General Chemistry II

Kinetic Molecular Theory

1. All matter is made of tiny particles.
2. These particles are in constant motion.
3. The speed of particles is proportional to temperature. Increased temperature means greater speed.
4. Solids, liquids, and gases differ in distances between particles, in the freedom of motion of particles, and in the
extent to which the particles interact.

Properties of Molecular Behavior

Matter Solid Liquid Gas
Fixed Fixed
volume; volume; Assumes
fixed shape assumes volume
Volume/Shape (regardless shape of and shape
of size and occupied of
shape of part of container
container container.
Density High High Low
Cannot be Cannot be
Easy to
Compressibility appreciably appreciably
compress
compressed compressed
Random,
Random,
medium
Motion of Vibration in fast, cover
speed,
Molecules place large
limited
distances
distances

Types of bonds
 Ionic – transfer of e- from one atom to another
 Covalent - sharing of e- between atoms
a. nonpolar covalent – equal sharing of e-
b. polar covalent – unequal sharing of e-
Polar bonds and Electronegativity
 Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to
attract electrons in a chemical bond
 Polar bonds result when a highly
electronegative atom bonds to a less
electronegative atom
Electronegativity is defined as the ability of an
atom in a particular molecule to attract electrons
to itself
 (the greater the value, the greater the
attractiveness for electrons)
Electronegativity is a function of:
 the atom's ionization energy (how strongly
the atom holds on to its own electrons)
 the atom's electron affinity (how strongly the
atom attracts other electrons)
Determining Polarity
 A covalent bond is polar if there is a significant difference between the electronegativities of the two atoms (see
below):
Electronegativity Difference Type of Bond
0 – 0.3 Nonpolar covalent
0.4 – 1.7 Polar covalent
1.8 or greater Ionic

Polar-covalent bonds and Dipoles

Fluorine has a stronger attraction for the electrons.

They are still shared, but spend more time around the
fluorine giving partial opposite charges to opposite
ends of the bond (a dipole)

Nonpolar Bond (no dipole) vs. Polar Bond (dipole)

Determining Polarity of Molecules Intermolecular forces – the attractions between molecules

 If one end of a molecule is slightly positive and Determine whether a compound is a solid, liquid or gas at a
another end is slightly negative the molecule is polar given temperature (determine melting and boiling points of
 Polarity depends on the shape of the molecule substances)
 Ex. CO2 (nonpolar) and H2O (polar) Main Types:
 Ion-ion Interactions
 Ion-dipole Interactions
 Hydrogen bonding
 Dipole-dipole interactions
 Dispersion forces
Ion-ion Interactions Dipole-dipole
 Ion-ion interactions interactions
are an attractive  Dipoles interact by the
force between ions positive end of one
with opposite molecule being
charges. They are attracted to the
also referred to as negative end of
ionic bonds and another molecule
are the forces that (similar to but much
hold together ionic weaker than ionic
compounds. bonds)

Ion-dipole Interactions Dispersion Forces

An ion-dipole force is an attractive force that results from the  Caused by electron
electrostatic attraction between an ion and a neutral motion. Electrons
molecule that has a dipole. around one
 Most commonly found in solutions. Especially molecule
important for solutions of ionic compounds in polar momentarily repel
liquids. electrons a nearby
 A positive ion (cation) attracts the partially negative molecule creating a
end of a neutral polar molecule. momentary charge
 A negative ion (anion) attracts the partially positive difference
end of a neutral polar molecule.  Can exist between nonpolar molecules as well as polar
 Weakest intermolecular force but increases as the
number of electrons increases

Intermolecular Forces Summary

Hydrogen Bonding
 Attraction formed between the
hydrogen atom of one molecule
and an electronegative atom of
an adjacent molecule (O, N, or
F)
 A type of dipole interaction and
the strongest intermolecular
force
Properties of Liquids Meniscus
Two types of forces are involved in the properties of The curved surface of a liquid inside a
liquids: container is the meniscus.
 Cohesion is the  When the cohesive forces
intermolecular between the liquid molecules are
attraction between greater than the adhesive forces
like molecules (the between the liquid and the walls
liquid molecules). of the container, the surface of
 Adhesion is an the liquid is convex.
attraction between  When the cohesive forces
unlike molecules between the liquid molecules are
(such as those in water and in the particles that lesser than the adhesive forces
make up the glass tube). between the liquid and the walls of the container, the
Cohesion vs Adhesion surface of the liquid is concave.
 When both adhesive and cohesive forces are equal,
the surface is horizontal. For example, distilled water
in a silver vessel.

Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. The
greater the viscosity, the slower the liquid flows.
Viscosity is expressed in units of centipoise. The table
below gives viscosities of liquids of some pure substances.
Water has viscosity of 1 centipoise or 0.001 Pa/s at 20°C.
Surface Tension Substances with lower viscosities include carbon
Surface tension is the measure of the elastic force in the tetrachloride
surface of a liquid. It is the amount of energy required to and
stretch or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area benzene.
Glycerol has
a resistance
to flow of
more than a
thousand times greater than water.
Capillary Action
Capillary action is the
tendency of a liquid to rise
in narrow tubes or be
drawn into small openings
such as those between
grains of a rock. Capillary
action, also known as
capillarity, is a result of
intermolecular attraction between the liquid and solid
materials.
Two types of forces are involved in capillary action:
 Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between like
molecules (the liquid molecules).
 Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules
(such as those in water and in the particles that make
up the glass tube).
These forces also define the shape of the surface of a liquid
in a cylindrical container
Properties of Solids
Solids can be categorized into two groups:
 crystalline solids
 amorphous solids
Differences in properties of these two groups of solids arise
from the presence or absence of long range order of
arrangements of the particles in the solid.
Arrangement of particles
The components of a solid can be arranged in two general
ways:
 they can form a regular repeating three-dimensional
structure called a crystal lattice, thus producing a
crystalline solid,
 they can aggregate with no particular long range
order, and form an amorphous solid
Crystalline solids are arranged in fixed geometric patterns
or lattices. Examples of crystalline solids; ice and sodium
chloride (NaCl), copper sulfate (CuSO4), diamond, graphite,
and sugar (C12H22O11). The ordered arrangement of their
units maximizes the space they occupy and are essentially
incompressible.
Amorphous solids have a random orientation of particles.
Examples of amorphous solids are glass, plastic, coal, and
rubber. They are considered super-cooled liquids where
molecules are arranged in a random manner similar to the
liquid state.
METALLIC CRYSTALS
Metallic crystals are made of atoms that readily lose
electrons to form positive ions (cations), but no atoms in the
crystal would readily gain electrons.
The metal atoms give up their electrons to the whole crystal,
creating a structure made up of an orderly arrangement of
cations surrounded by delocalized electrons that move
around the crystal.
The crystal is held
together by electrostatic
interactions between the
cations and delocalized
electron. These
interactions are called
metallic bonds. This
model of metallic bonding is called the “sea of electrons”
model.
Behavior when heated
The presence or absence of long-range order in the
structure of solids results in a difference in the behavior of
the solid when heated.
The structures of crystalline solids are built from repeating
units called crystal lattices. The surroundings of particles in
the structure are uniform, and the attractive forces
experienced by the particles are of similar types and
strength.
Amorphous solids soften gradually when they are heated.
They tend to melt over a wide range of temperature. This
behavior is a result of the variation in the arrangement of
particles in their structures, causing some parts of the solid
to melt ahead of other parts.
Crystalline Solids
Crystalline solids are characterized by a regular repeating
structure called the crystal lattice.
Types of Crystals
1. Metallic Crystals
2. Ionic Crystals
3. Molecular Crystals
4. Covalent Network Crystals
MOLECULAR CRYSTALS
Molecular crystals are made of atoms, such as in noble
gases, or molecules, such as in sugar, C12H22O11, iodine, I2,
and naphthalene, C10H8.
The atoms or molecules are held together by a mix of
hydrogen bonding/ dipole-dipole and dispersion forces, and
these are the attractive forces that are broken when the
crystal melts.
The valence electrons of molecular substances are used in
bonding, and cannot move about the crystal structure.
Hence, the crystals are non-conducting. The absence of
any mobile particles make molecular crystals unable to
transmit heat fast.
The crystals are brittle because the attractive forces that
hold the molecules in the crystal are highly directional and a
shift in positions of the molecules would break them.
IONIC CRYSTALS COVALENT NETWORK CRYSTALS
Ionic crystals are Covalent network crystals are made of atoms in which
made of ions each atom is covalently bonded to its nearest neighbors.
(cations and The atoms can be made of one type of atom (e.g. Cdiamond
anions). These and Cgraphite) or can be made of different atoms (e.g. SiO2
ions form strong and BN).
electrostatic
interactions that
hold the crystal
lattice together.
The electrostatic
attractions are numerous and extend throughout the crystal
since each ion is surrounded by several ions of opposite
charge, making ionic crystals hard and of high melting
points.

Ionic substances can conduct electricity in the liquid or

molten state or when dissolved in water, indicating that in
these states, charged particles are able to move and carry
electricity. However, the solid state is generally non-
conducting since the ions are in fixed positions in the crystal Each carbon
lattice and are unable to move from one point to another. atom has four
valence
Ionic electrons,
crystals are making it
brittle, and capable of
would forming four
shatter into single covalent
small pieces bonds with other atoms, like in diamond. In graphite, only
when three of these four valence electrons are used for bonding,
deformed or leaving the fourth electron free.
when pressure is applied on the crystal. The shifting of ions
cause repulsions between particles of like charges. Every carbon atom in graphite has an extra electron that
can move about the layer, allowing graphite to conduct
electricity. The layers in graphite are held by weak
intermolecular forces, and with sufficient pressure, the
layers can slide past one another. When one uses a pencil
to write, layers of graphite are transferred to the paper as
one presses the pencil down on the paper.
Phase Change
Phase changes are transformations of matter from one
physical state to another. They occur when energy (usually
in the form of heat) is added or removed from a substance.
They are characterized by changes in molecular order.
Types of Phase Change
 These changes take place when heat is absorbed
(heat gained). They are endothermic processes.
 These changes give off heat (heat lost) and are
exothermic processes.
Phase diagram: A plot of temperature vs. pressure that
indicates the states of matter present at each point.
HEATING CURVE
Heating curve: A curve where supplying heat to a solid
substance will gradually raise its temperature, and
eventually, it will melt.
Phase changes occur when heat is added or removed
from a substance.
a. The added heat increases the kinetic energy of the
particles and the particles move faster. The
increase in kinetic energy is accompanied by an
increase in temperature.
b. The added heat is used to break attractive forces
between particles.
Phase changes occur when heat is added or removed
from a substance.
a. A decrease in kinetic energy of the particles. The
motion of the particles slow down. A decrease in
temperature is observed.
b. Forces of attraction are formed, and a phase
change may occur.
COOLING CURVE
Triple point: A point where all three states can exist
simultaneously.
Regions: (phase regions)
Solid Region - only a solid is stable in this range of P&T, (a
liquid or gas would spontaneously convert to a solid).
Liquid Region - only a liquid is stable in this range of P&T,
(a solid would spontaneously melt and a gas condense).
Gaseous Region - only a vapor is stable in this range of
P&T, (solids and liquids would spontaneously convert to a
vapor).
Lines (two phase equilibrium boundaries)
Solid/Gas Two Phase Line (pts. A to C) - both a solid and
gas can coexist in equilibrium at these T&P, adding heat
causes sublimation, removing it causes deposition.
Solid/Liquid Two Phase Line (pts. A to D) - both solid and
liquid can coexist in equilibrium at these T&P, adding heat
causes melting, removing it causes freezing.
Liquid/Gas Two Phase Line (pts. A to C) - both liquid and
gas can coexist in equilibrium at these T&P, adding heat
causes vaporization, removing it causes condensation