Reading 6 Simple Observations and The Two Peg Test

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Contents
Introduction 2
Simple observations 3
Benchmarks 5
Interpreting observations in the telescope 7
Booking observations 11
Reducing sources of error 13
Change points 14
Reductions 17
Rise and fall 17
Reductions with change points 22
HPC method 24
Setting formwork to reduced levels 27
The two-peg test 30

Collimation error 30
Conclusion 32
Answers to Check your progress questions 34
CPCCBC4018 Apply site surveys and set out procedures to building and construction projects
 TAFEDIGITAL, 18/01/2022
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Introduction
You now know all about the surveyor’s level. You know what the staff
looks like. You can even define reduced level, datum, benchmark and a few
other terms.
This section continues on from the previous one. We will find out how to:
 set up the instrument
 read the staff
 book your observed readings of the staff
 calculate or reduce the levels from these observations
 prove that you have not made a mistake.
Fortunately, the mathematics for all of the above is very straightforward—

you may even like to do it all in your head rather than use a calculator.
As we shall see in the next section, we need reduced levels for a number of
purposes around the building site—so let’s get on with reducing levels.
On completion of this section you will be able to:

 use the level and staff to obtain readings from which reduced levels can
be determined
 change level stations to carry levels over difficult sites
 check fieldwork (observations) for accuracy and errors
 reduce levels from field observations
 set formwork to designed reduced levels
 check the instrument for adjustment.
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Simple observations
First, here’s a simple exercise involving a chair, a table and a bar stool.
Equipment
You will need an ordinary 1200 mm carpenter’s level and a short ruler or
tape measure (about 200 mm long). If you have nothing as short as this,
imagine that your five-metre tape cannot measure beyond 200 mm. Next
you will need a table, a chair that is shorter than the table and a bar stool
which is higher than the table.
The exercise
Aim
The aim of the exercise is to measure the height of a chair seat and chair
back above the floor.
The rules
 You cannot measure up from the floor.
 The chair is not under the table, but about one metre away and cannot be
moved.
 You cannot put anything on the table except one end of the ruler.
 Finally, the top of the table is 760 mm above the floor.
Proceed as follows
1 Put the bar stool in between the table and the chair.
2 Set the level on the stool as shown in Figure 1 (next page).
3 Measure the distance from the level to the table.
4 Measure the distance from the level to the seat of the chair and to the
back of the chair.
5 Do some quick arithmetic as explained in the following example.
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Figure 1: Determining the height of a chair
Example
Let’s assume some actual values (you may have different values for your
set-up, but the mathematical process will be the same).
 level to table 150 mm

 level to seat 445 mm
 level to back of seat 60 mm
How high is the seat off the floor? How far below the tabletop is the seat;
subtract this from the height of the table.
Now how about the back of the seat?
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The height of the seat from the floor is 465 mm and the back is 850 mm.
Both these measurements were made without measuring from the floor.
Relating the exercise to a building site

What relevance has the above exercise to do with levelling on a building
site?
Have a look at Figure 2.
Figure 2: Level related to sea level
Yes, it is exactly the same exercise. The only difference is scale.
The floor is now the sea level. The top of the table is a benchmark (BM) of
known height above sea level and the carpenter’s level has been replaced by
a surveyor’s level. The bar stool becomes the legs on which the level is
mounted.
Benchmarks
Now for some actual values. The diagram in Figure 3 is the same as
Figure 2 with some values added. The benchmark height above sea level is
shown with the readings on a staff held firstly on the benchmark and then at
the top of the drive. The problem is to find the height of the drive above sea
level.
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Figure 3: Staff readings
The reduction of these values is exactly the same as in the example using
the table and chair.
Remember that a reduced level is defined as the height above the sea level
datum.
BM is the standard abbreviation for benchmark. Similarly, the standard

abbreviation for reduced level is RL.
Application of benchmarks
Using one random point as an illustration is just an exercise to show how a
height above sea level can be determined. What if there were more than one
point? For example, we may need to find the height difference between the
centre of the road and the top of the driveway, or perhaps the top of the
kerb, at the fence line. By having all these points related to a common
datum, we can readily determine the height differences between any of the
points.
Figure 4 shows such a situation. Staff readings are shown for the
benchmark, centre of road, top of kerb, at fence line and top of drive.
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Figure 4: Staff readings on driveway
Note the first reading is always on to the benchmark. If you leave the
benchmark observation to somewhere in the middle of the round of
observations, the calculations become too involved. Errors can occur.
Enough errors will arise without bringing in more sources of error. So, the
first reading is always on to the benchmark.
Check your progress 1
Using the values shown in Figure 4, can you work out the reduced levels for each staff
position?
After you have finished, check your answers against those given at the end of this section.
Interpreting observations in the telescope
The image
In Section 5 I showed an illustration of the surveyor’s staff. On this
illustration were pointers showing measurements. Let’s see what
observations look like as they would appear through the telescope. I will use
the actual values shown in Figure 4.
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Figure 5: Looking through the telescope of the level
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Some levels do not have the extra optics to give an erect image. In these
levels the image through the telescope is inverted (upside down). Have a
look at Figure 5 (f) and (g) which show what an inverted image looks like.
The observations shown in Figure 5 are not in the order shown in Figure 4. Can you show
which reading refers to the staff readings shown in Figure 4? This also refers to the two
inverted readings.
When you have finished, check your answers against those given at the end of this section.
Cross-hairs
In Figure 5 I have shown the cross-hairs in the telescope view as a simple
cross. In real life, things are never quite that easy. Figure 6 shows what
normal cross-hairs can look like, although the view through your telescope
may vary slightly from this. The double vertical lines are to allow you to
clearly bisect the target in the vertical plane. Do not get confused with the
short lines on either side of the main cross-hairs. These short lines are called
stadia hairs. The use of these hairs is beyond the scope of this subject, so
ignore them for now.
Figure 6: Telescope cross-hairs
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Figure 7 shows some typical staff readings as viewed through a level telescope. What are
the values observed for each reading? Which show an inverted image?
Figure 7: Staff observations through the telescope
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After you have finished, check your answers against those given at the end of this section.
Booking observations
Without some formalised method of booking (recording) observations,
confusion will quickly result.
There is a standard booking page for levels. If you are going to be doing a
lot of levelling, it is worthwhile heading off to the nearest surveying
equipment agent and buying a level field book. It is even possible to buy
loose level sheets. In the file where all the records for each job are kept, file
away all your level pages, or if you are using level books, file a note with
the job records showing on which page in which level book to find the
relevant observations and reductions.
An important point to remember: these level pages or books are a legal

record of the work you have carried out. In the event of a dispute, these
pages can be subpoenaed by the court.
The standard level page looks like this:
Back Intermediate Fore Rise Fall Reduced Remarks

sight sight sight level
A level page is not all that hard to fill in. Just for the moment we are only
interested in the first two columns—those labelled back sight and
intermediate sight.
The first observation of any level run is to the benchmark. It is always

booked in the back sight column.
A back sight in levelling is always the first reading at an instrument
station. It is always taken to a benchmark or a point of known value.
Point of known value? Yes, we will see when we come to change points
that a back sight may not necessarily be to a benchmark but can be to a
point of known value.
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The back sight is often abbreviated to BS. In our example from Figure 4, all
the subsequent observations after the first are booked in the intermediate
sight column. Let’s see how it looks.
Back Intermediate Fore Rise Fall Reduce Remarks

sight sight sight d level
1.328 BM
1.313 c/l
1.322 kerb
1.253 fence
0.893 drive
Note that I have also completed the remarks column. This is most
important. Imagine that you have taken 30 observations around a site and
have not given any remarks. Pick up the level book tomorrow and to what
does each level refer? Always fill in the remarks.
Finally, although it would appear from Figure 4 that the level and staff
positions are all in the same straight line, this is not necessarily so. Figure 8
is a plan view of the site shown in Figure 4. The level is set up on a
convenient spot to observe all staff positions. It is not on the line of the
drive. Note that the benchmark is also not on the line of the drive.
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Figure 8: Plan view of levelling site
Reducing sources of error

We are all going to make mistakes at some time. What surveyors try to do is
reduce, where possible, the source of errors. Where can errors arise in
levelling?
Errors in setting up
The first possible sources of error were mentioned in the previous section
describing setting up the level. If you do not set up correctly then you will
have errors to contend with.
Remember:
 make sure that the feet of the tripod legs are firmly pressed into the
ground
 make sure that the tripod legs are spread well apart. Aside from the
possibility of the instrument blowing over, if the legs are too close
together the instrument will be unstable and will vibrate in wind.
 do not forget to level the instrument, centring the bubble.
Errors involving the staff
Avoiding common errors
So much for the level—how about the staff?
Apart from misreading the staff, what else can go wrong? Here are a few
pointers to remember for the staff.
 When extending the staff, make sure that it is fully extended at each
joint.
 Make sure that the staff is held truly vertical for each observation.
 Avoid, where possible, reading to the top of the staff. Keep readings
below three metres.
 If working in muddy conditions, make sure that the foot of the staff is
always wiped clean. A build-up of mud on the base of the staff can
throw out readings by several millimetres.
 Always read the staff, book the value and then read the staff again to
make sure that you have not misread the staff. Read, book and read
again.
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 Always show trailing zeros for booked observations. For example, a

reading of 1.5 is shown as 1.500. This will help in avoiding addition
errors.
 Always show high-order or leading zeros for booked observations. For
example, a reading of.53 is shown as 0.530.
 Always keep decimal points directly in line (under each other) in each
column. Some commercial level pages already show the decimal points.
Swinging the staff
If the staff is not vertical, you can pick up quite a few millimetres error.
Reading above three metres increases the possibility of error. The higher
you go, the more chance that the staff will not be vertical. The higher up the
staff you read, the greater the error. This can be avoided quite easily by
what is called ‘swinging the staff’ (see Figure 9).
When observing towards the top of the staff, have your assistant sway the
staff slowly backwards and forwards towards you. Through the telescope,
you will see the staff apparently moving up and down in the field of view.
The lowest reading is the correct reading. At this point the staff is truly
vertical. As the readings increase, the staff is swinging off vertical.
Figure 9: Swinging the staff
Change points
So far everything has been pretty straightforward. What happens when we
want to observe down a hill when the five-metre staff is not long enough or
when we go up a hill and the line-of-sight burrows into the ground?
Obviously, we must change the position of the level. This is done at a
change point.
A change point is simply a point to which you observe the staff. The staff
remains on this point while you move the level to another position. Then
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you re-observe the staff again. Effectively you are creating a ‘temporary’
benchmark.
You can use a change point to move uphill, to move downhill or to go

around corners.
Figure 10 illustrates a change point to allow the level to be moved uphill.
Figure 10: A change point
Rules to reduce change-point errors

There are a few rules about change points. These are to ensure that more
sources of error are reduced.
 The change point should be a prominent point. Do not pick on a blade of
grass or just on the ground anywhere. The top of a firm rock embedded
in the ground is fine. Most surveyors carry a screwdriver to use as a
change point. The screwdriver is pushed into the ground and the top of
the handle is used as the point on which the staff is placed.
 The change point is not a permanent point. It is only to allow the level
to ‘leapfrog’ past the staff position.
 The observation to the change point is always the last observation from
the original level station. It is booked as a fore sight.
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 The first observation from the new level station is always to the change
point. It is booked as a back sight.
 Because the level only has moved and the staff is still on the same
ground point, the fore sight and the back sight are both booked on the
same line on the level page.
We will deal a bit more with booking change points when we come to
reductions.
It is a good idea to walk around the site before you set up the instrument.
Note the points you will need to observe. Select an instrument station where
you can maximise the number of observations. Do not set up behind a tree
or a pole which may obstruct your observations. Always think ahead.
Finally, always read back to your starting point. If you have one or several
change points in a level run, always come back to the original benchmark.
Even if there are no change points, read back to the benchmark and book
the observed value as a fore sight.
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Reductions
Rise and fall

At the start of this section, we investigated the problem of the chair, the
table and the bar stool. The first measurement was to the tabletop, and then
we subtracted the measurement to the chair from the measurement to the
table.
We did exactly the same to determine the RL of the driveway. You’ve

completed the Check your progress exercises, so you will have worked your
way through the arithmetic to determine the RLs of the other points shown
in Figure 4. Now let’s see how they are done using the level page table.
Solving the chair, the table and the bar stool problem using
the level page table
The measurements as staff readings
Firstly, look at the table and chair using the measurements as staff readings.

0.150 0.760 table
0.445 seat
0.060 back
Note that I have shown the last measurement as a fore sight. In change
points, we mentioned that the last observation from an instrument station is
always a fore sight.
Now solve the problem.
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Step 1
The first step is to determine the differences between the back sights and the
fore sights. Total up the back sights. Total up the fore sights and then
subtract one from the other—easy in this case, because there is only one of
each.

0.150 0.760 table
0.445 seat
0.060 back
0.150 0.060
0.060
0.090
Step 2
Subtract the second reading from the first, the booked value immediately
above, or if there is no value above, then the value in the next column above
to the left.
The first calculated value was –0.295.
Remember that I said to watch the minus sign. A minus sign in the answer
—a negative value—indicates a fall so we show this value in the fall
column. Then we continue with all subsequent values, applying them to the
appropriate rise or fall columns.
0.150 0.760 table
0.445 0.295 seat
0.060 0.385 back
0.150 0.060
0.060
0.090
Step 3
Now total up the rises and falls and find out the difference. This must agree
exactly with the difference between the back sights and fore sights.
If there is a difference then you have made a mathematical mistake

somewhere. Go back over your work and find it.
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0.150 0.760 table
0.445 0.295 seat
0.060 0.385 back
0.150 0.060 0.385 0.295
0.060 0.295
0.090 0.090
Step 4
Now we can reduce some levels. Work down the rise and fall columns,
adding or subtracting each in turn from the previous reduced level.

0.150 0.760 table
0.445 0.295 0.465 seat
0.060 0.385 0.850 back
0.150 0.060 0.385 0.295 0.850
0.060 0.295 0.760
0.090 0.090 0.090
Step 5
Having worked through all the reduced levels, take the first from the last
and you should have the same difference as you had in the rises and falls,
and the same differences between the back sights and the fore sights.
This must be exactly the same. If not, then you have made a mistake in your
arithmetic. Go back over your work and find it.
Close
A close means that you have come back to the starting point with no errors.
A misclose indicates an error. The differences between the back sights and
the fore sights gives an indication of the accuracy in your fieldwork.
It will show your fieldwork misclose. Where there are several change points
in a level run, it will be most unlikely that you will get a perfect close. What
sort of inaccuracy is acceptable?
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A rough rule of thumb is:
Don’t reach for your calculator to find out the square root of whatever.
The nearest whole value will do. For example the square root of 6 is 2 (near
enough). So if there are 6 change points, a misclose of 7 millimetres is
acceptable.
Now we can look at some actual levels.
Solving Check your progress 1 using the level page table

I am going to use the level observations shown in Figure 4 for this example.
The reduced levels shown in the final table are also the answers to Check
your progress 1. The only change to the table shown in ‘Booking
observations’ is a closing observation back to the benchmark.
Step 1
Check the back sights and fore sights.
Back Intermediate Fore Rise Fall Reduced Remark

sight sight sight level s
1.328 34.800 BM
1.313 c/l
1.322 kerb
1.253 fence
0.893 drive
1.329 BM
1.328 1.329
1.328
0.001
There is a one millimetre misclose which can be ignored.
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Step 2
Take out the rises and falls.

1.328 34.800 BM
1.313 0.015 c/l
1.322 0.009 kerb
1.253 0.069 fence
0.893 0.360 drive
1.329 0.436 BM
1.328 1.329 0.444 0.445
1.329 0.445
– 0.001 – 0.001
Step 3
We can now progress to reducing the levels.

1.328 34.800 BM
1.313 0.015 34.815 c/l
1.322 0.009 34.806 kerb
1.253 0.069 34.875 fence
0.893 0.360 35.235 drive
1.329 0.436 34.799 BM
1.328 1.329 0.444 0.445 34.799
1.329 0.445 34.800
– 0.001 – 0.001 – 0.001
Levels are now all reduced and closed.
The important thing to note is the order in which the calculations are carried
out. Each step is self-checking. When you get to the final answer, you know
that there are no mistakes.
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Reductions with change points

What happens when there are change points? Here is a page of levels with
two change points.

1.405 49.615 BM
1.040 sewer
3.144 0.512 CP 1
0.708 floor
1.187 pipe
0.642 3.235 CP 2
1.445 BM
I will show the reductions down as far as the first change point.

1.405 49.615 BM
1.040 0.365 sewer
3.144 0.512 0.528 CP 1
0.708 floor
1.187 pipe
0.642 3.235 CP 2
1.445 BM
5.191 5.192
5.192
– 0.001
Notice that I have worked down the columns, subtracting the staff readings
from the one above, or above and to the left.
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Before you continue, read these two rules.

1 Never subtract a fore sight from a fore sight in the column above.
Always subtract a fore sight from the column above and to the left.
2 Never subtract a back sight from anything!
Where there are two change points in succession, subtract the second fore
sight from the back sight in the row above and to the left.
Now continue the reductions.

1.405 49.615 BM
1.040 0.365 49.980 sewer
3.144 0.512 0.528 50.508 CP 1
0.708 2.436 52.944 floor
1.187 0.479 52.465 pipe
0.642 3.235 2.048 50.417 CP 2
1.445 0.803 49.614 BM
5.191 5.192 3.329 3.330 49.614
5.192 3.330 49.615
– 0.001 – 0.001 – 0.001
Even where the differences between totals in the columns appear to be very
obvious, do not forget to show the differences even if the difference is zero.
Now it is time for you to have a go at reductions.
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Reduce this page of levels showing all checks.

2.809 50.459 BM
2.766 3.730
2.145
1.140
2.139
0.524 1.158
1.215 BM
When you have finished, check your answers with those given at the end of this section.
HPC method
RL and HPC
In the description of the level in the last section, I referred to the optical axis
of the instrument. The optical axis is the line through the centre of all the
lens elements which make up the telescope.
Hopefully, if the instrument is in adjustment, the centre of the diaphragm on

which the crosshairs are engraved is also on the optical axis. That is, the
actual centre of the crosshairs is on the optical axis of the instrument. The
line through the optical axis and the crosshairs is called the line of
collimation.
When the instrument is correctly set up for observation, the line of

collimation is a horizontal line. Rotate the instrument about its vertical axis
and the line of collimation will traverse a horizontal plane. As this particular
horizontal plane is defined by the line of collimation of the instrument, it is
called the plane of collimation.
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If the RL of the instrument is known, we also know the height of the plane
of collimation—the HPC.
Figure 11: Plane of collimation
If we know the HPC, then to find RLs of any point we simply subtract the
staff reading of the point from the HPC.
Worked example calculating RL from HPC

Let’s work through an example using our familiar run of levels shown in
Figure 4. Here is the original booking sheet with the back sight and fore
sight difference determined.

1.328 34.800 BM
1.313 c/l
1.322 kerb
1.253 fence
0.893 drive
1.329 BM
1.328 1.329
1.329
– 0.001
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Step 1
The height of the plane of collimation has the same value as the height of
the instrument. To find the height of the instrument we add the staff reading
(back sight) to the benchmark to the RL of the benchmark. This will give us
the RL of instrument referred to as the HI (height of instrument).
Note that I have shown this in the ‘fall’ column.
Back Intermediate Fore Rise Fall/H I Reduced Remarks

1.328 36.128 34.800 BM
1.313 c/l
1.322 kerb
1.253 fence
0.893 drive
1.329 BM
1.328 1.329
1.329
– 0.001
Step 2
To determine the RLs of all the other points is a matter of subtracting each
staff reading from this level.
Back Intermediate Fore Rise Fall H I Reduced Remark

1.328 36.128 34.800 BM
1.313 34.815 c/l
1.322 34.806 kerb
1.253 34.893 fence
0.893 35.235 drive
1.329 34.799 BM
1.328 1.329 34.799
1.329 34.800
– 0.001 – 0.001
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Why go through all that rigmarole of reducing by the rise and fall method?
There is one good reason why you should never reduce levels using the HPC
method.
Notice that the third level at the fence is wrong! This RL should be 34.875.
That wasn’t very fair, was it? The reason why I deliberately introduced an
error is to highlight why you should never use the HPC method for reducing
levels. There is no check on mathematical errors.
The illustration which I have given does not include a change point. Change
points do not present a problem. At each change point, add the back sight to
the RL of the change point for the new HI.
Setting formwork to reduced levels

Why teach a method you should not use?
To answer this, let’s go back to our levels shown in Figure 4. This time I
am going to add a little bit. We have to mark the four corners of a concrete
slab to be poured at the top of the driveway. This is not only to mark the
four corners, but the top of the pegs are to be set to the design level of the
slab for the formwork.
Now let’s return to our page of levels, this time with the inclusion of the
RLs for the four corners of the slab.
Back Intermediate Fore Rise Fall H Reduced Remarks

sight sight sight I level
1.328 36.128 34.800 BM
1.313 c/l
1.322 kerb
1.253 fence
0.893 drive
35.360 cnr 1
35.420 cnr 2
35.370 cnr 3
35.310 cnr 4
1.329 BM
1.328 1.329
1.328
0.001
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In order to set the top of each peg exactly at the given RLs we need to know
what staff readings will give these values. In practice, the pegs are driven
down close to the required RL. The staff is placed on the peg and the peg
carefully driven down until the correct staff reading is observed. To find the
staff reading the required RL is subtracted from the plane of collimation,
the HI.
In the first example, given RL of 35.360, the staff reading to give this level
is:
For the other points the staff readings are:
0.708
0.758
0.818
After the pegs have been positioned, the whole lot should be re-levelled and
the levels reduced by the rise and fall method. Always check. A reinforced
slab is not an easy thing to discard!
This method is sometimes called the HOC—height of collimation—method.
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Determine the staff readings in the following page of levels which will give the required
reduced levels.

1.382 54.148 BM
4.469 3.010 cp
2.518 4.038 cp
51.776 peg 1
52.734 peg 2
52.866 peg 3
3.096 2.979 cp
52.540 peg 4
54.058 peg 5
54.325 peg 6
3.593 1.710 cp
3.308 BM
Check your answers with those given at the end of this section.
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The two-peg test
How do you know if your instrument is in adjustment? Is there a collimation

error?
Collimation error
A collimation error occurs when the centre of the crosshairs does not line up
with the optical axis of the instrument.
The instrument can get out of adjustment just by normal wear over a long
period of time and by abuse. Even in its carrying case, being bounced
around in the back of the ute can cause maladjustment.
The test
The ‘two-peg test’ is a test to determine if you should take the instrument
off to a repair shop for adjustment.
As you may have guessed, the test involves two pegs. The ideal spot to carry
out the test is the local sports field, but don’t let the local council ranger see
you belting two pegs into the ground.
If the level is out of adjustment, it will describe a cone above or below the
horizontal when the instrument is rotated. The amount of error e will be of
the same magnitude at equal distances from the instrument. If the instrument
is set up midway between two pegs, the difference in level between the pegs
will be correct. The error is cancelled out. This is shown in Figure 12.
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Figure 12: The level set up between two pegs
No matter how much the level is out of adjustment, the difference in level
between the two points is correct.
Now move the level close to one of the pegs, as close as possible to the peg
to be able to read the staff (Figure 13). Most levels can focus down to about
1.5 metres. By being close to the staff any error in the instrument is
negligible. Any error will be apparent over the long distance.
Figure 13: Instrument set up close to one peg
Read the staff on both pegs again. If the level is in adjustment, the level
difference will be the same as before. Maladjustment is indicated by the
amount of variation. You can wear a few millimetres, but if the error is
towards 10 millimetres, have the instrument adjusted.
For the test, the two pegs should be about 70 or 80 metres apart. Pacing out
the distance is good enough. The first instrument station between the pegs
can also be determined by pacing the distance. Within one or two metres of
the mid-point between the pegs is good enough. Such an inaccuracy in
distance will not have any effect on the test.
Worked example
The following booking sheet shows a typical example of a two-peg test.
Pegs are placed 75 metres apart.

1.146 peg A
1.474 peg B
1.175 peg B
0.850 peg A
True difference in level Peg A to Peg B = –0.328
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Difference at second set up Peg A to Peg B = 0.325

The level is out of adjustment 0.003 (3 millimetres) in 75 metres or
4 millimetres in 100 metres.
Conclusion
Previously I mentioned that you should not observe lines over 30 metres
long. Three reasons for this should be obvious by now.
 Although a minor value, the variation due to the earth’s curvature can
influence readings over very long lines—lines approaching 100 metres.
 If the instrument is out of collimation, the longer the line observed the
greater the increase in the observing error. An instrument with a
collimation error of 0.005 in 100 metres will give an error of 0.002 in
30 metres.
 The longer the line observed, the thicker the image of the crosshairs
appears in the view of the staff. This makes it increasingly difficult to
read the graduations on the staff accurately.
There is one final point to note. Although all the measurements around the
building site are shown in millimetres, boundary dimensions and reduced
levels are always shown in metres and decimals of metres.
The height of a ceiling may be 2400, but the RL of the floor is 75.235.
33
The following readings were observed to two pegs during a two peg test on a level. The
pegs were 70 metres apart.
Is the instrument in adjustment? If the instrument is out of adjustment, what is the error
per 100 metres?

1.374 Peg A
1.656 Peg B
1.316 Peg B
1.036 peg A
Check your answers with those at the end of this section.
34
Answers to Check your progress

questions

These are the answers.
centre line 34.815

kerb 34.806
fence 34.875
driveway 35.235

(a) benchmark
(b) centre line
(c) kerb
(d) fence line
(e) driveway
(f) benchmark
(g) driveway

(a) 2.103
(b) 1.492
(c) 2.040
(d) 0.523
(e) 1.765
(f) 3.155
None of these are inverted.
35

2.809 50.459 BM
2.766 3.730 0.921 49.538
2.145 0.621 50.159
1.140 1.005 51.164
2.139 0.999 50.165
0.524 1.158 0.981 51.146
1.215 0.691 50.455 BM
6.099 6.103 2.607 2.611 50.455
6.103 2.611 50.459
– 0.004 – 0.004 – 0.004

Back Intermediate Fore Rise Fall H I Reduced Remarks
1.382 55.530 54.148 BM
4.469 3.010 56.989 52.520 cp
2.518 4.038 55.469 52.951 cp
3.693 51.776 peg 1
2.735 52.734 peg 2
2.603 52.866 peg 3
3.096 2.979 55.586 52.490 cp
3.046 52.540 peg 4
1.528 54.058 peg 5
1.261 54.325 peg 6
3.593 1.710 57.469 53.876 cp
3.308 54.161 BM
15.058 15.045 54.161
15.045 54.148
0.013 0.013
36

1.374 Peg A
1.656 0.282 Peg B
1.316 Peg B
1.036 0.280 peg A
The level is out of adjustment by 0.002 in 70 metres.
This is equivalent to:

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1

The two-peg test 30

Answers to Check your progress questions 34

Fortunately, the mathematics for all of the above is very straightforward—

On completion of this section you will be able to:

Figure 1: Determining the height of a chair

 level to table 150 mm

Now how about the back of the seat?

Relating the exercise to a building site

Have a look at Figure 2.

Figure 2: Level related to sea level

Yes, it is exactly the same exercise. The only difference is scale.

Figure 3: Staff readings

BM is the standard abbreviation for benchmark. Similarly, the standard

Figure 4: Staff readings on driveway

Check your progress 1

Interpreting observations in the telescope

Figure 5: Looking through the telescope of the level

Check your progress 2

Figure 6: Telescope cross-hairs

Check your progress 3

Figure 7: Staff observations through the telescope

An important point to remember: these level pages or books are a legal

The standard level page looks like this:

Back Intermediate Fore Rise Fall Reduced Remarks

The first observation of any level run is to the benchmark. It is always

Back Intermediate Fore Rise Fall Reduce Remarks

Reducing sources of error

Errors involving the staff

Avoiding common errors

So much for the level—how about the staff?

 Always show trailing zeros for booked observations. For example, a

Swinging the staff

Figure 9: Swinging the staff

You can use a change point to move uphill, to move downhill or to go

Figure 10 illustrates a change point to allow the level to be moved uphill.

Figure 10: A change point

Rules to reduce change-point errors

Rise and fall

We did exactly the same to determine the RL of the driveway. You’ve

The measurements as staff readings

Back Intermediate Fore Rise Fall Reduced Remarks

Now solve the problem.

Back Intermediate Fore Rise Fall Reduced Remarks

The first calculated value was –0.295.

If there is a difference then you have made a mathematical mistake

Back Intermediate Fore Rise Fall Reduced Remarks

Back Intermediate Fore Rise Fall Reduced Remarks

A rough rule of thumb is:

Now we can look at some actual levels.

Solving Check your progress 1 using the level page table

Check the back sights and fore sights.

Back Intermediate Fore Rise Fall Reduced Remark

There is a one millimetre misclose which can be ignored.

Take out the rises and falls.

Back Intermediate Fore Rise Fall Reduced Remark

We can now progress to reducing the levels.