part -- mineral particles- sand, silt, and clay
All1.ofSand
parts– together
0.05 to 2.0 mm up the soil. Since the soil is a
make
2. Silt – 0.002 to
medium for plant growth,0.05 mmwe have to ask: What is the
3. Clay – smaller than 0.002 mm
best “mixture” of the ranges.
three phases for plant growth?
ize classification
 organic part -- plant material, decomposing microorganisms,
worms, peat moss, etc.
What would be the ideal soil for plant growth?
Pores
 Soil Air
 Soil Water
Soil Water
31
When a balance (of the three phases) is not maintained problems occur:
 too much water -- flooding
 not enough water -- dry soil, seeds may not germinate, plants will
wilt
 not enough air -- compact soil that will not grow plants
o “Soil air” refers the air in the pores. It has lower oxygen content
and has higher carbon dioxide content than atmospheric air. Soil
has a large population of microorganism and the oxidative
respiration of these microbes contributes to the depletion of
oxygen and accumulation of carbon dioxide in soil air.
o “Soil water” refers to water in pores. It usually has a higher

solute concentration than water in surface water bodies (rivers
and lakes). For water to enter the pores, the air in them has to be
excluded.
o Saturation – theoretical condition where all the pores are filled

with water. Air is totally excluded from the pores and the supply of
oxygen to the soil is cut. This can lead to the development of
reduced conditions that may greatly influence the types of
chemical reactions and the composition of the microbial
community in the soil.
o The composition of the soil solid phase determines whether

the soil is a “mineral soil” or “organic soil”. Information on the
amount of clay and organic carbon/organic matter are required to
classify the soil as either mineral or organic.
o Mineral soils are those having physical and chemical properties

that are largely determined by the mineral fraction of the soil.
They are supposed to be managed differently than organic soils.
32
Rocks and Minerals
o Most of the material that makes up soil comes from rocks and minerals.
o These rocks and minerals are weathered in place or weathered and

transported, and become unconsolidated material on the surface of the
earth. This material is called regolith. The upper part of the regolith is soil.
o This unconsolidated material is acted on by the soil forming factors and

soil is formed. For this reason, the upper part of the regolith is called
parent material.
Minerals
-- a solid, inorganic, homogeneous, crystalline, element or compound.
Two types of minerals are found in natural systems: primary and secondary.
 Whether the mineral is primary or secondary depends on the

mode of formation and not on the mineral composition.
 minerals that crystallize from cooling magma are called PRIMARY.
 minerals that crystallize during the weathering of primary
minerals are called SECONDARY MINERALS.
33
Important Primary Minerals
Quartz SiO2
Orthoclase / feldspar KAlSi3O8
Plagioclase /feldspar (Ca,Na) AlSi3O8
Muscovite / mica KAlSi3O10(OH)2
Biotite / mica KAl(Mg,Fe)3Si3O10(OH)2
Hornblende / Amphibole Ca2Al2Mg2Fe3Si6O22(OH)2
Augite / Pyroxine Ca2(Al,e)4(Mg, Fe)4Si6O24

Olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4
Important Secondary Minerals
a) Clay minerals- kaolinite, montmorillonite

Note: to be discussed further under the “chemical properties” section
b) non-silicate/ amorphous
1. Oxides
Fe2O3 hematite
FeO(OH) goethite
Al(OH)3 gibbsite
2. Carbonates
CaCO3 calcite
CaMg(CO3)2 dolomite
3. Sulfates
CaSO4 . 2H2O
gypsum
The clay fraction is largely composed of secondary

minerals, while the silt and sand fractions are usually
composed of primary minerals.
Also, the sand fraction is usually composed of minerals
that are relatively resistant to weathering such as quartz.
34
Rocks
-- an aggregate of one or more minerals.
The mineral composition of rocks determines their physical and chemical
properties.
Types of rocks:
1. Igneous rocks
2. Sedimentary rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks
1. Igneous Rocks – solidified lava or magma

Properties are a result of:
1. Minerals in original magma
2. Cooling (crystallizing) environment
Remember that all rocks started out as igneous rocks

o slow cooling deep in the earth--produces large
mineral crystals
o rapid cooling at or near the surface--produces
small mineral crystals
o Igneous rocks may be the most important of the
three types because the other two forms are
alterations or changes of igneous rocks.
2. Sedimentary Rocks -from the deposition and cementation of weathering

products
*Lithification – process of sedimentary rock formation
Sedimentary rocks are cemented together with pressure and/or
chemicals.
Example:
sandstone sand size grains cemented together
shale clay size grains cemented together
(CaCO3) is calcitic / (Ca, Mg) (CO3)2 is
limestone
dolomitic
o Cementing agents could either be Fe-oxides(“rust”), carbonates,
and even clay particles.
3. Metamorphic Rocks -from the alteration or preexisting rocks due to

heat and/or pressure
sandstone = forms quartzite limestone = forms marble
shale = forms slate granite = forms gneiss
35
Rock Cycle
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
The rock cycle
Understand Soil Components

6. Discuss soil components in
9. Explain the relevance of your own context.
understanding the different soil 7. Differentiate rocks from
components in the study and minerals
management of soils
10. Make a short Scientific Documentary
8. Discuss the rock cycle
(Short Film) that features the roles of
the different soil components in crop
production
36
References
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
37
Module 4 Soil Physical Properties and Soil Water
Lesson 1
Soil Water
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
At the end of this lesson, you are
expected to: Soil water content and the soil’s ability to
transmit water through its pore spaces and
Explain the different
expressions of soil water and fractures (hydraulic conductivity) are dynamic
its importance in crop soil physical properties.
production
Although they are not as important as soil
Key Concepts texture, soil structure, soil color, soil consistence,
cc. Saturation soil density in characterizing the soil profile or
dd. Field capacity classifying the soil, soil water content and
ee. Permanent Wilting Point
hydraulic conductivity are very important in
ff. Gravitational Water
gg. Total Available deciding the appropriate land management
Water/Plant Available scheme for a given area.
Water
hh. Volumetric Water Content
ii. Gravimetric Water Content
jj. Thickness of Water
kk. Hydraulic Conductivity
ll. Soil Drainage
Section 4.1
……………
Soils are more like a sponge! Understanding Soil Water

In this activity, we will demonstrate how soils absorbs and holds water through the use of our common
dish washing sponge. Soils are more like sponges as it has small and big pores that water can be held.
Procedure
 Prepare a sponge (must be in good condition at least 1 inch thick)
 Also, prepare a basin with 2 liters of tap water.
 Soak the sponge in the basin with the water.
 Wait until the sponge is fully soaked.
 After fully soaking the sponge, gradually lift it while holding it gently careful not to squeeze it.
Make sure to observe the movement of water coming out from the sponge.
 After a few moments you will notice that water will stop dripping from the sponge. Slowly
squeeze the sponge using your full grip.
 After squeezing, place the sponge on a clean dry tissue or paper
 Observe if the tissue or paper is dampened by the sponge.
Analysis
 Give your own explanation why water continuously drips for a certain amount of time from the
sponge after it was lifted out from the water.
 After the water stops dripping are empty spaces/pores in the sponge still filled with water? What
could be the reason?
 Is the tissue or paper dampened by the sponge after you place it on top of it? What could be the
reason?
38
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Qualitative expressions of soil water content:
1. Saturation – all the pores are filled with Gravitational Water – water
water drained from the pores due to the
action of gravity
2. Field Capacity (FC) – water content
referring to water left in the soil after
gravitational water has drained.
 For medium-textured soils, this is

usually achieved three days after the end Soil Horizon
of a rain event/irrigation event that fully
saturates a certain horizon/location in Field capacity
the soil. technically refers to
a condition where
3. Permanent Wilting Point (PWP) - water water is held by the
soil by tensions of
content referring to a condition wherein the
0.3 bar to 15 bars
quantity of water in the field is very low
such that plants growing in it will wilt
beyond recovery.
4. Total Available Water/Plant-Available

Water Soil Horizon
 Amount of water (expressed in a volume
or mass basis) that is considered Permanent wilting point
available for plant use. technically refers to a
 Computed as the difference between the condition where water is
water content at FC and PWP (FC-PWP). held by the soil by a
tension of 15 bars or
more.
Quantitative Expressions of Soil Water Content:
1. Volumetric Water Content –(ϴ) = volume

of water per bulk volume of soil
ϴ = volume of water ÷ bulk volume of soil
Note: ϴ common unit = cm3/cm3
(which includes the volume of pores)
2. Gravimetric Water Content (w) = mass of

water per mass of soil solids
w = mass of water ÷ mass of soil solids (or
dry mass of soil) Note: w common unit = g/g
3. Thickness of water (l) = equivalent

thickness of water in a given thickness of
soil
Note: l common unit = cm or mm
l = ϴ × thickness of soil considered
39
Hydraulic Conductivity (k)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
 A physical parameter which relates to the
ability of the water to allow water to pass or
permeate through it.
 Under saturated conditions, the ability of the
soil to transmit water is known as Saturated
Note: computations of k are
Hydraulic Conductivity or Ksat.
discussed in detail in higher Soil
Science courses but not in this  Under unsaturated conditions, the ability of the
course soil to transmit water is known as Unsaturated
Hydraulic Conductivity or Kunsat
 Units – usually expressed as cm travelled by
water per hour (cm/h)
 Computed using the following Darcy’s Law
Equation:
Soil Horizon k= Darcian flux ÷ hydraulic gradient
Hydraulic Conductivity
Soil Hydraulic Conductivity vs Soil drainage
 if K is high: water
moves quickly 1. Hydraulic Conductivity is the speed of water
 if K is low: water movement in a soil. This is affected by texture
moves slowly and structure
Drainage 2. Drainage is the frequency and duration of
 A sand could have a saturation. The time that the soil is
high conductivity, waterlogged. This is affected by landscape
but in a low position and conductivity.
landscape position
and be poorly Factors affecting hydraulic conductivity.
drained.
 A clay loam could 1. Water content. This is not a factor for Ksat. But
have a high Kunsat is affected by water content. Unsaturated
conductivity, but in a hydraulic conductivity declines with drop in
low landscape water content
position and be
poorly drained. 2. Pore size present in the soil
 A clay may have a Water moves faster through larger pores than
very low smaller pores.
conductivity but 3. Pore Continuity
may be well drained High Conductivity - contains pores which are
because it is at the continuous and large enough for water to pass
top of a hill. through. This is expected in course-texture
soils where pores tend to be large and
continuous.
4. Natural aggregation of the separates will
increase the large pore space. When soils with
good structure are compacted the large pore,
space is lost because the big pores are
squashed.
40
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
This is why it is important to maintain good
soil structure if it already exists.
5. Other factors:
Root and worm channels: increase
permeability by forming large continuous
pores throughout the soil. These pores must
extend from the soil surface to depth. These
allow for rapid water infiltration.
Organic matter: increases permeability by
promoting aggregation and increasing the
stability of soil aggregates. Remember that
organic matter decomposes to form glues,
gums, etc. that help cement or stick soil
particles together. Organic matter forms large
pores when plant residues are added or left
on the soil surface.
Important Terms:
Why run-off matter?
Infiltration Surface run-off is the
 Entry of the water through the soil surface main cause of
 This is influenced by the properties of the phosphorus loss in
surface and porosity and structure of the sub- most agricultural
surface fields. These P
 Areas with high infiltration rate usually does nutrients can cause
not keep water ponded at the surface. detrimental effects on
 When water ponded at the surface moves bodies of water
horizontally, it is called “runoff” and it can through a
cause soil erosion phenomenon called
“Eutrophication”.
Reflections Check Explain the relevance of understanding the concept of soil water
Compare and contrast the qualitative and quantitative expression of soil water.
Discuss the importance of soil water knowledge in crop production and
management
41
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Understanding Soil Horizon

Think like a manager
Soil Horizon
1. Explain What
are the three qualitative
As if you are the one in-charge of the expressions of soil water
banana plantation’s irrigation system content?
2. Show How are the TAW
Scenario: and amount of gravitational
The banana plantation is divided by two water computed?
soil types: clay and sandy loam. It rained 3. Discuss What are three
on a Monday saturating the soil. quantitative expressions of
water content?
Questions: 4. Explain What is hydraulic
6. Which of the two (2) soils you think conductivity?
have retained more water after one 5. Discuss What influences
(1) week? Why? hydraulic conductivity of
7. During that year there was forecast soil in the field?
of a potential drought however the
company has limited budget on its
drip irrigation. Only one (1) of the
two soils will have an irrigation set-
up. As the manager, which soil type
will you prioritize? Why?
References
42
Module 4 Physical Properties of Soil and Soil Water
Lesson 2
Soil Physical Properties
……………………………………………………………………………………………
are expected to: Description of the soil profile and the soil horizons
are often described in the field in terms of the
Explain the different types
of soil physical properties
soil's physical properties. Horizon boundaries
and its importance in land within a soil profile are defined based on
use planning difference in the physical properties.
Furthermore, soil physical properties are also key
Key Concepts
determinants of the appropriate land use for an
mm. Soil Color area. In this lesson, we will get to know the
nn. Soil Texture different soil physical properties and understand
oo. Soil Structure
their importance in describing soils for
pp. Soil Consistency
qq. Soil Density classification and management purposes.
……………………
Section 4.2
No soils are exactly the same!
In this activity, we will compare soil clods and record their differences
to elucidate the uniqueness of each soil physical properties.
Procedure
 Go outside and get a clod of soil from two different depths.
 The first clod will be taken from within 0-3inches from the soil surface
while the second clod from 6-9 inches from the surface
Analysis
 Examine the clod and Describe its differences in terms of:
1. Color (Black,Brown, Red, etc)
2. Its resistance to deformation (twist the clod
and compare which disintegrates/breaks easily)
3. Natural shape/pattern of its soil aggregate (from
the result of no.2 take the disintegrated portion of the clod A typical soil clod
and record which has more angles or sharp edges
4. Again, take a portion of the clod (thumbs size) and
excessively wet it with water while holding it on your palm.
Press and rub it it with your thumb. Determine which is more
gritty.
 In your own reasoning identify which of the 2 clods:
1. Provide better root penetration
2. Hold more water
3. Has more organic matter
43
SOIL COLOR
It is the most obvious and easily determined soil physical property.

It has little direct effect on the soil, but is an indicator of soil properties.
There are many things we can tell about the soil by observing the color.
 Organic matter content -- the more organic content the darker the
soil color
 Soil color and soil temperature --dark colored soils absorb more
heat so they warm up quicker and have higher soil temperatures.
 Soil color and parent material --generally dark parent material will
develop into dark soils.
 Soil color and drainage --soil drainage refers to the length of time a
soil is waterlogged. Not how fast the soil is drained.
Relationship of Soil Color to Drainage

Soil Color is very important in determining a soils drainage and
depth to the water table. It can be very important in predicting land use
hazards.
Soil Drainage: refers to the length and duration of saturation and is not a
measure of how fast water drains from the soil.
Soil Drainage Classes
Well-drained - no gray colors with the top 48 inches
Moderately well-drained - gray colors between 24 to 48 inches

from the surface
Somewhat poorly drained - gray colors between 12 to 24 inches

from surface
Poorly drained - gray colors within 12 inches from the surface
Very Poorly drained – gray colors within 12 inches from the surface
and has a O horizon
When do we consider the color gray?

Use the Munsell Color Chart. A soil is considered
gray if it has a CHROMA OF 2 OR LESS
44
Soil Color Measurement
Munsell Color System:
A standardized system used by soil scientists
and geologists.
The system has the following color parameters:
1. Hue: dominant spectral color
2. Value: lightness - darkness; white to black
3. Chroma: color purity or intensity
Color Notation: 10YR 5/2
 10YR – the Hue
 5 – the Value Munsell Soil Color Chart
 2 – the chroma
Additional things to take note:
 red, yellow, and light brown colors – likely due to Fe oxides

 dark brown or black colors – likely due to organic matter or Mn oxides
 low color value = high organic matter content
 high chroma = well drained soil, oxidizing conditions
 chroma or 2 or less = red Fe-oxide coatings had been removed under reducing
conditions
SOIL TEXTURE
A soil's texture is then the relative proportion of SAND, SILT, and CLAY.
Together, these three SOIL SEPARATES must add up to be 100%. The organic
matter is not a part of the soil's texture. Each soil separate represents a distinct
physical size group of mineral particles. We will be using these separates the rest
of the semester:
Effective
Diameter
Sand 2.0 - 0.05 mm
Silt 0.05 - 0.002 mm
Clay <0.002 mm
For a more detailed textural classification the sand fraction is further divided
into the following
Very Coarse Sand 2.0 - 1.0 mm

Coarse Sand 1.0 - 0.5 mm
Medium Sand 0.5 - 0.25 mm
0.25 - 0.10
Fine Sand
mm
45
0.10 - 0.05
Very Fine Sand
mm
Modifiers that are used for coarse materials that are greater than 2 mm (effective
diameter).
gravels 2mm - 3 in
cobbles 3 in - 10 in
stones 10 in - 24 in
boulders > 24 in
Textural Classes/Textural Grades:
Since there is such a large number of combinations

that could occur, soil scientists group similar
amounts of sand, silt and clay into groups called soil
textural classes or textural grades. There are 12
textural classes and classification into a specific soil
textural class uses the Soil Textural Triangle
Soil Textural Triangle
Materials belonging to the same textural

classification generally behave similarly and
may be managed similarly.
46
Other important effects of Soil Texture:
Specific Surface Area – the amount of particle surface area exposed and
available as a site for chemical and physical processes per
unit mass or volume of soil. The finer the particle sizes of the
soil mass, the larger the specific surface area.
Estimates of Specific Surface Area:

 1g of sand = 1.5 ft2
 1g of silt = 14.9 ft2
 1g of clay = 262,467 ft2
Specific Surface Area affects the:

1. adsorption of water
2. area for chemical reactions
3. adsorption of nutrients
4. plasticity
5. shrink/swell
Soil Texture and Management

Coarse Textured Soils (sands, loamy sands)
 Hold low amounts of water and nutrients - may have to irrigate

and fertilize frequently
 Not highly erosize - allows water to infiltrate; less runoff
 Very permeable - good for waste disposal only if a deep soil
 May compact to form a hardpan
Fine textured soils (clays, sandy clays, silty clays)
 Hold large amounts of nutrients and water - may hold things

too tightly
 Erosion - slow infiltration; high runoff means much erosion.
 Slow permeability - often unacceptable for septic tanks
 May shrink/swell - depends upon the type of clay minerals
present
Medium Textured Soils (loams, clay loams, sandy loams, silt loams)
Properties fall in between the other two.
47
SOIL STRUCTURE
Structure is the arrangement of primary sand, silt and clay particles into
secondary aggregates called peds or structural units which have distinct shapes
and are easy to recognize. These differently shaped aggregates are called the
structural type.
TYPES: There are 5 basic types of structural units:

1. Platy: Plate-like aggregates that form parallel to the horizons like pages
in a book.
 This type of structure may reduce air, water and root
movement.
 common structure in an E horizon and usually not
seen in other horizons.
2. Blocky: Two types--angular blocky and subangular blocky
 These types of structures are commonly seen in the
B horizon.
 Angular is cube-like with sharp corners while
subangular blocky has rounded corners.
3. Prismatic: Vertical axis is longer than the horizontal axis. If the top is
flat, it is referred to as prismatic. If the top is rounded, it is called
columnar.
4. Granular: Peds are round and porous, spheroidal. This is usually the
structure of A horizons.
5. Structureless: No observable aggregation or structural units.
 Single grain-sand
 Massive-solid mass without aggregates
48
GRADES: Grade of structure – relates to the degree of inter-aggregate adhesion
and to aggregate stability.
1. structure less- particles are not arranged to aggregates or peds
2. weak – poorly formed peds or aggregates that are barely observable in
place
3. moderate – well-formed and moderately durable peds that are not
very distinct in undisturbed soils
4. strong – durable peds that are quite evident in undisturbed soil but
may be separated when the soil is disturbed.
CLASS: Class of structure - Describes size of the aggregates.

1. very fine
2. fine
3. medium
4. coarse
5. very coarse
Note: the exact dimension for each class varies from one type to another
In describing the structure, the Class, Grade

and Type has to be indicated (in this particular
order).
Example: coarse, strong, sub-angular blocky
Processes involved in formation of soil structure

1. wetting / drying
2. root pressure
3. microorganisms – effect of fungal hypha or mucilaginous bacterial exudates
4. cementing by clay, organic matter, iron and aluminum compounds
Importance of Soil Structure
1. Increases infiltration of water, thus reducing runoff and erosion and

increases the amount of plant available water.
2. Improves seedling emergence, root growth and rooting depth.
3. Large continuous pores increase permeability.
49
Tips in Maintaining favorable Soil Structure for Plant
Growth
1. Till soil only at the proper wetness. Never till when

the soil is too wet. This will cause the soil to become
cloddy and the aggregates to be destroyed.
2. Add the proper amounts of lime and fertilizer. Proper
plant growth will lead to the development of good
soil structure.
3. Maintain or increase organic matter contents of Ap
horizon.
SOIL CONSISTENCY
Expresses cohesive and adhesive forces holding soil particles together; varies
with moisture content. Describes the resistance of a soil at various moisture
contents to mechanical stress or manipulation. . It refers to the degree of plasticity
and stickiness of the soil. Soil consistence is affected by the type and amount of
clay that is in the soil.
Soil consistence indicates:
 where are zones that may restrict root growth and seedling emergence.
 whether a soil is likely to develop compacted zones; ruts, crusts, hardpans etc...
Description of Consistence:
Described at three moisture levels:
1. Wet
Stickiness (non-sticky, slightly sticky, sticky,very sticky)
Plasticity (non-plastic, slightly plastic, plastic, very plastic)
2. Moist
Very friable, friable, firm ,very firm
3. Dry
Loose, soft, slightly hard, hard, very hard ,extremely hard
V. SOIL DENSITY
Two Expressions of Soil Density:

1. Particle Density (Dp)
- the density of the soil solids alone (volume of pores excluded in
computation)
- determined by the mineralogy of the soil material
Dp = mass of Oven-dried Soil ÷ volume of soil solids or

Dp = mass Soil Solids ÷ volume of soil solids
50
Note: For most soils, this assumed to be 2.65 g-3 which is the Dp for quartz.
2. Bulk Density (Db)
- density of the bulk soil (volume of pores included in the computation)
- determined by mineralogy as well as packing and sorting of soil
particles
- index of compaction. Soil of a given texture is considered compact if its
bulk density is close to the bulk densities outlined in the table below.
Maximum soil
densities for
common soil
textures. Roth,
1997
Db = mass of oven-dried Soil ÷ bulk volume volume of soil material

Or
Db = mass soil solids ÷ (volume of soil solids + volume of pores)
Bulk density is affected by the solids and pore space:

o high pore space = low bulk density
o low pore space = high bulk density
 fine textures silt loams, clay, clay loam - generally lower
bulk density 0.9-1.6 g/cc
 sandy soils may range 1.2 - 1.8 g/cc
 strong structure (well granulated topsoil) - low bulk density
 high organic matter = low bulk density
As bulk density increases:

o soil strength increases
o pore space decreases
o soils become more compact
Remember that bulk density is related to the

amount of pores in the soil.
 the greater the total pore space the lower the bulk
density
51
Other Important Soil Physical Properties:
1. Porosity (f) = a soil physical property which indicates how much of the bulk
volume of the soil is occupied by pores. This can be expressed as a
decimal or as a percentage. Porosity values normally range from 0.35
to 0.65. Non-compacted tmedium-textured soils may be assumed to
have porosity of 0.5 or 50%.
f= volume pores ÷ bulk volume or total volume of soil
By doing a simple derivation, porosity can also be computed as:
f= 1- (Db/Dp)
Soils with a high porosity means:

1. The soil can accommodate a large volume of air and water.
2. Air and water movement may be effective.
3. Limited or no problem of root penetration.
4. Soil is relatively less prone to erosion.
2. Penetration Resistance (PR) – this a measure of the resistance offered by the

soil against root penetration. This is largely a function
of the soil bulk density and consistency.
o Penetration resistance is measured using a standardized

penetrometer. Units of the measurements are units of pressure.
3. Hydraulic Conductivity (K) – a parameter describing the soil’s ability to
transmit water
- to be discussed further under “Soil Water”
52
Understanding Soil Physical

Properties
8. Why is characterization of
soil physical properties
important?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
9. Differentiate static from

dynamic properties.
Think as if you are a 10. What are examples of
farmer wanting to important properties that
expand your farm can be inferred from soil
production by color?
acquiring more fields 11. What do we use/how is soil
color described?
12. what is the benefit of
18. What do you think
classifying the soil into
would be the ideal
values of the different textural grades?
soil physical 13. What are the different
properties that you structural types and describe
want as basis for how water moves through a
acquiring new soil having such structures?
agricultural fields? 14. How can good soil structure
be maintained/developed?
15. What is soil consistencyy and
what does consistency
description tell an
agriculturist using the soil in
an area?
16. What are the two
expressions of soil densities?
Which of the two is an index
of compaction?
17. What is porosity?
References

53
Module 5 Soil Chemical Properties
______________
Lesson 1
Importance of Chemical Properties, Soil Colloids

and Basic Clay Mineralogy (Silicate Clays)
are expected to: Welcome to module 6! This module will allow you to
unlock the chemical wonder of the soil. Learning the
 Identify and
Understand the basic principle of soil chemical property would help
importance of Soil (you) young student/agriculturist understand the
chemical properties in
behavior and fate of elements (essential, non-essential,
relation to agriculture
and environmental toxic, heavy metals) in the soil environment and to
management understand the relationship of this property to the
overall soil functioning. Enjoy and get ready to rock and
roll of soil’s amazing chemistry!
Section 5.1
Lets Get Started

Everything is Connected to Everything Else
For this lesson, you need to prepare 2 bar magnets, preferably labeled.
Hold the negative (-) ends of the magnets together, observe how they repel, then hold the
negative (-) to the positive (+) and witness how they attract.
The purpose of this activity is to show unlike charges (+ and -) attract and like
charges (+ and + or – and -) repel.
Analysis
What causes the attraction and repulsion of the magnets?
1. Relate your observation to the basic chemistry concepts.
54
Let’s Explore! (Abstraction)
Importance of Soil chemical properties

1. they affect nutrient availability to plants.
2. they affect the fate of chemicals added to the soil.
3. they affect the dominant biology and physical properties of the soil system.
Remember that: Most of the chemical properties of soils are associated with soil
colloids.
Soil Colloids
 mineral or organic particles in soil having a diameter less than 0.001 mm or 0.005
to 1.0 μm (within clay size range) which remain suspended in a liquid medium for
long periods of time.
 colloids have high surface area per unit mass
In most soils, the surfaces of the colloids have a negative (-) charge thus they have the
ability to attract (to hold) cations. (Opposite charges attract). Chemical reactions take
place on the colloid surface.
*In order to understand the chemistry of a soil you must know what clay minerals are
present and their contribution to the negative charge.
*Why focus on clay?
Because the chemistry of a soil body/soil mass is largely a function of the properties of
the clay fraction.
Types of Soil Colloids
1. Organic Colloids – humus
2. Inorganic Colloids – clay colloids
Examples of clay colloids
- layer silicate clays
- oxide clays
- amorphous clays
Clay Structure:
Two general types of clay (general structural classification):
1. Amorphous clays
2. Structured (Example: Silicate Clays)
Amorphous Clays:
 composed of silica (silicon oxide, SiO2) and alumina (aluminum oxide, Al2O3) or Fe
oxides that are mixed together WITHOUT forming well-oriented crystals.
 common in humid tropical climates (highly weathered soils) and in soils developed
from volcanic ash (Andisol).
Silicate Clays:
 normally have Al, Si, O (or OH), with substitutions including K, Mg, etc. in
their structure
 crystalline, sometimes amorphous
 contribute to a wide range of soil properties
 common in temperate climates
2 Basic Structural Units (Building Blocks) of Structured Clays (fig. 1)
55
Figure 1. Silicon (Si 4+) tetrahedron (A) and Aluminum (Al 3+) octahedron (B).
Remember that:
A series of structural units that are bonded together will form a “sheet” (fig. 2)
Figure 2. Sheet of phyllo silicate
Adjacent sheets are bonded together will form “layers” or “lamellae”(fig.3)
56
Figure 3. Layers or lamellae
A series of “layers” or “lamellae” makes up a clay particle (fig. 4)
57
Figure 4. Structure of Clay particle
Let’s Do It! List down the common type of silicate clay minerals and
(Application) their structure.
List down common amorphous minerals.
List down the sources of charge (+ and -) of the clay particle.
Key Take Away Congratulations! You are now ready to unlock lesson 2. You
(Closure) have now recalled the basic chemistry concept and also
learned the importance of clay structure concerning the
behavior of soil.
References
58
Lesson 2
Ion Exchange (Cation and Anion Exchange

Capacity) and Base Saturation
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
expected to: Soil is a dynamic system and soil chemistry is
one of its dynamic properties. The activity of
Identify and understand the
importance of several soil
ions in the soil is governed by many factors
chemical properties in such as the presence of cations (positively
relation to agriculture and charged ions) and anions (negatively charged
environmental management.
ions). This lesson will help you understand how
Key Concepts ion exchange happens and to appreciate the
importance of cation and anion exchange
rr. Ion Exchange
ss. Cation Exchange
capacity including base saturation in relation to
tt. Anion Exchange soil management.
uu. Cation Exchange Capacity
vv. Base Saturation
…………………………
Section 5.2
Soils can exchange things Cation Exchange
What is ion exchange? In this activity, you will watch a video that pertains cation exchange.
Procedure
 Visit www.youtube.com and please copy the URL below to watch the video on Youtube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HmEyymGXOfI
Analysis
 Discuss What was the video all about?
 Share your thoughts What have you learned from the video?
59
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Ion Exchange
 reversible process by which ions are exchanged between solid and liquid phases
and between solid phases if in close contact with each other
 this will occur because of the presence of electrical charges in the soil.
Two types of Ion Exchange:

1. Cation Exchange
2. Anion Exchange
Cation Exchange
 is the attraction of cations (positively charged ions) on the surface of the colloids
(negative) and exchanged for ions in the soil solution (examples: NH4+, Ca2+,
Mg2+, Na+, H+, K+,)
Anion Exchange
 is the attraction of anions (negatively charged ions) on the surface of the colloids
(positive) and exchanged for ions in the soil solution (examples: NO3-, PO4-, SO4-)
Anion Exchange Capacity

 the ability or capacity of a soil colloid to “sorb” anions that can be exchanged with
anions in solution
Cation Exchange Process

 Exchange of cations in solution with cations sorbed on soil surfaces/exchange site
60
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Properties of the Cation Exchange Process:
 Rapid
Order of Preference  Reversible
for Cation Adsorption  Stoichiometric
on Soil Particles
Al3+>Ca2+>Mg2+>NH4+> Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
K+>Na+>Li+  the ability or capacity of a soil colloid to “sorb”
cations that can be exchanged with cations in
solution.
o Sorption is a surface phenomenon, so
CEC is correlated with amount of
surface exposed.
Degree of Adsorption depends on:

1. Valences
2. Radii
3. Hydration properties
Example of Acidic cations The amount of cations a soil can hold is dependent
in soil or soil solution on:
 H+ - contributes
directly to acidity  amount of charge on the soil colloid. – related to
 Al3+ - contributes type of clay
indirectly to acidity via  how much clay is present – influences surface
hydrolysis reactions
area exposed
 Example:
1. Al3+ + H2O -(OH)2+  type of clay that is present
+ H+  how much organic matter is present
2. Al(OH)2+ + H2O -  Hydrous Oxides of Fe and Al
Al(OH)2+ + H+
 pH
3. Al(OH)2+ + H2O -
Al(OH)3 + H+
 A mole of Al3+
contributes to 3 moles Base Saturation or Percentage (%) Base Saturation
of acidity (H+) in
solution. There are two groups of adsorbed ions:
 Most of the other 1. Acidic Cations
cations sorbed are 2. Basic Cations
“exchangeable bases”
 These are cations that % Base Saturation
neutralize soil acidity  the proportion of the cation exchange capacity
and dominate in occupied by these bases. Can be computed
neutral and alkaline following the formula:
soils.
[exchangeable bases (cmol/kg)]/ [CEC
Examples of basic cations (cmol/kg)]
in soil or soil solution
Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+  The most common method of CEC
determination is the Ammonium Acetate
(NH4OAc) Method
61
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….

Soil Horizon
Think like a scientist! 19. Explain What
is isomorphous substitution
and how does it occur in the
octahedron and tetrahedron?
6. Explain the generalized
20. Discuss What is cation
relationship between CEC and
exchange capacity?
fertility?
21. Explain the relationship
7. Tabulate the different types of between soil texture, specific
inorganic and organic colloids surface, and CEC?
and their CEC. 22. Discuss what does a high %
base saturation mean?
References
Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th edition.
Pearson Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20 2JE, England, 1105
pp.
62
Lesson 3
Soil pH and Liming
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Welcome to lesson 3. Have you ever
expected to:
wondered why some plants grow well in a
Identify and understand the certain type of soil while others cannot? Did
you know that the nutrients needed by the
relation to agriculture and plants to survive are dependent on soil’s
environmental management. vitally important property like soil pH? Now,
get ready to unravel the secret behind soil
Key Concepts
reaction (pH) and its relation and role to soil
ww. Soil Reaction or pH nutrition and environmental issues.
xx. Soil Acidity
yy. Liming
zz. Lime Requirement
…………………………
Section 5.3
Acidic Basic Soil pH
Is it acidic or basic? In this activity, you will learn and appreciate soil pH determination and its
significance.
Procedure
 You will prepare about a half kilo of different types of soil such as ordinary garden soil,
soil from crop land, and red soil. Put each type of soil in a clear plastic bag and label it.
 Please arrange a common time with the instructor to test the pH of the prepared soil in
the lab.
 In case you cannot arrange this with your instructor, you can watch videos on Youtube
on topics related to determination of pH in the soil.
Analysis
 What is pH a measure of?
 How do we measure the pH of soil?
 What range of pH in soil is optimum for specific plants?
 How does adding fertilizer and lime affect the pH of soil?
 What factors contribute to changing pH levels in soil?
 What are some environmental issues related to soil pH?
63
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
SOIL pH or SOIL REACTION
 It refers to the acidity or alkalinity of the soil due

to the relative concentration of H+ and OH- ions.
 It is one of the most important chemical
Soil Horizon
properties of the soil
 It affects the availability of nutrient elements in Note:
the soil as well as the microbial activities
associated with soil fertility *pH scale covers a
 It is defined as the negative logarithm of the range from 0-14,
hydrogen ion concentration in the soil *pH value of 7.0 is
 Defined by the equation: neutral (pure water)
*values below 7.0 are

Soil pH = - log [ H+]
acid and above 7.0 are
basic.
Where [H+] = concentration of H+ in moles/L
*each unit change in pH
is associated with
Soil pH in relation to Nutrient Solubility tenfold change in the
H+ concentration.
Relationship of soil pH and nutrient solubility
Measuring Acidity using pH Meter
 pH measures active
acidity or the H+
concentration of the soil
solution.
 pH = -log [H+] where H+ is the
concentration in moles per
liter
64
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Importance of Knowing Soil pH
1. Major determinant of nutrient availability.

a. Example: Phosphorus ions – usually not in
plant-available forms at pH of <4.5 and >8.
2. Influences microbial activity.
a. Example: Activity of bacteria is adversely
affected at low pH.
3. May have direct influence on the growth of
crops.
a. Example: At low pH, Al3+ concentration
may be very high and could cause injury to
plants
4. Each plant has its own optimum pH range –
tells you what to plant
Causes of Soil Acidity

1. Parent Material - Rocks from which soil was
formed may have been basic or acidic
2. Rainfall - The higher the average annual rainfall

the more leaching. Basic cations are removed
more readily than H+ and Al+3.
3. Native vegetation or Organic acids from

organic matter decomposition - Soils under
forest are more acid than those under grassland.
Decomposition of O.M. forms acid; CO2 evolved
forms H2CO3
production of CO2 during organic matter decomposition is responsible for the

lowering of pH of calcareous soils.
4. Fertilizer containing ammonium (NH4+) -

Conversion of NH4+ (ammonium) to NO3- (nitrate)
produces H+ ions.
5. Heavy cropping removes basic cations and
replaced by H+ ions from roots (crop removal).
6. Hydrolysis of Aluminum (Al) - Al can come from
clay structures
7. Carbonic Acid (H2CO3) Dissociation - CO2 + H2O
= H2CO3 = 2 H+ CO3 2-
65
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Correcting Soil Acidity by Liming
 Lime – any calcium (Ca2+) and /or magnesium

(Mg2+) containing compound used to neutralize
soil acidity or oxide, hydroxide or carbonates of
Ca or Mg.
 Liming material -Oxides or Hydroxides or
Carbonates of Ca and/or Mg that are added to the Soil Horizon
soil to raise soil pH to desired level
Examples: How lime neutralizes
CaCO3, CaO, Ca(OH)2, MgCO3, CaMgCO3 acidity?
Sample Reaction:
Factors Influencing the Quality of Liming Materials CaCO3 + H2O  Ca2+ +
1. purity - any impurities in the lime will reduce its HCO3- + OH–
ability to neutralize acidity. (sand, rocks, clay, OH- can react with H+
etc.)  HOH (water) or to
2. fineness - large particles react more slowly and precipitate Al as
less completely than fine particles Al(OH)3
Lime Requirement – the amount of liming  Lime reduces the

material required to raise the pH to a desirable concentration of H+
level and is determined by: ions and increases
- required change in pH and the concentration
- texture of OH - ions and
adds nonacid
Note: The finer the texture, the higher the CEC forming cations.
and greater the buffering capacity of the soil.  The material must
contain an anion
Benefits of Lime in the Soil that combines with
and neutralizes H+
a. Physical – increased granulation as calcium ions and Al ions.
favors flocculation but the effect is largely
indirect due to favorable effect on organisms
which decompose OM
b. Chemical – neutralization of H+ ions;
increased availability of phosphorus (P),
molybdenum (Mo), Calcium (Ca), potassium
(K); reduced solubility and toxicity of iron (Fe),
aluminum (Al), and manganese (Mn).
c. Biological – promotes activity of

microorganisms such as those that decompose
organic matter (OM), mineralize nutrients and
fix nitrogen (N) symbiotically, but it may
encourage potato scab
66
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….

Think like a scientist! 1. Soil Horizon
Differentiate
the two types of acidity?
2. Explain How can acidity be
5. Explain the relationship of soil neutralized?
nutrients and pH? 3. Explain the implication of
the categories of soil pH?
6. List down the common type of
4. Discuss What happen to the
lime used for agricultural
purposes. soil pH when the H+
concentration of the soil
solution increases?
References
pp.
Carating, R.B., Galanta R.G. and C.D. Bacatio. 2014. The Soils of the Philippines.
Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York: London. 363 pp.
67
Lesson 4
Salinity and Sodicity
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Salinity and sodicity are among the most
expected to:
important and widespread soil degradation
Identify and understand the processes and environmental/ecological
stresses in the biosphere. They limit the
relation to agriculture and agro-ecological potential and represent a
environmental management. considerable ecological and socio-
economical risk for sustainable
Key Concepts
development. In this lesson, you will
aaa. Salinity appreciate the importance of conserving the
bbb. Sodicity
ccc. Salinization
quality of our soil for sustainable land use.
ddd. Sodification Enjoy and get ready to explore!
…………………………
Section 5.4
Soil has Charges Salinity and Sodicity
In this activity, you will watch a video that pertains salinity and sodicity.
Procedure
 Visit https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DKfPojrDvFQ and watch the video.
 After watching the video, you may explore to do the same activity on different types of
soil (sand, clay, and ordinary garden soil).
 Record your observations for each type of soil.
Analysis
 What could be the reasons why wet soil generates electricity that causes lighting of the
bulb?
68
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Soil Salinization
 Is a process that leads to an excessive increase of water-soluble salts in soils or
soil horizon.
 Or the excessive increase in water soluble salts in soil
 Salts are chloride and sulfates of calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium.
Saline Soils
 Are those soils that contain sufficient salinity to give electrical conductivity
(EC) values greater than 4 dS/m, but have an exchangeable sodium percentage
(ESP) less than 15 (or an sodium adsorption ration (SAR) less than 13) in the
saturation extract.
 The exchange complex of saline soils is dominated by calcium and magnesium,
not sodium.
 The pH of saline soils is usually below 8.5.
 Also known as white alkali, because in many cases, the evaporation of water
creates a white salt crust on the soil surface.
Soil Sodification
 Is a process that leads to an accumulation of sodium (Na+) in the solid or

liquid phases of the soil as crystalized NaHCO3 or Na2CO3 salt in high alkaline
soil solution as exchangeable Na ion on the soil adsorption complex.
Soil Salinization Processes
1. Primary Salinization – accumulation of salts through natural processes such as

physical or chemical weathering and in some cases transport from saline
geological deposits or ground water.
2. Secondary Salinization – accumulation of salts through human interventions,
inappropriate irrigation (salt-rich irrigation water) and poor drainage.
Saline-Sodic Soils
 Soils that have both detrimental levels of neutral soluble salts (EC, greater
than 4 dS/m) and a high proportion of sodium ions
 Plant growth in these soils can be adversely affected by both excess salts and
excess sodium levels.
 Exhibit physical conditions intermediate between those of saline soils and
those of sodic soils.
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Think like a scientist!
Soil Horizon
2. Discuss the possible 5. List down the
detrimental effects to plants most common soluble salts.
when soil is saline?
3. Explain the disadvantages of
sodic soils?
References
pp.
70
Module 6 Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management
Lesson 1
Essential Elements
Introduction
………………………………………………………..……………………………
Objectives
Soil fertility focuses on the ability of soil to supply
are expected to:
nutrients to plants in adequate amount and proportion.
Identify and understand the These nutrients are essential elements that drives plants
criteria of essentiality metabolism. As such, understanding the criteria of
essentiality would help to every soil nutritionist aspirant
Identify the essential
in widening their understanding why not all elements
elements, their available
forms, sources, importance, present in the soil cannot be utilize by the plants for its
………………………………………………
and functions. growth and development. Upon conclusion of your

journey in this lesson, you will know elements that are
either beneficial or essential to plants and the criteria of
Key Concepts
nutrient essentiality. Moreover, you will understand how
eee. Essential Elements nutrients were taken by the plants and the sources of
fff. Beneficial Elements nutrients in the soil.
ggg. Macronutrients
hhh. Micronutrients
iii. Criteria of Nutrient
Essentiality
Section 6.1
Read Interpret Elements: Essential or Non-essential
In this activity, you need a periodic table.
Procedure
5. Prepare a periodic table.

6. Without reading some references, in your periodic table, select at least 16 elements that
you think essential to plants.
7. Think what are those considerations that your chosen elements will be considered
essential.
8. Write on a paper.
9. Upon finishing reading the reference, and knowing already the essential elements and
their criteria of essentiality, divide the A4 size bond paper into two (2) columns. In the
left side write your chosen elements and the criteria you thought. In the right side, write
all the essential elements and the criteria of essentiality.
Analysis
3. Compare and contrast your written criteria of essentiality to the criteria of essentiality
by Arnon and Stout.
4. Explain why we need to know the essential elements.
71
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Essential Elements
 There are more than 100 chemical elements

known to man but only 16 (17 if Nickel is
included).
 By 1890, scientists had already established that the
elements N, P, S, K, Ca, Mg, and Fe were required
Soil Horizon
by plants, and that their absence or low availability
resulted in either the death of the plant or very Beneficial nutrients
poor plant growth with accompanying visual
symptoms of growth abnormalities. Several elements other
 Between 1922 and 1954, additional elements were than the essential
nutrients have beneficial
determined to be essential, those elements being
functions in plants.
Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo, B, and Cl.
Although not essential (as
 In 1939, two plant physiologists at the University the plant can live without
of California published their criteria for plant them), beneficial
nutrient element essentiality, criteria that are still nutrients can improve the
acknowledged today. Arnon and Stout (1939) growth of some crops in
established three criteria for essentiality: some respects.
o Omission of the element in question must
 Nickel (Ni); Sodium
result in abnormal growth, failure to complete
(Na); Cobalt (Co);
the life cycle, or premature death of the plant. Silicon (Si);
o The element must be specific and not Aluminum (Al)
replaceable by another.
o The element must exert its effect directly on
growth or metabolism and not some indirect
effect such as by antagonizing another
element present at a toxic level.
Plants require 16 essential elements for plant

growth.
These nutrients may be broken into two groups:

Note!
1. Macronutrients: present in plant body in large
amounts; >100 mg/kg (dry weight basis) or >100
ppm
 C, H, O: come from air and water The 13 elements are called
 N, P, K: primary macronutrients mineral nutrients because
 Ca, Mg, S: Secondary macronutrients they are taken up in mineral
(inorganic) forms.
2. Micronutrients: present in plant body in
relatively lesser amounts; <100 mg/kg (dry
weight basis) or <100 ppm.
 Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn, B, Cl, Mo
 Needed by plants in relatively lesser amount
but performs vital functions in the plant
body.
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Deficiency Symptoms
Deficiency symptoms usually show up as visual

signs in the plant.
Soil Horizon
 Whether the symptoms appear in new growth
Out of these 16 elements,
or older growth depends on the mobility of
carbon (C) and oxygen are
obtained from the gas
the nutrient in the plant.
CO2, and hydrogen (H) is
obtained from water 1. Mobile elements in Plants:
(H2O).  can be translocated within plants from
older to actively growing tissue.
The other 13 elements are  N, P, K, Mg
called mineral nutrients
 deficiency symptoms occur in the
because they are taken up
older growth
in mineral (inorganic)
forms.
2. Immobile elements in Plants:
Oxygen, C and H make up  not translocated within the plant.
95 percent of plant  Ca, S, B, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn
biomass, and the  deficiency symptoms occur in the new
remaining 5 percent is growth
made up by all other
elements.
Nutrient Uptake by Plants
Nutrients are supplied to the root surface in 3 ways:

1. Root Interception:
 roots move through soil and comes in
contact with the nutrient on colloids.
 generally, not very important because the
root only comes into contact with 1-2% of
the total soil volume.
2. Mass flow:
 nutrients move to the root with water.
 most important with nutrients that will
easily flow with the water. Nitrogen may be
taken up by mass flow.
3. Diffusion:
 concentration gradients are set up around
the root surfaces and the soil farther away.
In response to this gradient the nutrients
The amount of nutrients taken up by move towards the plant root. For most
plants is in this order: cations this is the most important form of
N> K> Ca >P> Mg> S>micronutrients
movement.
o for nutrients like P and K this is the
most important form of uptake.
o the addition of fertilizer will increase
the gradient and increase uptake.
73
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Forms of nutrients taken up by the plant
Plant-available
Element
 plants will only take up a nutrient if it is in form
some ionic form.
N NH4+, NO3-
P H2PO4-, HPO4-2
K K+
Ca Ca +2
Sources of Essential Elements in the Soil Mg Mg+2
S SO4 -2
1. Organic matter Fe Fe +2
Most soil nutrients are contained in the soil Mn Mn +2
organic matter. To make these nutrients B H2BO3-
available the organic matter must be Cu Cu+2
decomposed. Zn Zn+2
Cl Cl-
2. Soil minerals (includes clay minerals) Mo MoO4-2
These are the nutrients that are in the parent
materials. These nutrients may become
available through weathering; however, this
is a very slow process. There are also
nutrients in the clay minerals. This includes
Mg and K that are in the 2:1 clay minerals.
3. Adsorbed nutrients.
These are the nutrients that are held on the
soil colloid. This is the major source of
nutrients for the plants and is the source that
is most easily controlled by man.
4. Others: rainfall, fertilizer application
Reflections Check Enumerate the essential elements and its available forms
Differentiate macronutrients and micronutrients
Discuss how plants absorb nutrients from the soil.
Discuss the different sources of elements in the soil.
74
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Think like an Agriculturist!

9. Explain why plants will only take up a 7. Soil Horizon
Compare and
nutrient if it is in some ionic form. contrast essential and beneficial
elements.
10. WRITING in Soil Science 8. Enumerate the criteria that has to be
met for an element to be considered
As an agriculturist, you are expected to essential.
provide technical aid to our local farmers in 9. Discuss the importance of knowing
terms of practical guide towards essential whether an element is mobile or
elements for plant nutrition. Supposing you immobile.
are to advice farmers in terms of plant 10. Discuss the role of the 16 essential
nutrition, what are the information you will elements.
be sharing to them. As you want the farmers 11. Explain the sources of essential
to be informed properly, you will create a elements.
brochure that enclosed the information
you want to share to them.
References
Buol, S.W., R.J. Southard, R.C. Graham and P.A. McDaniel. 2011. Soil Genesis and Classification.
John and Wiley and Sons, Inc., Iowa. 556 p.
Jones, B.J. Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility Manual, 2nd Edition. CRC Press Taylor and
Francis Group. 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300.
75
Module 6 Soil Nutrition and Fertility Management
Lesson 2
Essential Elements in Focus and its
Management
………………………………………………………….……………………………………
Knowing the sources and understanding the importance
are expected to:
and functions of essential elements would help to deeply
Know the sources, understand how to efficiently supply the elements to the
importance, functions of growing plant. Moreover, to address soil fertility issues in
essential elements the field, there are various methods of soil fertility
Evaluate the fertility status of
evaluation so that strategies for the improvement of soil
a certain soil condition fertility will be employed. You will also appreciate the
according to crop stand and function of some essential elements and will give an idea
give recommendations for its on the deficiency symptoms, a diagnostic approach for
improvement to crop appropriate management
productivity.
………………………………………
At the end of this lesson, you will learn how to evaluate the
Key Concepts fertility status of a certain soil condition according to crop
stand and will learn the basic of fertilizer calculation.
a. Nitrogen dynamics
b. Phosphorus dynamics
c. Potassium dynamics
d. Soil Fertility Evaluation
e. Fertilizer Calculation
Section 6.2
Look me in the Eye Discover Deficiency Symptoms

In this activity, you will select crops of your preference on your locality and evaluate whether it
shows deficiency symptoms.
Procedure
10. In your locality, observe the color and status of the leaves of the crops.
11. Record your observation by taking photos.
12. Visit www.youtube.com and search the link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9SotrCwqfHo entitled “A beginners guide: Nutrient
Deficiency”, and watch it.
13. Upon finishing watching the video and observing the crops in your locality,
evaluate what deficiency did you observed and put it in a leaflet formatted
output.
Analysis
5. Explain why the plants shows deficiency symptoms?
6. Discuss what will happen to the plants if the deficiency of its nutrients will not be
corrected?
7. Explain Is deficiency symptoms helpful in crop production?
76
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Nutrient in Focus: Nitrogen
 Nitrogen is usually the element that limits

plant growth and used by plants in largest Soil Horizon
quantities.
 Nitrogen is not found in large amounts in the
soil except in the organic form; there is
70% of the air we breathe
essentially none in soil minerals.
is N2.
 The source for all nitrogen is the air.
Importance of N
 component of all proteins, enzymes, and

chlorophyll.
 required in largest amount by most plants.
 regulates the use of K, P etc.
 has quickest and most pronounced effect on
plants.
 very mobile (anion). o But remember plants can only use N in the
form of NO3 - or NH4+.
o Organic nitrogen becomes available as the
organic matter decays.
Sources of N
1. Legumes: forms symbiotic relationship with
Rhizobia sp. that fixes atmospheric N
2. Legume- Rhizobia Symbiosis - fix between 40 -
300 lbs N/hectare
3. Nonsymbiotic organisms: fix 10-20 lbs
N/hectare.
4. Plant residue: C/N ratio effects release of N.
Residues with narrow C/N ratio release more
plant-available N to the soil.
5. Animal residue (wastes): type of wastes
controls N amount.
6. Rain and Snow: electrical discharges from
lighting generate heat that cause atmospheric
O2 to react with N to form several different N
oxides. These are brought to the soil by snow
and rain at a rate of at least 5 lb/Acre/year.
7. Industrial Wastes: Should be used with caution
as the waste may contain other harmful Nodulation in legumes
Excerpt from: https://biology.anu.edu.au/
substances such as heavy metals. news-events/news/nodulation-legumes
8. Fertilizers
77
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Plant N
Decomposition Symbiotic N-
N Uptake Fixation
Ammonification Nitrification Denitrification

Soil NH4+ NO3- N2
organic N
Immobilization
Non- Symbiotic
Decomposition N-Fixation
Microbial
N
Nitrogen Cycle
Soil Horizon
1. Plant Uptake
2. Immobilization
Factors affecting  conversion of mineral N (nitrate and
nitrification ammonium) to the organic form
a. NH4+ must be  N is not available to plants in the organic
present form
b. Aeration: nitrification 3. Exchangeable NH4+
requires O2  Soil organic matter, manure, etc. is broken
Temperature: down into proteins, amino acids, and
nitrification occurs amines. This material is converted, by
only above freezing specific bacteria, to NH4+. This is
and the rate increases ammonification.
up to about 85oF.
4. Nitrification
c. Moisture: nitrifying
bacteria are active in  microbial oxidation of ammonium to NO3-
moist soils but occurs under aerobic conditions. This
inactive in produces hydrogen ions and the anion form
waterlogged soils of N which is more subject to leaching
d. Neutral pH: 5. Denitrification
nitrification rates are  reduction of NO3 to N2, NO, and N2O
low in acid soils. This  gaseous loss of N from soils occurs under
is due to bacteria
reducing conditions
preferring more
neutral pH.
 facultative anaerobic
e. C:N ratio  wet anaerobic reducing condition; like to
have a large amount of plant residue
available.
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6. Denitrification
 reduction of NO3 to N2, NO, and N2O
 gaseous loss of N from soils occurs under
reducing conditions
 facultative anaerobic
 wet anaerobic reducing condition; like to have Soil Horizon
a large amount of plant residue available.
7. Nitrogen Fixation Nitrogen fixation is
mediated by the bacteria
 conversion of atmospheric N2 in cells living symbiotically in the
 occurs under aerobic conditions nodules of legumes
 represents only major input of N to many soils (Rhizobium sp.).
 Symbiotic fixation by Rhizobium Nitrification is a two-
 Non-symbiotic by free living organisms’ process mediated by the
bacteria, blue green algae two (2) bacteria:
8. Volatilization 1. Nitrosomonas sp.
 Loss of nitrogen as gaseous ammonia (NH3) 2. Nitrobacter sp.
 Ammonium applied to soils above ph 7. Loss of
N as a gas can occur because of surface
application of ammonium.
9. Mineralization/Ammonification
 conversion of organic N to mineral form NH4+
 heterogeneous organisms release NH4+
 Brief review of the C:N ratio idea
o At any given time no more than 1-2% of
the total amount of N in the residue is
available to the plant.
o Only about 2-3% of the immobilized N is
mineralized each year
Nutrient in Focus: Phosphorus
Importance of P
 component of:
o DNA and RNA
o ADP and ATP Phosphorus is
o role in plant maturation - flowering, fruiting, important in "energy
root development, straw strength storage and transfer"
o The element P is in every living cell, both at the cellular level.
plant and animal. The light energy captured
by photosynthesis would not support any of
the necessary plant functions if compounds
containing P were not present.
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Crop Demands
 Only N and K (and sometimes Ca) are taken up in larger amounts by the plants.
 P is required for N fixation to take place. The microbes in the system require
that some P be present.
Forms of P in soil
 Mineral P (mainly apatite mineral) – form of P-containing mineral that is being

mined
 Organic P – about 30-50% of total P in soils. It may occur as phytate, nucleic
acids and phospholipids
 Solution P – inorganic forms of P such as PO43-, HPO42- and H2PO4- and
soluble organic forms of P.
Plant Uptake
 plants take up P from soil water. Because only small amounts of P are found in
the soil water at any one time, the P must be constantly replenished.
 soil organic matter contains P. As with other nutrients, the organic matter must
first be broken down before the plant can use the P.
P Fixation
 formation of "fixed" or unavailable P compounds

o By Fe, Al, (acid conditions): FePO4, Al (PO4), MnPO4
o By clays: Fe and Al associated with clay
 Enough P must be added to overcome the fixation capacity and the plant needs.
Plants
P in P-containing Uptake
Weathering
Minerals
Mineralization Decomposition
P in Plant and
Solution P Organic P animal
Residues
Immobilization
P fixed to Soil
Sorption/ Immobilization
Minerals desorption
Microbial
Biomass
The Phosphorus Cycle
80
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Nutrient in Focus: Potassium
 Among cations, K+ is absorbed by plants in the

largest amount.
 The four important forms of K in soil are:
o mineral K
o non-exchangeable K, or K fixed in
between clay plates
o exchangeable K
o K present in the soil solution.
 The abundance of different K fractions is usually
as follows: 90–98 percent of total K is in mineral
form, which is relatively (but not ultimately)
inaccessible to a growing crop; 1–10 percent of
total K is in the non-exchangeable (fixed) form,
which is slowly available; and 1–2 percent of
total K is in the exchangeable and water-soluble
forms.
 K dynamics are determined by the rate of K
exchange from the clay and organic matter
surfaces and the rate of release from soil
minerals.
 The cation K+ is largely held on to the exchange
complex as an exchangeable cation and a small
amount is present in a freely mobile form in the
The potassium cycle in the soil-plant animal system

Excerpt from: Syers, 1998. Soil and plant potassium in agriculture
81
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Evaluation of Soil Fertility Status
Methods of Assessing Soil Fertility Status:

Soil Horizon
1. Biological Test
Definition: 2. Evaluation of Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
3. Plant Tissue Analysis
Soil Fertility: The status 4. Soil Analysis
of the soil with respect
to the amount and
availability to plants the Biological Test
elements necessary for  this involves the planting of the crop in the
growth. soil being evaluated
Soil Productivity:  this could either be:
capability of a soil for o pot experiment
producing plants under a o field fertilizer experiment
specified system of  growth and yield performance of the crop has
management to be monitored and compared with the
expected growth and yield of the variety
being used.
 The soil would be considered fertile if the
performance of the test plants is comparable
or better than the optimum growth and yield
expected of the particular variety
used/planted.
 The plants may also be applied with various
rates of fertilizer – providing some
information on what and how much
nutrients have to be applied plant for
optimum plant growth
Pot experiment sample

Excerpt from: http://www.parasite-project.org/msc- Advantage:
research-damien-lenglet/
1. The performance on the crop/plant
grown on the soil being evaluated is a
definitive indication of whether the
soil can support the growth of the
crop/plant or not.
Disadvantage:
1. Time-consuming
2. Expensive
3. By the time you do the actual wide
Field fertilizer trial scale growing of the crop, the fertility
Excerpt from: https://www.ipipotash.org/
publications /eifc-240 status may already have changed.
82
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Evaluation of Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
 Plants deficient in one or more essential

nutrients become “sick” and exhibit leaf colors
and growth disorders that are indicative of the Soil Horizon
deficiency.
 Five general types of nutrient deficiency
symptoms Symptom –
1. Chlorosis - yellowing due to reduction observable physical
in chlorophyll traits manifested by
2. Uniform or interveinal the crop due to a
3. Necrosis- death of plant tissue deficiency of an
4. Stunting with either normal or dark essential nutrient.
green color or yellowing
5. Abnormal coloration- Anthocyanin
accumulation resulting in reddish color
6. Lack of new growth or terminal growth
resulting in rosetting
Advantages
1. rapid
2. does not require expensive or elaborate
equipment
3. can be used as a supplement to other
diagnostic techniques
Disadvantages/Problems:
1. Visual symptom may be caused by

deficiency of several nutrients.
2. Deficiency of one nutrient may be related
to an excessive quantity of another.
3. Other plant stresses (diseases, insects,
herbicide damage, etc.) can be difficult to
distinguish from nutrient deficiencies.
4. Visual symptoms may be caused by more
than one factor.
5. Nutrient deficiency symptoms appear too Sample Deficiency Chart of
late to correct the deficiency without yield Essential Nutrients
loss. Excerpt from: https://www.directcompostsolutions.
com/ nutrient -deficiencies/
6. Nutrient toxicities (even some non-
nutrients like Al) can produce visual
symptoms similar to nutrient deficiencies.
For example, Mn toxicity symptoms are
similar to Fe deficiency. Al toxicity looks
like Ca deficiency
83
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Plant Tissue Analysis
 Sampling and analysis of plant parts for
certain essential elements
 This assumes that the nutrient concentration
in the tissue samples of plants are indicative
the nutritional status of the soil.
 The sap from the fresh plant samples could be
analyzed for some nutrients (colorimetric
methods).
 Shoots/ leaves/roots may also be collected,
Corn before tasseling. Collect dried and ground. The ground samples are
the first fully developed leaves then analyzed for the essential elements of
from the top of 15-20 plants. If interest.
the plant is less than 12 inches  Key features involve:
tall, collect all of the above- o Sampling
ground portion. o Sample Preparation
o Analysis
o Interpretation
Advantages
1. Standardized equipment or methods of

analysis are used
2. Serves as an option to monitor the fertility of
the soil while the plant is already growing
Disadvantages/Problems
1. Plants are already growing, and the detection
of some deficiency may already be too late.
2. May be difficult to distinguish whether the
lack of nutrient in tissue is due a true nutrient
deficiency or due to some soil physical
stresses (e.g. roots can’t penetrate through a
hard pan).
Corn from tasseling to silking. 3. Cannot distinguish whether the soil may
Collect the leaves below and actually have some nutrients and may just
opposite from the ear of 15-20 need some amendments for the said nutrients
plants. can be made available.
4. May be expensive (depending on the extent
and number of analysis that needs to be run).
Sample Plant Analysis 5. Nutrient content in the tissue may vary
Pictorial Sampling Guide depending on which plant part is sampled.
for Corn
Excerpt from:
https://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_a/A123/
84
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Soil Analysis
 Soil testing is the most widely used research
tool for making balanced and profit
maximizing fertilizer recommendations,
particularly for field crops.
 Soil testing can be defined as an acceptably
accurate and rapid soil chemical analysis for
assessing available nutrient status for
making fertilizer recommendations.
 Soil testing as a diagnostic tool is useful only
when the interpretation of test results is
based on correlation with crop response and
economic considerations to arrive at
practically usable fertilizer
recommendations for a given soil–crop
situation.
 It may be repeated every 3–4 years, BUT for
banana plantations, it is done yearly.
 Soil samples are collected from an area, air-
dried, pulverized, and sieved, and submitted
to an accredited laboratory for soil analysis.
 Extra care has to be exercised when soil
samples are being sampled.
Advantages
1. The soil itself is being analyzed
2. Standardized methods/equipment are being
used.
3. Provides some idea on the fertility of the soil
before the crop is planted. This aids in
deciding what plants to grow, how to
manage it and whether there is a need to
make amendments such as lime prior to
planting.
Disadvantages/Problems:
1. Time-consuming
2. Expensive and requires specialized
equipment.
3. Accuracy of results depends largely on the
accuracy in sampling.
Proper way of sampling

Excerpt from: PCAARRD, 2006. The Philippine
recommends for soil fertility management
85
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Improvement/Management of Soil Fertility
Soil Horizon
 Soil fertility may be improved/maintained by:

Fertilizer Computation: Practice 1. Fertilizer Application
2. Lime Application
Soil analytical laboratories often
provide a recommended fertilizer
3. Good soil and crop management practices
application amount based on soil test
results. However, producers may alter 1. Fertilizer Application
this amount depending on fertilizer  Fertilizers: Any organic or inorganic
costs, changes in yield potential, material of natural or synthetic origin
management intensity, or due to added to the soil to supply certain
different philosophies (sufficiency or nutrients essential to the growth of plants
maintenance/build).
 Amount of fertilizer that needs to be
Example: applied depends on:
o Crop need
How many kg of urea, solophos and o Inherent fertility of the soil
muriate of potash needed to satisfy o Soil properties: soil texture, CEC,
the RR of 100-20-50 per hectare? nutrient sorption capacity
The three numbers mentioned
represents the N-P-K needed to 2. Lime application
satisfy the required amount.  Liming material is applied to raise the pH
 Urea: 46-0-0 of an acidic soil to a pH level that:
 Solophos: 0-20-0 o favors the availability of most essential
 Muriate of Potash: 0-0-60 nutrients and prevents the
development of some nutrient
FR-Fertilizer Required toxicities.
FG-Fertilizer Grade o favors the activity of microorganism
RR-Recommended Rate o favors the healthy growth of plant
roots
For Urea
FR = RR X 100 3. Good Soil and Crop Management Practices
FG
= 100 X 100  crop rotation = growing different plants in
46 succession (include a legume crop)
= 217.39 kg of Urea  cover cropping = grown to cover soil
 contour farming = tillage practice applied
For Solophos across the slope/contour
FR = RR X 100  strip cropping = growing alternate
FG crops/strips of clean cultivates
= 20 X 100  organic matter amendment = addition of
20 supplemental organic residues
= 100 kg of Solophos  green manuring = incorporation of plant
materials while still green
For MOP
FR = RR X 100
FG
= 50 X 100
60
= 83.33 kg of MOP
86
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Think like an Agriculturist!

Soil Horizon
6. Explain in your own perspective What is 1. Discuss Why is
the ideal method of soil fertility nitrogen, phosphorus, and
evaluation? potassium an important element?
2. Explain Why N, P, and K are
considered primary
7. Math in Soil Science macronutrients?
3. Differentiate soil fertility from soil
You learned in this module the techniques
productivity?
in diagnosing the fertility status of a certain
4. Discuss What are the methods of
area. Mr. Sue Wel has 10-hectare banana
assessing soil fertility? Under what
farm. He approached you as a soil fertility
condition/s would a particular
expert to survey the soil status of his farm.
method be appropriate?
Upon walking around the farm, you
5. Explain What are the different
observed the older leaves have purple
methods of improving soil fertility?
coloration on most of the plants,
particularly on the undersides. In this
situation, you already have an idea that
there is something lacking with the
nutrition. To make conclusive with your References
initial findings, you suggested to Mr. Sue
Wel that it is much better to have a soil Brady, N.C. and Weil, R. R. 2017. The
analysis to have a more accurate
Nature and Properties of Soils, 15th
quantitative recommendation. After
edition. Pearson Education Limited,
analyzing the soil, you recommended a 180-
70-300 N-P-K that should be applied in his Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex CM20
area per hectare for the whole year. It is 2JE, England, 1105 pp.
understood that this rate was the deficit
amount of N-P-K for the requirement of Jones, B.J. Plant Nutrition and Soil
banana. Fertility Manual, 2nd Edition. CRC
Press Taylor and Francis Group. 6000
Available fertilizer: Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300.
Diammonium phosphate (18-46-0)
Urea (46-0-0)
Muriate of Potash (0-0-60) Recommended Website to Explore
With these available fertilizers, how many
www.iuss.org; www.fao.org;
kg in each of them should Mr. Sue Wel
prepared to satisfy the Recommended rate? www.bswm.da.gov.ph
Show your step-by-step solution.
87
Module 7 Land Use Planning
Lesson 1
Land Use and Land Use Planning
……………………………………………………………………………………………
At the end of this lesson, you Land-use planning is the process of regulating the use of
land in an effort to promote more desirable social and
are expected to:
environmental outcomes as well as a more efficient use of
Discuss the importance of resources. Goals of land use planning may
x soil classification include environmental conservation, restraint of urban
sprawl, minimization of transport costs, prevention of land
x
Differentiate the 12 soil use conflicts, and a reduction in exposure to pollutants. By
x orders and large, the uses of land determine the diverse
x socioeconomic activities that occur in a specific area, the
Discuss land use planning
x and its features patterns of human behavior they produce, and their impact
on the environment.
x
x In urban planning, land use planning seeks to order and
Key Concepts
regulate land use in an efficient and ethical way, thus
x
jjj. Soil Taxonomy preventing land use conflicts. Governments use land use
x
kkk. Soil Order planning to manage the development of land within their
x Land Use Planning
lll. jurisdictions. In doing so, the governmental unit can plan for
……………………
x the needs of the community while safeguarding natural

resources. To this end, it is the systematic assessment of
x
land and water potential, alternatives for land use, and
x economic and social conditions in order to select and adopt
x the best land use options. Often one element of
x a comprehensive plan, a land use plan provides a vision for
the future possibilities of development in neighborhoods,
x districts, cities, or any defined planning area.
x
x
x
x Section 7.1 Activity
x
x Learning Basics Land Use Planning
x
x
Procedure
x
 Do a research in your municipality map by using the internet
 Identify the land areas according to its purposes
o Ex.
 Location: Kapatagan, Digos City
 Land Use: Agricultural Uses such as Banana
and Vegetables, and Recreational
Analysis
 Discuss the importance of learning the land use planning.
 Explain the relationship of soil classification and appropriate
land use.
88
The Nature and Principles of Land Evaluation
Land Evaluation
 Land evaluation assesses the performance of land based on a more or less systematic
analysis of the physical land conditions and on the impact these have on present
and alternative land use systems.
 It is a tool or a technique to compare the various use potentials and benefits that
can be obtained from the land, taking into consideration the current and expected
social and economic contexts.
 In its simplest form selects the best land for a specific purpose.
 It does not in itself determine the land use or land use changes, but provides data on the
basis of which land use decisions and options can be taken.
Purposes of Land Evaluation

1. Determine the properties of the land and the type of use which
offers the best sustainable production and/or benefits.
2. Identify the present land use and provide alternative uses that are
physically possible and socially and economically relevant.
3. Device techniques to improve present practices.
4. Identify the inputs that are needed to achieve the desired sustainable
production and minimize the adverse effects and risks
5. Control the adverse physical, economic or social effects and risks
and recognize the benefits of a given land use system or practice.
Land evaluation and land use planning

 Land evaluation is only part of the process of land use planning.
 Its precise role varies in different circumstances.
 In the present context it is sufficient to represent the land use planning process by the
following generalized sequence of activities and decisions:
o recognition of a need for change;
o identification of aims;
o formulation of proposals, involving alternative forms of land use, and recognition of
their main requirements;
o recognition and delineation of the different types of land present in the area;
o comparison and evaluation of each type of land for the different uses;
o selection of a preferred use for each type of land;
o project design, or other detailed analysis of a selected set of alternatives for distinct
parts of the area; This, in certain cases, may take the form of a feasibility study.
o decision to implement;
o implementation;
o monitoring of the operation.
Basic Principles of Land Evaluation

1. Land suitability is assessed and classified with respect to specified kinds of use.
2. Evaluation requires a comparison of the benefits obtained and the inputs needed on
different types of land.
3. A multidisciplinary approach is required.
4. Evaluation is made in terms relevant to the physical economic and social context of the
area concerned.
5. Suitability refers to use on a sustained basis.
89
6. Evaluation involves comparison of more than a single kind of use.
Levels of Intensity and Approaches

Levels of Intensity
o Reconnaissance
o semi-detailed
o detailed
Two-stage and parallel approaches to land evaluation

 Two-stage approach. The first stage is mainly concerned with qualitative land
evaluation, later (although not necessarily) followed by a second stage consisting of
economic and social analysis.
o often used in resource inventories for broad planning purposes and in studies for
the assessment of biological productive potential.
 Parallel approach. Analysis of the relationships between land and land use proceeds
concurrently with economic and social analysis.
o This procedure is mostly favored for specific proposals in connection with
development projects and at semi-detailed and detailed levels of intensity.
Figure 1. Two-stage and parallel approach to land evaluation.
90
Land Suitability and Land Capability
 The term "land capability" is used in a number of land classification systems, notably that
of the Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (Klingebiel and
Montgomery, 1961).
 In the USDA system, soil mapping units are grouped primarily on the basis of their
capability to produce common cultivated crops And pasture plants without
deterioration over a long period of time.
 Capability is viewed by some as the inherent capacity of land to perform at a given level
for a general use, and suitability as a statement of the adaptability of a given area for a
specific kind of land use; others see capability as a classification of land primarily in
relation to degradation hazards, whilst some regard the terms "suitability" and
"capability" as interchangeable.
o Because of these varying interpretations, coupled with the long-standing
association of "capability" with the USDA system, the term land suitability is
used in this framework, and no further reference to capability is made.
Land suitability classifications

 Land suitability is the fitness of a given type of land for a defined use.
 The land may be considered in its present condition or after improvements.
 The process of land suitability classification is the appraisal and grouping of specific
areas of land in terms of their suitability for defined uses.
Structure of the suitability classification

 Land suitability Orders. Indicate whether land is assessed as suitable or not suitable
for the use under consideration.
o There are two orders represented in maps
 Order S . Suitable - Land on which sustained use of the kind under
consideration is expected to yield benefits which justify the inputs,
without unacceptable risk of damage to land resources.
 Order N. Not Suitable - Land which has qualities that appear to preclude
sustained use of the kind under consideration.
 Land suitability Classes. Reflect degrees of suitability. The classes are numbered
consecutively, by arabic numbers, in sequence of decreasing degrees of suitability within
the Order.
o If three Classes are recognized within the Order Suitable, as can often be
recommended, the following names and definitions may be appropriate in a
qualitative classification:
 Class S1 Highly Suitable. Land having no significant limitations to
sustained application of a given use, or only minor limitations that will
not significantly reduce productivity or benefits and will not raise inputs
above an acceptable level.
 Class S2 Moderately Suitable. Land having limitations which in
aggregate are moderately severe for sustained application of a given use;
the limitations will reduce productivity or benefits and increase required
inputs to the extent that the overall advantage to be gained from the use,
although still attractive, will be appreciably inferior to that expected on
Class S1 land.
 Class S3 Marginally Suitable. Land having limitations which in
aggregate are severe for sustained application of a given use and will so
91
reduce productivity or benefits, or increase required inputs, that this
expenditure will be only marginally justified.
o Within the Order Not Suitable, there are normally two Classes:
 Class N1 Currently Not Suitable. Land having limitations which may be
surmountable in time but which cannot be corrected with existing
knowledge at currently acceptable cost; the limitations are so severe as
to preclude successful sustained use of the land in the given manner.
 Class N2 Permanently Not Suitable. Land having limitations which
appear so severe as to preclude any possibilities of successful sustained
use of the land in the given manner.
 Land Suitability Subclasses. Reflect kinds of limitations, e.g. moisture deficiency,
erosion hazard. Subclasses are indicated by lower-case letters with mnemonic
significance, e.g. S2m, S2e, S3me. Examples are given in Table 5. There are no subclasses
in Class S1.
o The number of Subclasses recognized and the limitations chosen to distinguish
them will differ in classifications for different purposes. There are two
guidelines:
 The number of subclasses should be kept to a minimum that will
satisfactorily distinguish lands within a class likely to differ significantly
in their management requirements or potential for improvement due to
differing limitations.
 As few limitations as possible should be used in the symbol for any
subclass. One, rarely two, letters should normally suffice. The dominant
symbol (i.e. that which determines the class) should be used alone if
possible. If two limitations are equally severe, both may be given.
o Land within the Order Not Suitable may be divided into suitability subclasses
according to kinds of limitation, e.g. N1m, N1me, N1m although this is not
essential. As this land will not be placed under management for the use
concerned it should not be subdivided into suitability units.
 Land Suitability Units. Land suitability units are subdivisions of a subclass. All the units
within a subclass have the same degree of suitability at the class level and similar kinds
of limitations at the subclass level. The units differ from each other in their production
characteristics or in minor aspects of their management requirement e (often definable
as differences in detail of their limitations). Their recognition permits detailed
interpretation at the farm planning level. Suitability units are distinguished by arabic
numbers following a hyphen, e.g. S2e-1, S2e-2. There is no limit to the number of units
recognized within a subclass.
 Conditional Suitability. The designation Conditionally Suitable may be added in certain
instances to condense and simplify presentation. This is necessary to cater for
circumstances where small areas of land, within the survey area, may be unsuitable or
poorly suitable for a particular use under the management specified for that use, but
suitable given that certain conditions are fulfilled.
92
Figure 2. Structure of suitability classification
Qualitative and Quantitative Classifications

Qualitative Classifications
 A qualitative classification is one in which relative suitability is expressed in qualitative
terms only, without precise calculation of costs and returns.
 Qualitative classifications are based mainly on the physical productive potential of the
land, with economics only present as a background. They are commonly employed in
reconnaissance studies, aimed at a general appraisal of large areas.
Quantitative Classifications
 A quantitative classification is one in which the distinctions between classes are defined
in common numerical terms, which permits objective comparison between classes
relating to different kinds of land use.
 Quantitative classifications normally involve considerable use of economic criteria, i.e.
costs and prices, applied both to inputs and production. Specific development projects,
including pre-investment studies for these, usually require quantitative evaluation.
Land Evaluation Procedures

The main activities in a land evaluation are as follows:
1. Initial consultations, concerned with the objectives of the evaluation, and the data and
assumptions on which it is to be based
2. Description of the kinds of land use to be considered, and establishment of their
requirements
3. Description of land mapping units, and derivation of land qualities
4. Comparison of kinds of land use with the types of land present
5. Economic and social analysis
6. Land suitability classification (qualitative or quantitative)
7. Presentation of the results of the evaluation.
93
Figure 3. Schematic representation of activities in land evaluation
94
Figure 4. Two - stage approach to land evaluation.
95
Figure 5. Parallel approach to land evaluation.
Figure 6. Tabular legend to suitability map
96
Basic of Land Use Planning
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Land
Dig your mind!  refers to a specific area of the earth’s surface that
is characterized by its soil, climatic, geologic,
topographic, hydrologic, floral, and faunal
 There are three resources, as well as by the kinds of human
sources of activities that take place on it.
information that
land evaluation Land Use
needs.  refers to those biological and technological
 These are land, activities that manage and improve land
land use and resources for economic and social purposes.
economics.
Land Evaluation
 refers to an assessment of the properties of the
several resources that characterize land as they
bear on the requirements of one or more specific
land uses.
 it is undertaken both to assess the performance
of land under specified uses and to communicate
information about alternative uses of the same
tract of land.
Philippine Land Capability Classification System

 The system recognizes that the classification of
land should be based on its natural
characteristics rather than upon the skill of the
individual operating it or upon prevailing
economic conditions.
 The classes of land according to use capability
Horizon are determined by considering the soil
Soil
conditions:
o physical, chemical, and biological
The fundamental o slope, kind, and degree of erosion,
purpose of land o and certain other environmental features
evaluation is to such as climate and drainage
predict the
consequences of
chance
97
Structure of the Philippine Land Capability
Classification System
 Land suitable for cultivation  Land suitable for pasture and forest
o Class A – good land that can be o Class L – land is flat but is too wet
cultivated safely and extensively with or stony and is suited for pasture or
ordinary good farming practices. forestry.
o Class B – good land that can be o Class M – land is too steep, eroded,
cultivated safely using easily applied or shallow for cultivation but is
conservation practices. suited for grazing, or forestry if
o Class C – moderately good land that well managed.
can be used regularly for cultivated o Class N – land is very steep, eroded,
crops in a good rotation but needs rough, shallow, or dry. Good only
intensive conservation treatment. for forestry or grazing if handled
o Class D – fairly good land that is best properly.
suited for pasture but can be
cultivated to crops in a good rotation  Lands suitable for wildlife
but needs intensive conservation o Class X – land is level but wet moist
treatment. of the time and cannot be
economically drained. Good for
o farm pond or recreation.
o Class Y – land is too steep, eroded,
barren and rugged and should be
reserved only for wildlife or
recreation.
Reflections Check
Discuss land use planning, its significance, and limitation.
98
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Application 3.1. Evaluate the land
1. Why is it important to evaluate the land before utilizing it for a particular purpose?
2. Suppose you are going to plant corn in the area you evaluated (Activity 3.1), classify
the land based on suitability structure: land suitability order, land suitability class,
land suitability subclass, suitability unit and conditional suitability.
References
John and Wiley and Sons, Inc., Iowa. 556 pp.
IUSS Working Group WRB. 2015. World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014, update 2015
International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps.
World Soil Resources Reports No. 106. FAO, Rome.
Lal, Rattan. 2017. Encyclopedia of Soil Science. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken
Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742. 2795 pp.
Soil Survey Staff. 2014. Keys to Soil Taxonomy. United States Department of Agriculture
Natural Resources Conservation Service. 372 pp.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use#:~:text=Land%20use%20involves%20the%20mana
gement,%2C%20pastures%2C%20and%20managed%20woods.
http://www.fao.org/3/t0715e/t0715e04.htm
https://www.codepublishing.com/CA/Patterson/html/Patterson18/Patterson1896.html
99
Module 8 Soil Conservation and Management
Lesson 1
Soil Erosion
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
expected to: As human population increases dramatically,
there is a need to increase food production.
Distinguish between natural
and accelerated erosion With this, there is a need to increase
Enumerate and understand
production in each parcel of lands while other
erosion control measures expand production, thereby cultivating lands
Explain how rainfall, slope, that are suitable for agricultural production.
management practices, and These intense pressures lead to the
cropping pattern affects soil
loss.
degradation of soil resources, exacerbated as
well with the natural and human induced
Key Concepts erosion. Thus, there is a need to understand
mmm. Soil Erosion soil erosion so that appropriate management
nnn. Water Erosion will be applied, and soil will be sustainably
…………………………
ooo. Splash Erosion utilized.

ppp. Sheet Erosion
qqq. Rill and Gully Erosion
rrr. Stream Erosion
sss. Erosion Control Measures
Section 8.1
Observe the surroundings Soil Erosion
In this activity, you will learn soil erosion and the factors that
influence the process. Moreover, you will have an idea on how soil
erosion can be effectively managed.
Procedure
 Observe the set-up.
 When water was drained, you will observe the color of the
water.
 After observation, do an internet scavenging on soil
erosion.
Analysis
 Explain why the drained water in the set-up have different
color. Soil Erosion Experiment
 Discuss the implication that the set-up portrays. Excerpt from:
 Discuss why soil erosion matters and what do you think https://www.thinglink.com/scene/705475464382119937
the possible management to mitigate and or control soil
erosion.
100
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Soil Erosion
Erosion – the (1) detachment and (2) movement of

soil or rock by water, wind, ice, or gravity.
 Two types:
Erosion in Focus:
1. Natural Erosion: wearing away of the
Erosion by Water
earth’s surface by water, ice, or other
natural agents under natural Two steps are
environmental conditions. recognized in
2. Accelerated Erosion: erosion that is much accelerated erosion:
more rapid than normal, natural, geological 1. Detachment
erosion. freeze/thaw,
wet/dry, flowing
water, wind,
Types of Water Erosion (in bare terrain) raindrops, human
activity
1. Splash Erosion
 Due the force of raindrops falling on bare 2. Transportation
or sparsely vegetated surfaces. floating, rolling,
 The particles are detached by the force of dragging,
falling raindrops. splashing, human
 The soil rises into the air and maybe activity, etc.
moved by gravity or wind or water down-
slope. Power of Raindrops
Raindrops impact has 3
2. Sheet Erosion important effects:
 Soil particles are easily transported in a 1. It detaches soil -
thin layer or sheet by flowing water. force of falling
water.
3. Rill and Gully Erosion 2. Beatings tend to
 If the sheet runoff is allowed to concentrate destroy
and gain velocity or energy, it will cut rills granulation at
and gullies as it detaches more soil surface
particles. 3. Crusting leads to
more runoff
4. Stream Erosion
 Erosion that occurs along the banks of
streams. Increased erosion occurs when
level of runoff is increased to the river or
stream.
101
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….
Causes of High Erosion Rates in the Philippines
 Steep Slopes (3/4 of land area is hilly to mountainous)
 Highly erodible soils
 High rainfall erosivity (high intensity and long duration Rainfall
 Poor vegetative cover in cultivated lands
On - Site Effects of Soil Erosion

a. Loss of fertile topsoil thus decline in nutrient and water supply
b. Gully formation and exposure of unproductive subsoil
Off-site Effects
a. Siltation of dams, lakes, rivers etc.
b. Floods, soil, and water pollution
Principles in Soil Conservation

1. Reduction of run off velocity
2. Increase in water infiltration and water holding capacity
3. Reduction of raindrop impact
4. Increase in soil porosity and aggregation
Erosion Control Measures:

Control measures are designed to:
a. controlling /limiting detachment
b. limiting transport
Vegetative Control
• use strip crops
• soil mulches & no-tillage techniques
• improve soil structure by adding organic matter
• plant water breaks/ buffer strips
• plant annual grasses on construction sites
Mechanical Control
• use contour tillage
• construct terraces
• to remove water across rather than down the slope
• use sediment traps in catchment basins
• sedimentation ponds to entrap sediments at the head of major
drainage ways
102
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….…………..……………………………………………………………………………………….

Soil Horizon
Think like a scientist! 23. Discuss the
factors that influence soil
erosion.
24. Explain the effects of soil
8. Explain the process of soil
erosion.
erosion
25. Compare and contrast
9. You are tasked to make a soil natural and human-induced
conservation management soil erosion.
plan for a farm to be 26. Explain the causes of high
established in an upland with erosion rates in the
rolling topography, what will Philippines.
be in the plan?
References
pp.
103
Module 9 Fundamentals of Soil Taxonomy
Lesson 1
Soil Classification
……………………………………………………………………………………………
are expected to: According to Brady and Weil (2017), we classify things
to make sense of our world. As such in soil, this is
Discuss the importance of essential to foster global communications about soils
x soil classification
among soil scientists and all people concerned with the
x
Differentiate the 12 soil management of land and the conservation of the soil
x orders resource. Moreso, as we organize our knowledge
x towards soil, we are getting the best way how we can
Discuss land use planning
x and its features use soils of the present and future generation. In this
x lesson, you will learn how soils are classified as natural
x
Key Concepts bodies based on their profile characteristics, not merely
x based on their suitability for a particular use. As this will
ttt. Soil Taxonomy
x
uuu. Soil Order be the last module, make the best of your journey in
x Land Use Planning
vvv. understanding the dirt of life.
……………………
x
x
x
x Section 9.1 Activity
x
x Learning Basics Classification of Soils
x
xApply concepts. Soils are classified based on their profile
xcharacteristics using a taxonomic nomenclature system such as the
xUSDA Soil Taxonomy and FAO-UNESCO World Reference Base System.
x
Procedure
x  Do a research works on the USDA Soil Taxonomy and FAO-
x UNESCO World Reference Base System.
x  Create a graphic organizer on the groupings of soils for both
x systems.
 Using the created graphic organizer, establish the relationship
of the two system of soil classification.
Analysis
 Compare and contrast your output with your classmates.
 Discuss the importance of classifying soils.
 Explain the relationship of soil classification and appropriate
land use.
104
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Soil Classification
 The categorization of soils into groups at

varying levels of generalization according to
their physical, mineralogical, and chemical
properties. Soil Horizon
Soil Taxonomy Categories from highest to

lowest levels of generalization
 the system of classification developed by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil Survey Order 12
Staff
Suborder 66
 provides a hierarchical grouping of natural soil
bodies. Great Group 320
 the system is based on soil properties that can be
Subgroup 1,400
objectively observed or measured, rather than
on presumed mechanisms of soil formation. Family 8,000
Series 19,000
Structure of the Soil Taxonomic System
 Hierarchical system of 6 categories
Basic Concept of Each Taxonomic Category
Category Nature of Criteria for Differentiating

major soil forming processes; diagnostic horizons
Order
genetic similarity; moisture regime, organic matter composition, parent
Suborder material effects
Great Group diagnostic layers, base status, horizon expression, clay activity
central concept of Great Group (Typic) or intergrades or extragrades
Subgroup
properties important for soil use (texture, mineralogy, temperature)
Family
kind and arrangement of horizons, specific chemical mineralogical
Series
properties of horizons
105
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
Soil Orders and their Formative Elements
Formative
Order Mnemonicon Derivation
Element
Gelisol el gelifluction L. gelare, freeze
Histisol ist histology Gr. histos, tissue
Spodosol od Podzol; odd Gr. spodos,wood ashes
Andisol and Ando Sp. Andes
Oxisol ox oxide Fr. oxide
Vertisol ert invert L. verto, turn
Aridisol id arid L. aridos, dry
Ultisol ult ultimate L. ultimus, last
Mollisol oll mollify L. mollis, soft
Alfisol alf Pedalfer
Inceptisol ept inception L. inceptum, beginning
Entisol ent recent
Description of Soil Orders

Soil Horizon
1. Gelisols
 Soils that commonly have a dark organic
Guide in surface layer and mineral layers
remembering the 12
Soil Orders: underlain by permafrost. These soils are
commonly in the tundra regions of
Alaska.
Gee How Soils Are
Outstanding, 2. Histosols
Versatile And Useful
 Organic Soils
Material Although
Increasingly 3. Spodosols
Exploited  Light colored acid forest, often
coniferous, soils of cool humid regions as
in northeast United States.
4. Andisols
 Soils derived from volcanic materials.
106
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………..…………………………………………………
5. Oxisols
 Highly weathered tropical soils. Has
subsurface horizon low in weatherable
minerals but high in aluminum or
sesquioxide clays.
6. Vertisols
 High in swelling clays. When dry, large deep
cracks form that surface soil falls into, mixing
the soil.
7. Aridisols
 Arid soils common to western United States,
often alkaline with salted horizons
8. Ultisols
 Highly weathered soils of warm climates, low
base, often leached, acid, and infertile. –
most common in the Philippines
9. Mollisols
 Prairie soils of the Great Plains. Dark, thick,
good structure, high base A horizon.
10. Alfisols
 Forest soils of cool moist climates, light
colored, slightly to moderately acid with
illuvial layer high in silicate clays.
11. Inceptisols
 Young soils, with only those horizons that
form quickly.
12. Entisols
 Very young soils in new parent materials or
Sample classification
where alluvial deposition or erosion limits
profile development (slopes). of soil using USDA
Soil Taxonomy
Cecil Series: Official Description: Fine, kaolinitic, thermic Typic Kanhapludults

Order: Ultisol
Suborder: Udult
Great Group: Kanhapludult
Subgroup: Typic Kanhapludult
Family: Fine, Kaolinitic, Thermic
Series: Cecil
107
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………..…………………………………………………
World Reference Base (WRB) for Soil Resources
Soil Horizon
 the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS)
system for soil correlation
WRB Architecture
The WRB comprises Reference Soil Groups

two levels of
categorical detail:
1. Soil with thick organic layers – Histosols
2. Soil with strong human influence
1. the First Level
having 32 a. with long and intensive agricultural use –
Reference Soil Anthrosols
Groups (RSGs), b. containing significant amount of artefacts –
and Technosols
2. the Second 3. Soils with limitations to root growth
Level, consisting e. permafrost-affected – Cryosols
of the name of f. thin or with many coarse fragments –
the RSG Leptosols
combined with a g. with a high content of exchangeable sodium
set of principal – Solonetz
and h. alternating wet-dry conditions, shrink-swell
supplementary
clays – Vertisols
qualifiers.
i. high concentration of soluble salts –
Solonchaks
4. Soils distinguished by Fe/Al chemistry
a. groundwater-affected, underwater and in
tidal areas – Gleysols
b. allophanes or Al-humus complexes –
Andosols
c. subsoil accumulation of humus and/or
oxides – Podzols
d. accumulation and redistribution of Fe –
Plinthosols
e. low-activity clay, P fixation, many Fe oxides,
strongly structured – Nitisols
f. dominance of kaolinite and oxides –
Ferralsols
g. stagnating water, abrupt textural difference
– Planosols
h. stagnating water, structural difference,
and/or moderate textural difference –
Stagnosols
108
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………..…………………………………………………
5. Pronounced accumulation of organic matter in the
mineral topsoil
a. very dark topsoil, secondary carbonates –
Chernozems Soil Horizon
b. dark topsoil, secondary carbonates –
Kastanozems
c. dark topsoil, no secondary carbonates (unless
very deep), high base status – Phaeozems  The WRB is a
d. dark topsoil, low base status – Umbrisols comprehensive
6. Accumulation of moderately soluble salts or non- classification system
that enables
saline substances
accommodation of
a. accumulation of, and cementation by,
national soil
secondary silica – Durisols classification
b. accumulation of secondary gypsum – systems.
Gypsisols
c. accumulation of secondary carbonates –  The term Reference
Calcisols Base is connotative
7. Soils with clay-enriched subsoil of the common
a. interfingering of course-textured, lighter denominator function
coloured material into a finer-textured, of the WRB: its units
stronger coloured layer – Retisols (RSGs) have sufficient
b. low-activity clays, low base status – Acrisols width to facilitate
c. low-activity clays, high base status – Lixisols harmonization and
correlation with
d. high-activity clays, low base status – Alisols
existing national
e. high-activity clays, high base status – Luvisols
systems.
8. Soils with little or no profile differentiation
a. Moderately developed - Cambisols
b. Sandy – Arenosols
c. Stratified fluviatile, marine, and lacustrine
sediments – Fluvisols
d. No significant profile development – Regosols
109
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………..…………………………………………………

e. Explain What is the most common soil Horizon

Soil
order in the Philippines? a. Discuss the
importance of having a soil
classification system.
f. Arts in Soil Science b. Discuss the 12 soil orders.
Make an Artwork Exhibit that c. Explain the different taxonomic

categories of soil classification
showcase the characteristics and
management of any soil orders. d. Briefly discuss the reference
soil groups.
References
John and Wiley and Sons, Inc., Iowa. 556 pp.
IUSS Working Group WRB. 2015. World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014, update 2015
International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps.
World Soil Resources Reports No. 106. FAO, Rome.
Lal, Rattan. 2017. Encyclopedia of Soil Science. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken
Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742. 2795 pp.
Soil Survey Staff. 2014. Keys to Soil Taxonomy. United States Department of Agriculture Natural
Resources Conservation Service. 372 pp.
110

Soil 111 Complete Module

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1

Module 1 Fundamental Concepts and Definitions

1. In your locality, observe the status and use of soil.

1. Compare and contrast your observation and reflection to your classmates.

 living, dynamic system which forms at the interface

 collection of porous natural bodies on the earth's

 Upper Boundary - generally considered as air-

Dirt your Mind!  Lateral Boundary - deep water or barren areas

Soil as part of Landscape & Ecosystems

Landscape -Three-dimensional section of the Earth’s

Ecosystem - Is an interacting system of biologic

Civilization depends on soil and water resources

 Soil resources were and are an important factor

 Pedology - study of soil as a natural entity -

Soil Science History in a Nutshell

 Starting in the 19th century, Soil Science was already

Soil science is originally

Periods in the Development of Soil Science

Ancient Pre-Soil Science Early Soil Science

2,000 years Greeks and Romans

Theophrastus gave the 371-286 BC

371-286 BC Cato developed a

J. Von Liebig 1803-1929 Joseph Henry Gilbert

V.V. Dokuchaev - in his 1846-1903

1899-1992 E. W. Hilgard - one of the first to apply

Section 1.2 Application

Understand Soil Horizons

Recommended Website to Explore

www.iuss.org; www.fao.org; www.bswm.da.gov.ph

 Let us dig into your basic Earth Science memories.

 Explain the importance of studying Earth in the study of soils.

Structure and Composition

 Based on the properties of seismic waves (waves

Rank Element Symbol Percent by Weight

The Earth's Major Spheres

Composition of the Atmosphere A. Atmosphere

Concentration  Atmosphere is the layer of

 Hydrosphere includes all water bodies on the

Chemical composition of seawater and river water

Soil Horizon  It is a thin envelope extending about 8 to 10 km

Effects of living organisms on the earth's atmosphere (Lovelock, 1988)

Composition Earth without life Earth with life

 Lithosphere is the term given for the rigid crust

Dig the Earth!

Rank Element Symbol Percent by Weight

 The Pacific Plate is the largest

 It ranges in thickness from a few

Understand Soil Horizons

Think like a Pro!

Recommended Website to Explore

www.iuss.org; www.fao.org; www.bswm.da.gov.ph

Apply the concepts. The soil is formed through the

 formation of the soil with special reference to the

Five factors control the formation of soils (concepts of Soil Horizon

General categories of parent materials:

 Climate and living organisms are considered the

 Soil-forming processes take time to show their

Let us now dig the soil!

 The study of soil formation

Weathering is important because it:

Basic Processes in Weathering:

a. temperature (expansion and contraction,