PSY 307 – Psychological Assessment VARIETIES OF ASSESSMENT

Chapter 1: Educational Assessment – the use of tests and other tools

to evaluate abilities and skills relevant to success or
Psychological Testing and failure in a school or pre-school context.
▪ intelligence tests
Assessment ▪
▪
achievement tests
reading comprehension tests etc.
Retrospective Assessment – past; the use of evaluative
Psychological Assessment – the gathering and tools to draw conclusions about psychological aspects of
integration of psychology-related data for the purpose of a person as they existed at some point in time prior to the
making a psychological evaluation through the use of assessment
tools
Remote Assessment – the use of tools of evaluation to
gather data and draw conclusions about a subject who is
Psychological Testing – the process of measuring NOT in physical proximity to the person or people
psychology-related variables by means of devices and conducting the evaluation
procedures designed to obtain a sample of behavior Ecological Monetary Assessment (EMA) – “in the
moment” evaluation of specific problems and related
cognitive and behavioral variables at the exact time and
TESTING VS ASSESSMENT place they occur; assessment by means of smartphones
TESTING ASSESSMENT
Objective
▪ to obtain some gauge, ▪ to answer a referral PROCESS OF ASSESSMENT
usually numerical in question, solve a problem,
nature, with regard to an or arrive at a decision
ability or attribute. through the use of tools of referral
evaluation
Process
▪ may be conducted ▪ individualized
individually or in groups ▪ focuses on the individual
meeting prior assessment
▪ focuses on the score and process
results
Role of Evaluator preparation
▪ tester is NOT key to the ▪ assessor is KEY to the
process process of selecting tests
▪ one tester may be and/or other tools as well
selection of tools and procedures
substituted for another as in drawing conclusions
without affecting the
evaluation
Skill of Evaluator formal assessment
▪ tester requires technician- ▪ assessment requires an
like skills in administering educated selection of
and scoring a test as well tools of evaluation, skill in
as interpreting a test result evaluation, and thoughtful writing a report of the findings
organization and
integration of data
Outcome more feedback sessions
▪ testing yield a test score ▪ assessment entails a logical
or a series of test scores problem-solving approach
▪ brings to bear many
sources of data designed to Collaborative Psychological Assessment – involves a
shed light on a referral collaboration between assessor and assessee; working
question
as partners from initial contact to final feedback.

Therapeutic Psychological Assessment – aims to be

helpful throughout the assessment process; results are
shared immediately; assessor and assessee co-develop
an interpretation of the results and decides further
questions.
Dynamic Assessment – an interactive approach to
psychological assessment that follows:
evaluation
intervention
evaluation
TOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
1.) Test – a measuring device or procedure
Psychological Test – a device or procedure designed to
measure variable related to psychology.
Psychological tests and other tools of assessment
differ with respect to a number of variables:
• Content – subject matter; it varies with the focus of
a particular test
• Format – form, plan, structure, arrangement and
layout of test items; other considerations like time
limits and form of test administration (computerized,
pencil-and-paper etc.)
• Administration Procedures – one-to-one basis or
group testing; may involve demonstration of various
kinds of tasks and trained observation
• Scoring and Interpretation Procedures – some
results are derived from summation of responses;
others require more elaborate procedures
• Psychometric Soundness – technical quality of the
test; whether or not it measures what it purports to
measure
DEFINITIONS
Score – a code or summary statement, usually but not
necessarily numerical in nature, that reflects an evaluation
of performance on a test, task, interview, or some other
sample of behavior.
Scoring – the process of assigning such evaluative codes
or statements to performance on tests, tasks, interviews,
or other behavior samples
Cut Score – aka cutoff score or cutoff; a reference point,
usually numerical, derived by judgment and used to
divide a set of data into two or more classifications.
Psychometrics – the science of psychological
measurement
▪ Psychometric – adj.; measurement that is
psychological in nature
Psychometrist or Psychometrician – a professional who
uses, analyzes and interprets psychological test data
2.) Interview – a method of gathering information
through direct communication involving reciprocal
exchange.
Panel Interview – aka board interview; involves more
than one interviewer; usually used in hiring, firing, and
advancement of personnel
▪ Advantage: minimize idiosyncratic biases of a
lone interviewer
▪ Disadvantage: cost of using multiple
interviewers may not be justified
Motivational Interviewing – a therapeutic dialogue that
combines person-centered listening skills + cognition-
altering techniques; designed to positively affect
motivation and effect therapeutic change
3.) Portfolio – work products retained on paper, canvas,
film, video, audio etc.; a sample of ability and
accomplishments
4.) Case History Data – records, transcripts, and other
accounts in written, pictorial, or other form that
preserve archival information, official or informal
accounts, and other data and items relevant to an
assessee.
Case Study – aka case history; a report or illustrative
account concerning a person or an event compiled on the
basis of case history data
Groupthink – a result of the varied forces that derive
decision-makers to reach a consensus (such as motivation
to reach a compromise in positions).
5.) Behavioral Observation – monitoring the actions
of other or oneself by visual or electronic means while
recording quantitative or qualitative info regarding
those actions
Naturalistic Observation – variety of behavioral
observation; observing of humans in a natural setting in
which the behavior would typically be expected to occur
6.) Role-Play Tests – a tool of assessment wherein
assessees are directed to act as if they were in a
particular situation
Role-Play – acting an improvised or partially improvised
part in a simulated situation
7.) Computer as Tools – help in the measurement of
variables, generating simulations, test administration,
and score interpretation
Local Processing – scoring done on-site
Central Processing – scoring conducted at some central
location
Simple Scoring Report – a mere listing of a score or
scores
Extended Scoring Report – more detailed report that
includes statistical analyses
Interpretive Report – distinguished by its inclusion of
numerical or narrative interpretative statements in the
report
Consultative Report – a type of report may provide
expert opinion concerning analysis of data
Integrative Report – designed to integrate data from
other sources; employs previously collected data into the
test report
Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT) – adaptive; a
reference to the computer’s ability to tailor the test to the
testtaker’s ability or test-taking pattern
Computer-Assisted Psychological Assessment (CAPA)
– assisted; the assistance computers provide to the test
user, NOT the testtaker.
ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED
ASSESSMENT OR ONLINE ASSESSMENT
• Greater Accesses – test administrators have greater
access to potential test users because of the global
reach of the Internet
• Faster Scoring and Interpretation – scoring and
interpretation of test data tend to be quicker than for
paper-and-pencil tests
• Lower Costs – costs associated with Internet testing
tend to be lower than costs associated with paper-and-
pencil tests
• Accessibility – the Internet facilitates the testing of
otherwise isolated populations, as well as people with
disabilities for whom getting to a test center might
prove a hardship.
• Eco-Friendly – Internet-testing tends to be “greener”
• Less Errors – less chance for scoring errors with
Internet-based tests
DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED
ASSESSMENT OR ONLINE ASSESSMENT
One basic issue has to do with “test-client integrity”
which includes:
• verification of the identity of the testtaker when a
test is administered online
• varying interests of the testtaker versus that of the
test administrator.
• testtakers may have unrestricted access to notes,
other Internet resources, and other aids in testtaking
• unproctored Internet testing leads to “score inflation”
as compared to more traditionally administered tests
8.) Other Tools:
▪ Video
▪ Virtual Reality (VR) Technology
▪ Medical Equipment
▪ Biofeedback Equipment
▪ Puzzles
 PSY 307 – Psychological Assessment
Chapter 2:
Ethical Guidelines
The Psychological Association of the
Philippines (PAP) adopted a Code of Ethics for Clinical
Psychologists in the 1980s, and this Code has remained
unchanged since then.
In the last quarter of 2020, a committee was
tasked to revise the Code of Ethics, in view of recent
technological developments as well as the implications of
the Covid-19 pandemic on the practice of psychology.
The revised version of the Code of Ethics aligns with the
following laws:
• RA 10029 or Philippine Psychology Act of 2009 –
aims to regulate the professional practice of
psychology in the country; to protect the public from
inexperienced or untrained individuals; and to nurture
competent, upright and assiduous psychologists
• RA 11036 or the Philippine Mental Health Act of
2018 – aims to affirm the basic right of all Filipinos
to mental health; to protect the fundamental rights of
persons availing psychiatric, neurologic and
psychosocial health services; to develop and establish
a national mental health care system
• RA 10912 or the Continuing Professional
Development Act of 2016 – to institute measure that
will continuously improve the competence of Filipino
professionals and to make them attuned to the
development and advancements in their chosen field
INFORMED CONSENT
1. Consent – When conducting research or providing
assessment, therapy, counseling, or consulting
services in person or via electronic transmission,
telepsychology or video conferencing, telephone,
social media platforms, or other forms of
communication, we shall obtain the informed
consent of the individual or group of individuals
using language that is reasonably understandable to
that person or persons and peoples, except when
conducting such activities without consent is
mandated by law or governmental regulation or as
other provided in this Code of Ethics.
2. Assent and Parental Consent – To provide
protection for vulnerable persons, peoples, or groups
who are legally incapable of giving informed consent,
we shall nevertheless (a) provide an appropriate
explanation, (b) seek the individual’s assent, (c)
consider such persons’ preferences and best interests,
and (d) obtain appropriate permission from a legally
authorized person, if such substitute consent is
permitted or required by law.
▪ When consent by a legally authorized person is
not permitted or required by law, we shall take
reasonable steps to protect the individual’s rights
and welfare.
3. Full Disclosure – When psychological services are
court ordered or otherwise mandated, we shall inform
the individual of the nature of the anticipated
services, including whether the services are court
ordered or mandated and any limits of confidentiality,
before proceeding.
4. Documentation of Consent – We shall
appropriately document written or clearly
expressed unwritten advanced directives, oral
consent, permission, and assent.
CONFIDENTIALITY
A. Maintaining Confidentiality
It is our duty to safeguard any information
divulged by our clients, regardless of the medium where
it was stored. It is also our duty to make sure that this
information is secured and is not placed in areas, spaces,
computers, or gadgets such as laptops and smartphones
that are easily accessible to other unqualified persons.
B. Limitations of Confidentiality
1. It is our duty to discuss the limitations of
confidentiality to our clients, may it be due to
regulated laws, institutional rules, or professional or
scientific relationship. In cases where the client is a
minor or is legally incapable of giving informed
consent, the primary guardian or legal representative
should be informed about the limitations of
confidentiality.
2. Before the actual interview, session, assessment, or
any other related psychological activities, we explain
 explicitly to the client all anticipated uses of the
information they will disclose.
3. We may release information to appropriate
individuals or authorities only after careful
deliberation or when there is imminent danger to the
individual and community. In court cases,
information should be limited only to those pertinent
to the legitimate request of the court.
4. If the psychological services, products, or information
are coursed through an electronic transmission (such
as fax, email, etc.), it is our duty to inform the clients
of risks to privacy. To safeguard privacy in these
cases, the psychology professional must adhere to
strict standards and best practices in the transmission
of information through the use of encryption,
passwords, etc.
C. Recording
It is our duty to obtain consent from clients or
their legal representatives before recording the voices or
images of the clients. Before the actual recording, we
explain explicitly all anticipated uses of recorded voices
or images of the clients.
D. Minimizing Invasions of Privacy
1. When we consult cases with our colleagues or make
written and oral reports, we only reveal information
that is relevant to the purpose for which the
communication is made.
2. We discuss confidential information we obtained
from our work only to persons clearly concerned or
only for scientific, medical and professional purposes.
In such situations, personal identifiers such as name,
address, organizational affiliation, etc. are not
disclosed.
E. Disclosures
1. We take reasonable steps to ensure that information
to be disclosed will not be misused, misunderstood or
misinterpreted to infringe on human rights, whether
intentionally or unintentionally.
2. We may disclose confidential information only when
the client or legal representative gave their consent,
unless it is prohibited by law.
3. We may disclose confidential information only to the
source of referral and with a written permission from
the client if it is self-referral.
4. We may disclose confidential information without the
consent of the client or legal representative only when
it is mandated by law or permitted by law for valid
purposes such as:
▪ (a) when professional services are needed to be
provided;
▪ (b) when appropriate professional consultations
are needed to be obtained;
▪ (c) when the client, psychology practitioner, or
others are needed to be protected from harm;
and,
▪ (d) When payments for psychological services
are needed to be obtained from a client who does
not pay for services as agreed
5. However, the extent to which we divulge information
is limited to what is only needed to achieve the
purpose.
6. When confidential information is needed to be shared
with schools, organizations, social agencies or
industry, we make sure that only qualified psychology
practitioners will supervise such releases.
7. Information gathered from school, hospital, office or
organization becomes part of the institution where it
was obtained. Release of such information becomes
confidential and may be acquired only with prior
approval from management or an authorized
representative.
F. Consultation
1. We do not discuss with our colleagues or other
professionals confidential information that could lead
to the identification of the client, unless the client
gave consent or the disclosure cannot be avoided.
2. When we seek second opinion from our colleagues or
other professionals, we make sure that the extent to
which we disclose information is limited to what is
only needed to achieve the purpose.
G. Use of Confidential Information for Other
Purposes
We do not reveal confidential and personally
identifiable information of our clients in our writings,
lectures and seminars, classroom discussions, research,
publications, or other public or social media postings
unless the client or legal representative consented in
writing; there is legal authorization; or, we take
reasonable steps to adequately disguise the client.

CONFIDENTIALITY OF RECORDS
1. We maintain confidentiality in creating, storing,
accessing, transferring, and disposing of our records
in whatever form or media these are encoded and
stored.
2. When confidential information is entered into
databases or other systems that are available to other
people, we use codes, passwords, and other
techniques to avoid the inclusion of any personal
identifiers.
3. In the event that we anticipate retirement, transfer,
resignation or withdrawal from a position or practice,
we make advanced plans to facilitate the appropriate
transfer and to protect the confidentiality of records
and data.
INFORMED CONSENT IN ASSESSMENT
1. We gather informed consent prior to the assessment
of our clients except for the following instances:
a) when it is mandated by the law
b) when it is implied such as in routine educational,
institutional and organizational activity
c) when the purpose of the assessment is to
determine the individual’s decisional capacity.
2. We educate our clients about the nature of our
services, financial arrangements, potential risks, and
limits of confidentiality. In instances where our
clients are not competent to provide informed consent
on assessment, we discuss these matters with
immediate family members or legal guardians.
3. In instances where a third-party interpreter is needed,
the confidentiality of test results and the security of
the tests must be ensured. The limitations of the
obtained data are discussed in our results,
conclusions, and recommendations.
4. In teleassessment, we inform test takers of the
implications of poor internet connectivity during the
test-taking session on their test performance,
particularly for timed assessments.
CONFIDENTIALITY AND INFORMED CONSENT
IN THERAPY
A. Confidentiality
1. We regard confidentiality as an obligation that arises
from our client’ s trust. We therefore restrict
disclosure of information about our clients except in
instances when mandated or regulated by the law.
2. For evaluation purposes, we discuss the results of
clinical and counseling relationships with our
colleagues’ concerning materials that will not
constitute undue invasion of privacy.
3. We release information to appropriate individuals or
authorities only after careful deliberation or when
there is imminent danger to the individual and the
community. In court cases, data should be limited
only to those pertinent to the legitimate request of the
court.
B. Informed Consent
1. We seek for freely given and adequate informed
consent for psychotherapy. We inform clients in
advance the nature and anticipated course of therapy,
potential benefits or risks of treatment, or conflicts of
interests, fees, third party involvement, client’s
commitments, and limits of confidentiality.
2. We respect the client’s rights to commit to, terminate,
or withdraw from therapy.
3. In instances where there is a need to provide generally
recognized techniques and procedures that are not yet
established, we discuss with our clients the nature of
the treatment, its developing nature, potential risks,
alternatives and obtain consent for their voluntary
participation.
4. We discuss with our clients both our rights and
responsibilities at appropriate points in the working
relationship.
5. In instances where the therapist is still undergoing
training, we discuss this matter with the client and
assure them that adequate supervision will be
provided.
6. As psychometricians, we are prohibited from the
practice of therapy, unless in emergency situations.
COPYRIGHT
Plagiarism
We do not present any portions of other’s work or
data as our own, even if the source is cited occasionally.
Publication Credit
1. We take responsibility and credit only for work we
have actually done and credit others (including
students and research assistants) for work they have
actually performed or to which they have
substantially contributed.
2. We ensure that principal authorship and co-
authorship accurately reflect the relative scientific or
 professional contributions of the individuals
involved, regardless of their relative status.
▪ Mere possession of an institutional position, such
as department chair or head of the research unit,
does NOT justify authorship credit.
▪ Minor contributions to the research or to the
writing for publications must be acknowledged
appropriately, such as in footnotes or an
introductory statement.
3. We do not claim credit or authorship in a publication
that is substantially based on our student’s thesis or
dissertation if we do not have substantial
contributions to the research beyond our regular
duties as thesis/dissertation mentor or advisor.
▪ As faculty advisors, we should discuss with
students, publication credit at the outset and
throughout the research and publication process
based on our relative contributions to the research
work.
4. In a multiple-authored article that is partly and/or
substantially based on the student’s thesis or
dissertation, we shall give appropriate publication
credit to the student based on the student’s
contribution relative to the other authors.
▪ When the article is mainly based on the student’s
thesis or dissertation, we credit the student with
primary authorship.

Duplicate Publication of Data

We do not publish data that have been previously
published and claim them as original data. However, this
does not prohibit republishing of data as long as proper
acknowledgement is clearly stated.
 PSY 307 – Psychological Assessment ▪ Ex: gender, marital status, religion, race, hair
color, country, etc.
Chapter 3:

A Statistics Refresher Ordinal Scales – assign people into categories with a

clear and uncontroversial order; involves ranking or
hierarchy; have no absolute zero point and no clearly
defined interval
Measurement – the act of assigning numbers or
▪ allows for comparison of position or ranks
symbols to characteristics of things according to rules.
▪ Ex: year level, economic status, satisfaction
rating (“extremely dislike”, “dislike”, “neutral”,
“like”, “extremely like”)
The rules used in assigning numbers are
guidelines for representing the magnitude of the object
being measured.
Interval Scales – have meaningful distances between
numbers; have no absolute zero point
Scale – a set of numbers or other symbols whose ▪ allows for calculating means and standard
properties model empirical properties of objects to which deviation
the numbers are assigned. ▪ CANNOT be compared as ratios, proportions or
percentages
▪ Ex: temperature (Fahrenheit), temperature
(Celsius), IQ (Intelligence Quotient) score
DISCRETE VS CONTINUOUS SCALES
DISCRETE CONTINUOUS
▪ can be counted ▪ cannot be counted Ratio Scales – has a true zero point, which indicates the
▪ has an infinite number of absence of the thing being measured
possible values that can be
measured ▪ represent the magnitude of the quantity being
▪ a sample space that can be ▪ any real number in the measured
counted scale’s sample space
▪ CAN be compared as ratios and proportions
▪ can have fractions or
decimals
▪ Ex: year levels, number of ▪ Ex: height, weight, length,
students, number of time, temperature, blood
children, number of pressure
previous hospitalizations

Error – the collective influence of all the factors on a

test or measurement beyond those specifically measured
by test or measurement.

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
Nominal – simplest form of measurement; involve
classification or categorization based on one or more
distinguishing characteristics
▪ all things measured must be placed into mutually
exclusive and exhaustive categories
 Formula for Ungrouped Data (Raw Scores):
Distribution – a set of test scores arrayed for recording
or study

Formula for Grouped Data:

Raw Score – a straightforward, unmodified accounting
of performance that is usually numerical; may reflect a
simple tally
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS
Frequency Distribution – aka simple frequency
distribution; all scores are listed alongside the number of
times the score occurred (frequency); might be listed in
tabular or graphic form
Grouped Frequency Distribution – test-core intervals
or class intervals replace the actual test scores; 2. Median – the middle score in the distribution;
obtained by ordering the scores in a list; either
▪ number of class intervals and the size or width of
ascending or descending order; median is the score
each class depends on the test user’s decision
exactly in the middle.
Frequency distributions of test scores can also be ▪ When the total number of scores is an even
illustrated graphically. number, the median is calculated by determining
the arithmetic mean of the two middle scores.
• Graph – a diagram or chart composed of lines, points, ▪ appropriate for ordinal, interval and ratio data.
bars, or other symbols that describe and illustrate data ▪ useful for skewed data, where relatively few
• Histogram – a graph with vertical lines drawn at the scores fall at the high end of the distribution or
true limits of each test score (or class interval), relatively few scores fall at the low end of the
forming a series of contiguous rectangles. distribution
• Bar Graph – numbers indicative of frequency also
appears on the Y-axis, and reference to some Formula for Grouped Data:
categorization (e.g., yes/no/maybe, male/female)
appears on the X-axis.
• Frequency Polygon – Expressed by a continuous line
connecting the points where test scores or class
intervals (as indicated on the X-axis) meet
frequencies (as indicated on the Y-axis).
3. Mode – the most frequently occurring score in a
distribution of scores; not commonly used; not
calculated, obtained by simply counting and
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
determining which score occurred most frequently
A measure of central tendency is a statistic that ▪ useful in analyses of a qualitative or verbal
indicates the average or midmost score between the nature
extreme scores in the distribution. ▪ convey a wealth of information in addition to
mean

1. Mean – aka arithmetic mean; symbol: X̄; most MEAN MEDIAN MODE
commonly used; the sum of the observations (test ▪ interval-level ▪ a statistic ▪ a nominal
scores) divided by the number of observations statistic that takes statistic
▪ most appropriate measure for interval or ratio ▪ generally the most into account ▪ cannot
stable and useful the order of legitimately be
data when the distributions are believed to be measure of central scores used in further
approximately normal tendency ▪ ordinal in calculations
nature
 MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
Statistics that describe the amount of variation in
a distribution are referred to as measures of variability.
4. Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD) – the mean
(average) distance between each data value and the
mean of the data set
▪ Formula:

Variability – an indication of how scores in the

distribution are scattered or dispersed.
1. Range – simplest measure of variability; the
difference between the highest and lowest scores
▪ Formula: highest – lowest = range
▪ its potential use is limited
▪ provides a quick but gross description of the
spread of scores
▪ description of variation may be understated or
overstated
INTERQUARTILE AND SEMI-QUARTILE
RANGES
▪ the bar on each side of X - X̄ indicates that it is the
absolute value of the deviation score
▪ all deviation scores are then summed and divided
by the total number of scores (n) to arrive at the
average deviation
▪ rarely used – deletion of algebraic signs renders
it a useless measure for purposes of any further
operations
5. Standard Deviation – a measure of variability equal
to the square root of the average squared deviations
about the mean; square root of variance
▪ a useful measure because each individual score’s
distance from the mean of the distribution is
factored into its computation
▪ Formula for Sample:

Quartiles – the dividing points between the four quarters

in the distribution; three quartiles: Q1, Q2 and Q3

▪ Formula for Population:

Note: quartile refers to a specific point; quarter refers to
an interval
Q2 – exactly the same as the median; midpoint of the
distribution
Q1 and Q3 – the quarter-points in a distribution of scores
2. Interquartile Range – a measure of variability equal
to the difference between Q3 and Q1; it is an ordinal
scale
▪ Formula: Q3 – Q1 = interquartile range
6. Variance – widely used in psychological research;
the arithmetic mean of the squares of the differences
between the scores in a distribution and their mean
▪ calculated by squaring and summing all the
deviation scores and then dividing by the total
number of scores
▪ Formula for Sample:

3. Semi-quartile Range – equal to the interquartile

range divided by 2
▪ Formula: ▪ Formula for Population:
(Q3 – Q1)
2
 SKEWNESS Negatively Skewed – distance between Q3 and Q2 is less
than the distance between Q2 and Q1
Skewness – the nature and extent to which symmetry is ▪ Q3 – Q2 < Q2 – Q1
absent; an indication of how the measurements in a
distribution are distributed
Symmetrical – the distances from Q1 and Q3 to the
median is the same
Positive Skew – when relatively few of the scores fall at
▪ Q3 – Q2 = Q2 – Q1
the high end of the distribution; tail ay nasa right side
▪ Note: Q2 is the median
▪ may indicate that a test is too difficult
KURTOSIS

Kurtosis – the steepness of a distribution in its center is

kurtosis; have little bearing in psychological tests

THREE GENERAL TYPES OF CURVES

Negative Skew – when relatively few scores fall at the

low end of the distribution
▪ may indicate that a test is too easy

1. Platykurtic – relatively flat

2. Leptokurtic – relatively peaked
3. Mesokurtic – somewhere in the middle
According to the original definition, the normal bell-
shaped curve would have a kurtosis value of 3.
In others, the value would be 0, with positive values
(+) indicating higher kurtosis and negative values (-)
indicating lower kurtosis.

THE NORMAL CURVE

One way of gauging the skewness of a distribution is
through examination of the relative distances of quartiles
from the median. Normal Curve – a bell-shaped, smooth, mathematically
defined curve that is highest at its center; perfectly
Positively Skewed – distance between Q3 and Q2 is
symmetrical, with no skewness
greater than the distance between Q2 and Q1
▪ Q3 – Q2 > Q2 – Q1

In theory, the distribution of the normal curve
ranges from negative infinity to positive infinity. Because
it is symmetrical, the mean, median, and mode all have
the same exact value.
THE AREA UNDER THE NORMAL CURVE
The normal curve can be conveniently divided into
areas defined in units of standard deviation. The empirical
rule, or the 68-95-99.7 rule, tells you where most of your
values lie in a normal distribution:
• Around 68% of values are within 1 standard
deviation from the mean.
• Around 95% of values are within 2 standard
deviations from the mean.
• Around 99.7% of values are within 3 standard
deviations from the mean.
A normal curve has two tails. The area on the normal
curve between 2 and 3 standard deviations above the
mean is referred to as a tail. The area on the normal curve
between -2 and -3 standard deviations below the mean is
referred to as a tail.
STANDARD SCORES
Standard Score – a raw score that has been converted
from one scale to another scale, where the latter scale has
some arbitrarily set mean and standard deviation.
▪ conversion of raw scores to standard scores
allows for easier interpretation
Different systems for standard scores exist, each
unique in terms of its respective mean and standard
deviations.
Z-score – aka zero plus or minus one scale; mean is set
at 0 and a standard deviation is set at 1; equal to the
difference between a particular raw score and the mean
divided by the standard deviation
Formula:
X – raw score or observed value
X̄ - mean of all the values in a data set
S – standard deviation of a sample
T Scores – aka fifty plus or minus ten scale; mean is set
at 50 and a standard deviation is set at 10; composed of
a scale that ranges from 5 standard deviations below the
mean to 5 standard deviations above the mean.
▪ devised by W.A. McCall
▪ named T score in honor of his professor E.L.
Thorndike
OTHER STANDARD SCORES
• Stanine – A method of scaling test scores on a nine-
point standard scale with a mean of 5 and a
standard deviation of two.

Stanines take on values from 1 to 9, which
represent the range of performance that is half if the
standard deviation in width. The 5th stanine indicates the
average range.
• IQ scores – distribution typically has a mean set at
100 and a standard deviation at 15
LINEAR AND NONLINEAR TRANSFORMATION
Linear Transformation – one that retains a direct
numerical relationship to the original raw score.
Non-linear Transformation – the resulting standard
score does NOT necessarily have a direct numerical
relationship to the original, raw score
▪ may be required when the data under
consideration are not normally distributed yet
comparisons with normal distributions need to be
made
NORMALIZED STANDARD SCORES
Normalizing a distribution involves stretching
the skewed curve into a shape of a normal curve and
creating a corresponding scale of standard scores, a
normalized standard score scale.
▪ used for purposes of comparability
▪ generally preferrable to fine-tune the test
according to difficulty or other relevant variables
so that the resulting distribution will approximate
a normal curve
CORRELATION AND INFERENCE
Coefficient of correlation – correlation coefficient; a
number that provides us with an index of the strength of
the relationship between two things.
Correlation – An expression of the degree and direction
of correspondence between two things
Coefficient of correlation (r) expresses a linear
relationship between two (and only two) variables,
usually continuous in nature.
The meaning of correlation coefficient is
interpreted by its sign and magnitude.
• Perfect Correlation – either +1 or -1; relationship
between the two variables being correlated is
perfect—without error in the statistical sense.
• No Correlation – 0; absolutely no relationship
exists between the two variables
• Positive Correlation – aka direct correlation; two
variables simultaneously increase or decrease
• Negative Correlation – aka inverse correlation; one
variable increases and the other decreases
Pearson r – devised by Karl Pearson; r can be the
statistical tool of choice when the relationship between
the variables is linear and when the two variables being
correlated are continuous.
Other names for Pearson r:
▪ Pearson correlation coefficient
▪ Pearson product-moment coefficient of
correlation
Coefficient of Determination (r2) – an indication of how
much variance is shared by the X- and Y- variables
▪ obtained by squaring the correlation coefficient
and multiplying it to 100 = the percentage of
variance accounted for
Spearman Rho – developed by Charles Spearman;
frequently used when the sample size is small (fewer than
30 pairs of measurements) and especially when both sets
of measurements are in ordinal (or rank-order) form.
Other names for Spearman Rho:
▪ Rank-order correlation coefficient
▪ Rank-difference correlation coefficient
▪ Spearman’s Rho