Remarkable Leaders from 1131 to 1160

Emperor Sutoku from Japan:

An emperor, poet, rebel, yōkai

Sutoku, the 75th emperor of Japan (reigned 1123-1142), is known to those with an
interest in Japanese literature primarily for a poem included in a 13th century anthology
of poetry, the Hyakunin Isshu (1235 AD); for students of history he is known as a rebel
and the catalyst of one of the most significant power shifts in Japanese history; and for
those with an interest in fantasy, horror, and magic he is known as an onryō, or yōkai.

Early life and beginnings:

He was born on the 7th of July in the year of 1119 and from his birth until right before he
ascended into the Chrysanthemum Throne, his imina or the personal name he went by
was Akihito. Do not confuse him with the Akihito who became His Imperial Majesty
though because they are far from being the same person. This name was given to him
after his death. Emperor Sutoku was the eldest child of Emperor Toba and Fujiwara no
Tamako who ruled during the years of 1107 until 1123.

According to genealogical records, his father was emperor Toba (1103-56); however, in
the next century a story surfaced that
not Toba but the retired emperor
Shirakawa was Sutoku’s father. His
mother, Fujiwara Tamako (Shōshi),
was the daughter of Fujiwara
Kinzane. As a child she was adopted
by Toba’s grandfather, Shirakawa,
and he eventually had her marry
Toba. She is said to have been
exceedingly beautiful, promiscuous,
and very intelligent. After becoming
empress she was given the name
Taikenmon’in.
Sutoku was enthroned in 1123, when he was four, and married a few years later. His
empress, Kiyoko (1122-1182), was also called Kōkamon’in. She was the daughter of
Fujiwara no Tadamichi (1197-64) who served as Regent or Chancellor during the
majority of Sutoku’s life. She became consort in 1129, and empress in 1130. She was eight,
he was eleven. The emperor and empress got along well but had no children.

Meanwhile, Toba’s attention

shifted from Taikenmon’in to
Fujiwara Nariko (1117-
1160), who became his new
favorite and received the
name Bifukumon’in. In 1139
she had a boy, who was given
to Kiyoko to raise. However,
Sutoku wanted his own child.
Whether or not it is because
in 1139 he founded a temple,
Jōshō-ji, (which was located
where Kyoto’s Exhibition and
Trade Center in Okazaki Park
stands today) is unknown,
but the next year Sutoku got
the child he hoped would be
his heir when his concubine Hyōenosuke no Tsubone gave birth to a boy.

Usually, the leadership of a clan or a transfer of major power during those times was done
when a boy reached the age of 7 but the situation with the succession of Japanese
emperors is a completely different thing. There isn’t usual or official time or age that an
emperor becomes an emperor in Japan but in the case of Emperor Sutoku and his father,
Emperor Toba, a pattern occurred. It happened through different series of events but
both of them started their reign at the age of 4. It happened to his father at that age
because his father and predecessor, Emperor Horikawa, died at the young age of 29. After
Horikawa’s death, the succession was received by Toba in the year of 1107.
Since 3-year-old Toba cannot handle the power and responsibility handed to him by the
succession he received, during the earlier years of his reign, the Emperor’s power was
actually held by his grandfather and former Emperor Shirakawa under a rule known as
the cloistered rule. This is an important thing to take note of because it showed how a
retired emperor can still hold that much power in the Japanese government then. This
cloistered rule would also be how a retired Emperor Toba would continue to be in power
even after he had abdicated and gave succession to Emperor Sutoku. Emperor Sutoku
was given succession at the age of 4 just like Emperor Shirakawa did, Emperor Toba used
this to stay in power even after this reign and no one could oppose it.

Reign:
It is unclear when Emperor Sutoku really took the reins from Emperor Toba since Toba
did handle the duties of being emperor while Sutoku was still unable to due to his age.
Despite this fact, the recorded events in Sutoku’s reign started from the time of his
succession. This happened in the year of 1123, specifically on February 25. That day was
the 28th day of the 1st month in the Hoan 4 period and it ended the 16-year reign of
Emperor Toba.

Succession was received during the 1st month of the Hoan 4 period but Emperor Sutoku
did not ascend to the throne until the 2nd month of that period. Not much was recorded
shortly after that but in the year of 1124, particularly in the second month of the Tenji 1
period, there was a grand get-together. It is considered a grand get-together because so
many people of great position showed up. There were the likes of former Emperor
Shirakawa as well as former Emperor Toba. Taiken-mon’in, who was formerly known as
Fujiwara no Shoshi, was also in attendance along with Fujiwara Tadamichi, who would
play a big role in serving the emperors of the late Heian period.

On the 10th month of the Tenji 2 period, the emperor went on a pilgrimage of some sort
as he visited the Iwashimizu Shrine as well as the Kamo Shrines. He didn’t stop there as
he also visited the shrines found in areas like the Hirano, Mutsunoo, Kitano, Gion,
Oharano and much more for that matter. Since Emperor Sutoku would have been at the
age of 6 or 7 when this happened, it could be noted as one of his first official acts as
emperor because he would have already been conscious about his actions at that age.
Emperor Sutoku’s reign is comprised of 7 eras which are namely the Hoan, Tenji, Daiji,
Tensho, Chosho, Hoen, and Eiji. All these eras combined would amount to about 19 years
at the throne. The events of the Hoan and Tenji eras have been mentioned but if you are
looking for details about an era that defined Emperor Sutoku, you should skip straight to
the Eiji era. This happened in the last two years of his reign which was during the years
of 1141 and 1142.

It might have been unrelated to each other but coincidentally, the year 1141 was the year
wherein former Emperor Toba decided to go on with his plans to become a monk. This
was also the year wherein Emperor Sutoku would decide to step down or retire from the
throne in favor of his half-brother. The half-brother being spoken off here is no other than
Emperor Konoe. This retirement was seen as a great move by some because it helped
maintain the peace but what Sutoku would do after changed everything about it.

Just like his father and grandfather who had held the power of the throne for years even
after their time, he tried to do the same thing as well but in a different way. This attempt
of Sutoku to keep or retain the power obviously created a lot of tension and disturbance
between Sutoku and Emperor Go-Shirakawa, who took over after Emperor Konoe.
Eventually, things would escalate even further and in the year of 1156, it resulted in the
breakout of the famous Hogen Rebellion. In this rebellion, the leaders of the Minamoto
clan, as well as the leaders of the Taira clans, fought for both sides. In the end, Sutoku
would lose the battle and this loss meant his exile to the islands of Shikoku in the Kagawa
prefecture which was known as the Sanuki province on Shikoku during those times.

In 1141, Sutoku was forced to abdicate, and the baby which Toba and Bifukumon’in had
given to Sutoku’s wife to raise was enthroned. He was later given the name Konoe.
Taikenmon’in, seeing that her influence on Toba had all but disappeared, became a nun
and moved to Hōkongō-in, where she died in 1145. The temple is known today for the
beauty of its garden and its flowers.
As a retired emperor, Sutoku had his own palace. Although it no longer exists, the well
that was on the palace grounds remains, on Nishi no Toin, just down from Sanjo. Called
“yanagi no mizu,” (water of the willow), the well’s water has been used over the centuries
by many people, including Sen no Rikyu.

Sutoku had a great interest in poetry. In the early 1140’s he gave an assignment to a select
group of poets for each to submit a one hundred poem sequence. Sutoku himself
participated, and the poem selected for the Hyakunin Isshu was among the poems in his
sequence. There were thirteen participants, among whom were Fujiwara Akisue and his
son Akisuke (leaders of the Rokujo group of poets), Fujiwara Shunzei (who was using the
name Akihiro), and two of Taikenmon’in’s Ladies in Waiting. Completed in 1150, the
sequence was named for the year period in which it was finished, Kyūan, and called
the Kyūan Rokunen Hyakushu, Hundred Poem Sequences of the Sixth year of Kyūan.

The next year, Sutoku commanded Akisuke to compile an imperial anthology of poetry.
Completed in about 1151, it was given the title Shikawakashū. The anthology is
interesting because it comes at the end of the predominance of the Kokinshū style and
sets the stage for the beginning of a new style that culminates in that of the Shinkokinshū.
Shunzei, who was young and relatively unknown at this time, was later to edit an imperial
anthology himself, the Senzaiwakashū, which is known for its poems with yūgen, depth
and mystery. He was also to head the Mukohidari poetry group, which was to eclipse all
others. The famous poet priest Saigyo who knew Toba, Taikenmon’in, Shunzei, Sutoku,
and the others, had one of his poems included in the Shikawakashū, although as an
anonymous poem.

The emperor Konoe died in 1155. It was rumored that Sutoku was somehow involved in
the young emperor’s illness, and even suggestions that he had used curses and evil magic
to hasten the lad’s death. Sutoku (and apparently many others) believed that Sutoku’s
own son would be enthroned next, but Toba chose Sutoku’s younger brother, the man
known in history as Goshirakawa.
Sutoku was enraged. When Toba became sick, and his condition worsened, Sutoku began
plotting. As Toba’s death approached, Sutoku moved to the Tanakaden in the Toba Palace
to be close to his father.

Built by the Emperor Shirakawa just south of the capital near what was then the juncture
of the Kamo and Katsura Rivers, the Toba Palace must have been an opulent array of
magnificent buildings and gardens. The following photograph, taken of an illustration at
the onsite display, shows what the area may have looked like.

After Toba’s passing, in July of 1156, Sutoku mounted a rebellion with the intention of
overthrowing Goshirakawa and installing his own son as emperor. The event is known as
the Hogen Rebellion, or Hogen Insurrection (to use Sansom’s translation of Hogen no
Ran). It was an event of enormous importance in Japanese history. The story is told in
the Hogen Monogatari.

Just a few days after Toba’s death, to

everyone’s surprise Sutoku left the
Tanadaken and moved to the Shirakawa
Kitaden, a palatial area which had been built
by Shirakawa. (Today, a stele at the
northwest corner of the Kyoto University
Kumano Dormitory on Marutamachi marks
the site of the Shirakawa Kitaden.) As he
plotted with his advisors, Sutoku put out the
call for his supporters to gather with their
troops. At the same time Goshirakawa’s
advisers realized what was happening and made their own plans. Among Goshirakawa’s
supporters were Fujiwara no Tadamichi (the father of Sutoku’s wife Kiyoko), Taira no
Kiyomori, and Minamoto no Yoshitomo. Afraid that waiting would mean defeat,
Goshirakawa agreed to attack before dawn.

The fighting was fierce, but Sutoku’s men held firm. Minamoto no Yoshitomo, worried
that with time passing more of Sutoku’s men might arrive to support him, sent a message
from the front line to Goshirakawa about what to do, and was ordered to set fire to the
mansion housing Sutoku and his advisors. Caught unawares, Sutoku and his forces
panicked and scattered in disarray. Together with a few of his closest retainers, Sutoku
escaped up into Mt. Nyoi, on past the part of the mountain now commonly referred to as
Daimonji-yama, and spent a miserable night there before he decided to give up and
become a priest. The next day he managed to get to Ninna-ji (just west of Ryōan-ji) where
his (and Goshirakawa’s) brother was a priest. There he took priestly vows and shaved his
head. It was quickly decided that Sutoku would be sent into exile.

Sutoku was taken back south of the capital and put on a boat which would take him to
exile in today’s Sakaide, in Kagawa prefecture. His son took priestly vows at Ninna-ji, and
may have stayed there, or may have gone with his father. The boy’s mother, Hyōenosuke
no Tsubone, went with Sutoku. Kiyoko stayed behind, and became a nun. Many of
Sutoku’s supporters were executed.

The Final Chapters

Since Emperor Sutoku was exiled to islands in the Kagawa Prefecture, it was only natural
for his grave to be there as well. He is usually honored at a memorial Shinto shrine in the
area but he is also enshrined in the Shiramine shrine, which can be found in Kyoto and
Kotohira-gu. These are all great facts to know when learning about Emperor Sutoku but
it isn’t what is most enticing about the story of Emperor Sutoku.

The details that make Emperor Sutoku such an interesting emperor in the history of Japan
are the legends that he is linked to. Many believe that after he was exiled, he gave all his
time and effort to live a monastic life. He offered several copied scriptures to the court
but not one of the scriptures was ever accepted because the court feared that he cursed
these scriptures. Legends say that this left him bitter enough to turn into an onryo upon
his death. For those who do not know, the onryo is what you call a Japanese vengeful
spirit.

Because he was believed to have turned into an evil spirit, events like the rise of the
samurai power as well as the draughts and internal unrests where blamed on the spirit
 of Sutoku as they believed it was his acts of
haunting. This legend became so popular
that Emperor Sutoku would actually be
known as one of the “Three Great Onryo of
Japan” along with Sugawara no Michizane
and Taira no Masakado. There are also
variations of this legend wherein the spirit
of Sutoku did not turn into an onryo but
rather a tengu, which is also a mythical
creature in Japanese culture. If you follow
this version of the legend then you would
eventually find out that as a tengu, Sutoku’s
spirit was considered to be part of the
“Three Great Evil Yokai of Japan”.

While in exile, Sutoku repeatedly pleaded with the imperial court to be allowed to return
to the capital. He copied sutras and had them sent to Goshirakawa to show his sincerity,
but the emperor rejected them, and all of Sutoku’s pleas. There were rumors that Sutoku
was using his own blood to write with, instead of black ink. There were fears that the
sutras he copied contained some kind of special power, and curses, and were part of a
plot to regain the throne. Strange disasters in the capital, especially involving those who
had opposed him were blamed on Sutoku, with his evil magic, such as the deaths of
Bifukumon’in in 1160, and Fujiwara no Tadamichi in 1164, six months before Sutoku’s
own death.

Sutoku died in 1164 and is buried on Mt. Shiramine, in Kagawa, next to Shiramine-dera,
one of the 88 Shikoku pilgrimage temples. Although he never returned physically to the
capital, some said that his revengeful spirit did, and rumors continued that Sutoku was
responsible for deaths and natural disasters that followed. It said he had become
an onryō (wrathful spirit), tengu, or yōkai.

After Sutoku died, a woman who had been one of his favorites, Awa o Naishi (also
pronounced Awa no Naiji), built a memorial to him in Kyoto where she and others prayed
that his soul might find peace. Called the Sutoku Tenno Gobyō, it is located in the Gion
area, just behind the Kaburenjo. Awa no Naishi had lived not far away, near the site of
what is now the Yasui Konpira-gu shrine, and today Sutoku is one of three kami
worshipped there.

King Stephen of England:

A chivalrous leader at the time of Anarchy

Historians have not given King Stephen of England a good press as he had the misfortune
to come between two of England’s most dynamic and successful kings, Henry I and Henry
II. But King Stephen was an attractive character, chivalrous and brave, cheerful and
affable and a fine soldier, but for most of his reign England was dragged through a civil
war between him and his rival for the throne, Henry I’s daughter Matilda, later succeeded
by her son Henry Plantagenet of the Devil’s brood of Anjou. That period is well know as
the time of Anarchy.

King Stephen, often called Stephen of Blois, ruled

from 1135 to 1154 CE. His predecessor Henry I of
England (r. 1100-1135 CE) had left no male heir
and his nominated successor, his daughter
Empress Matilda, was not to the liking of many
powerful barons who preferred Stephen, the
wealthiest man in England and nephew of Henry I.
An on-off civil war ensued over the next decade
and a half or so between the two sides while the
English crown lost control of its territory in
Normandy as well as lands to Scotland and the
Welsh princes. Stephen was the last of the Norman kings, a line begun by his
grandfather William the Conqueror in 1066 CE. He was succeeded by Henry II of
England (r. 1154-1189 CE) who was, somewhat ironically given the previous civil war,
the son of Matilda and Count Geoffrey 'Plantagenet' of Anjou.
Early Life
Stephen was born c. 1097 CE in Blois, France, his
parents being Stephen Henry, Count of Blois and
Adela of Normandy, the daughter of William the
Conqueror and sister of Henry I. Stephen was sent
to his uncle Henry's court from the age of ten and,
establishing himself as one of the king's favorites,
he received riches and lands. He also had a lucky
escape in 1120 CE when the White Ship carrying
Henry's heir William (b. c. 1103 CE) sank in the English Channel drowning all on board
except a butcher from Rouen. If Stephen had not had a bout of diarrhoea, he would have
been on the ship himself. If William had not died, then Stephen would almost certainly
never have been king.

Stephen married Matilda of Boulogne (c. 1103-1152 CE) sometime in or prior to 1125 CE.
Matilda was the daughter of Eustace III, Count of Boulogne and Mary of Scotland,
daughter of Malcolm III of Scotland (r. 1058-1093 CE) and the sister of Henry I's wife. She
would be a formidable ally in her husband's fight to keep his crown, both in terms of
finances and leadership. Stephen was said to be good-looking, pious, chivalrous, and
charming to everyone, even poor people. He would need all of these qualities to rally
sufficient support around him in the coming decades.

Relationship with Henry

Stephen's early life was heavily influenced by his relationship with his uncle Henry I.
Henry seized power in England following the death of his elder brother William Rufus. In
1106 he invaded and captured the Duchy of Normandy, controlled by his eldest
brother, Robert Curthose, defeating Robert's army at the battle of Tinchebray. Henry then
found himself in conflict with Louis VI of France, who took the opportunity to declare
Robert's son, William Clito, the Duke of Normandy. Henry responded by forming a
network of alliances with the western counties of France against Louis, resulting in a
regional conflict that would last throughout Stephen's early life. Adela and Theobald
allied themselves with Henry, and Stephen's mother decided to place him in Henry's
court. Henry fought his next military campaign in Normandy, from 1111 onwards, where
rebels led by Robert of Bellême were opposing his rule. Stephen was probably with Henry
during the military campaign of 1112, when he was knighted by the King. He was present
at court during the King's visit to the Abbey of Saint-Evroul in 1113. Stephen probably
first visited England in either 1113 or 1115, almost certainly as part of Henry's court.
Henry became a powerful patron of Stephen, and probably chose to support him because
Stephen was part of his extended family and a regional ally, yet not sufficiently wealthy
or powerful in his own right to represent a threat to either the King or his son and
heir, William Adelin. As a third surviving son, even of an influential regional family,
Stephen still needed the support of a powerful patron to progress in life.

With Henry's support, he rapidly began to accumulate lands and possessions. Following
the battle of Tinchebray in 1106, Henry confiscated the County of Mortain from his
cousin William and the Honour of Eye from Robert Malet. In 1113, Stephen was granted
both the title and the honour, although without the lands previously held by William in
England. The gift of the Honour of Lancaster also followed after it was confiscated by
Henry from Roger the Poitevin. Stephen was also given lands in Alençon in southern
Normandy by Henry, but the local Normans rebelled, seeking assistance from Fulk IV,
Count of Anjou. Stephen and his older brother Theobald were comprehensively beaten in
the subsequent campaign, which culminated in the Battle of Alençon, and the territories
were not recovered.

Finally, the King arranged for Stephen to marry Matilda in 1125, the daughter and only
heiress of Eustace III, Count of Boulogne, who owned both the important continental port
of Boulogne and vast estates in the north-west and south-east of England. In 1127,
William Clito, a potential claimant to the English throne, seemed likely to become
the Count of Flanders; Stephen was sent by the King on a mission to prevent this, and in
the aftermath of his successful election, William Clito attacked Stephen's lands in
neighbouring Boulogne in retaliation. Eventually, a truce was declared, and William died
the following year.

In 1120, the English political landscape changed dramatically. Three hundred passengers
embarked on the White Ship to travel from Barfleur in Normandy to England, including
the heir to the throne, William Adelin, and many other senior nobles. Stephen had
intended to sail on the same ship but changed his mind at the last moment and got off to
await another vessel, either out of concern for overcrowding on board the ship, or
because he was suffering from diarrhoea. The ship foundered en route, and all but two of
the passengers died, including William Adelin. With William Adelin dead, the inheritance
to the English throne was thrown into doubt. Rules of succession in western Europe at
the time were uncertain; in some parts of France, male primogeniture, in which the eldest
son would inherit a title, was becoming more popular. It was also traditional for the King
of France to crown his successor whilst he himself was still alive, making the intended
line of succession relatively clear, but this was not the case in England. In other parts of
Europe, including Normandy and England, the tradition was for lands to be divided up,
with the eldest son taking patrimonial lands—usually considered to be the most
valuable—and younger sons being given smaller, or more recently acquired, partitions
or estates. The problem was further complicated by the sequence of unstable Anglo-
Norman successions over the previous sixty years—William the Conqueror had gained
England by force, William Rufus and Robert Curthose had fought a war between them to
establish their inheritance, and Henry had only acquired control of Normandy by force.
There had been no peaceful, uncontested successions.

Henry had only one other legitimate child, the future Empress Matilda, but as a woman
she was at a substantial political disadvantage. Despite the King taking a second
wife, Adeliza of Louvain, it became increasingly unlikely that he would have another
legitimate son, and he instead looked to Matilda as his intended heir. Matilda claimed the
title of Holy Roman Empress through her marriage to Emperor Henry V, but her husband
died in 1125, and she was remarried in 1128 to Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou,
whose lands bordered the Duchy of Normandy. Geoffrey was unpopular with the Anglo-
Norman elite: as an Angevin ruler, he was a traditional enemy of the Normans. At the
same time, tensions continued to grow as a result of Henry's domestic policies, in
particular the high level of revenue he was raising to pay for his various wars. Conflict
was curtailed, however, by the power of the King's personality and reputation.

Henry attempted to build up a base of political support for Matilda in both England and
Normandy, demanding that his court take oaths first in 1127, and then again in 1128 and
1131, to recognize Matilda as his immediate successor and recognize her descendants as
the rightful rulers after her. Stephen was amongst those who took this oath in 1127.
Nonetheless, relations between Henry, Matilda, and Geoffrey became increasingly
strained towards the end of the King's life. Matilda and Geoffrey suspected that they
lacked genuine support in England, and proposed to Henry in 1135 that the King should
hand over the royal castles in Normandy to Matilda whilst he was still alive and insist on
the Norman nobility swearing immediate allegiance to her, thereby giving the couple a
much more powerful position after Henry's death. Henry angrily declined to do so,
probably out of a concern that Geoffrey would try to seize power in Normandy somewhat
earlier than intended. A fresh rebellion broke out in southern Normandy, and Geoffrey
and Matilda intervened militarily on behalf of the rebels. In the middle of this
confrontation, Henry unexpectedly fell ill and died near Lyons-la-Forêt.

Enthroning:
The early years of Stephen's reign were largely successful, despite a series of attacks on
his possessions in England and Normandy by David I of Scotland, Welsh rebels, and the
Empress Matilda's husband Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou. In 1138, the Empress's
half-brother Robert of Gloucester rebelled against Stephen, threatening civil war.
Together with his close advisor, Waleran de Beaumont, Stephen took firm steps to defend
his rule, including arresting a powerful family of bishops. When the Empress and Robert
invaded in 1139, Stephen was unable to crush the revolt rapidly, and it took hold in the
south-west of England. Captured at the battle of Lincoln in 1141, he was abandoned by
many of his followers and lost control of Normandy. He was freed only after his wife
and William of Ypres, one of his military commanders, captured Robert at the Rout of
Winchester, but the war dragged on for many years with neither side able to win an
advantage.

Stephen became increasingly concerned with ensuring that his son Eustace would inherit
his throne. The King tried to convince the church to agree to crown Eustace to reinforce
his claim; Pope Eugene III refused, and Stephen found himself in a sequence of
increasingly bitter arguments with his senior clergy. In 1153, the Empress's son Henry
invaded England and built an alliance of powerful regional barons to support his claim
for the throne. The two armies met at Wallingford, but neither side's barons were keen
to fight another pitched battle. Stephen began to examine a negotiated peace, a process
hastened by the sudden death of Eustace. Later in the year Stephen and Henry agreed to
the Treaty of Winchester, in which Stephen recognised Henry as his heir in exchange for
peace, passing over William, Stephen's second son. Stephen died the following year.
Modern historians have extensively debated the extent to which his personality, external
events, or the weaknesses in the Norman state contributed to this prolonged period of
civil war.

Stephen was a well-established figure in Anglo-Norman society by 1135. He was

extremely wealthy, well-mannered and liked by his peers; he was also considered a man
capable of firm action. Chroniclers recorded that despite his wealth and power he was a
modest and easy-going leader, happy to sit with his men and servants, casually laughing
and eating with them. He was very pious, both in terms of his observance of religious
rituals and his personal generosity to the church. Stephen also had a
personal Augustinian confessor appointed to him by the Archbishop of Canterbury, who
implemented a penitential regime for him, and Stephen encouraged the new order
of Cistercians to form abbeys on his estates, winning him additional allies within the
church.

Rumours about his father's cowardice during the First Crusade, however, continued to
circulate, and a desire to avoid the same reputation may have influenced some of
Stephen's rasher military actions. His wife, Matilda, played a major role in running their
vast English estates, which contributed to the couple being the second-richest lay
household in the country after the King and Queen. The landless Flemish
nobleman William of Ypres had joined Stephen's household in 1133.

Stephen's younger brother, Henry of Blois, had also risen to power under Henry I. Henry
of Blois had become a Cluniac monk and followed Stephen to England, where the King
made him Abbot of Glastonbury, the richest abbey in England. The King then appointed
him Bishop of Winchester, one of the richest bishoprics, allowing him to retain
Glastonbury as well. The combined revenues of the two positions made Henry of
Winchester the second-richest man in England after the King. Henry of Winchester was
keen to reverse what he perceived as encroachment by the Norman kings on the rights of
the church. The Norman kings had traditionally exercised a great deal of power and
autonomy over the church within their territories. From the 1040s onwards, however,
successive popes had put forward a reforming message that emphasized the importance
of the church being "governed more coherently and more hierarchically from the center"
and established "its own sphere of authority and jurisdiction, separate from and
independent of that of the lay ruler", in the words of historian Richard Huscroft.

When news began to spread of Henry I's death, many of the potential claimants to the
throne were not well placed to respond. Geoffrey and Matilda were in Anjou, rather
awkwardly supporting the rebels in their campaign against the royal army, which
included a number of Matilda's supporters such as Robert of Gloucester. Many of these
barons had taken an oath to stay in Normandy until the late King was properly buried,
which prevented them from returning to England. Stephen's brother Theobald was
further south still, in Blois. Stephen, however, was in Boulogne, and when news reached
him of Henry's death he left for England, accompanied by his military household. Robert
of Gloucester had garrisoned the ports of Dover and Canterbury and some accounts
suggest that they refused Stephen access when he first arrived. Nonetheless, Stephen
probably reached his own estate on the edge of London by 8 December and over the next
week he began to seize power in England.

The crowds in London traditionally claimed a right to elect the King, and they proclaimed
Stephen the new monarch, believing that he would grant the city new rights and
privileges in return. Henry of Blois delivered the support of the church to Stephen:
Stephen was able to advance to Winchester, where Roger, Bishop of Salisbury and Lord
Chancellor, instructed the royal treasury to be handed over to Stephen. On 15 December,
Henry delivered an agreement under which Stephen would grant extensive freedoms and
liberties to the church, in exchange for the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Papal Legate
supporting his succession to the throne. There was the slight problem of the religious
oath that Stephen had taken to support the Empress Matilda, but Henry convincingly
argued that the late king had been wrong to insist that his court take the oath.

Furthermore, the late king had only insisted on that oath to protect the stability of the
kingdom, and in light of the chaos that might now ensue, Stephen would be justified in
ignoring it. Henry was also able to persuade Hugh Bigod, the late king's royal steward, to
swear that the King had changed his mind about the succession on his deathbed,
nominating Stephen instead. Stephen's coronation was held a week later at Westminster
Abbey on 22 December.

Meanwhile, the Norman nobility gathered at Le Neubourg to discuss declaring Theobald

king, probably following the news that Stephen was gathering support in
England.[56] The Normans argued that Theobald, as the more senior grandson of William
the Conqueror, had the most valid claim over the kingdom and the duchy, and was
certainly preferable to Matilda. Theobald met with the Norman barons and Robert of
Gloucester at Lisieux on 21 December. Their discussions were interrupted by the sudden
news from England that Stephen's coronation was to occur the next day.[57] Theobald
then agreed to the Normans' proposal that he be made king, only to find that his former
support immediately ebbed away: the barons were not prepared to support the division
of England and Normandy by opposing Stephen, who subsequently financially
compensated Theobald, who in return remained in Blois and supported his brother's
succession.

Early reign (1136–1139)

Stephen's first few years as king can be interpreted in different ways. He stabilized the
northern border with Scotland, contained Geoffrey's attacks on Normandy, was at peace
with Louis VI, enjoyed good relations with the church and had the broad support of his
barons. There were significant underlying problems, nonetheless. The north of England
was now controlled by David and Prince Henry, Stephen had abandoned Wales, the
fighting in Normandy had considerably destabilised the duchy, and an increasing number
of barons felt that Stephen had given them neither the lands nor the titles they felt they
deserved or were owed.[89] Stephen was also rapidly running out of money: Henry's
considerable treasury had been emptied by 1138 due to the costs of running Stephen's
more lavish court and the need to raise and maintain his mercenary armies fighting in
England and Normandy.

Defending the kingdom (1138–1139)

Stephen was attacked on several fronts during 1138. First, Robert, Earl of Gloucester,
rebelled against the King, starting the descent into civil war in England. An illegitimate
son of Henry I and the half-brother of the Empress Matilda, Robert was one of the most
powerful Anglo-Norman barons, controlling estates in Normandy. He was known for his
qualities as a statesman, his military experience, and leadership ability. Robert had tried
to convince Theobald to take the throne in 1135; he did not attend Stephen's first court
in 1136 and it took several summonses to convince him to attend court at Oxford later
that year. In 1138, Robert renounced his fealty to Stephen and declared his support for
Matilda, triggering a major regional rebellion in Kent and across the south-west of
England, although Robert himself remained in Normandy. In France, Geoffrey of Anjou
took advantage of the situation by re-invading Normandy. David of Scotland also invaded
the north of England once again, announcing that he was supporting the claim of his niece
the Empress Matilda to the throne, pushing south into Yorkshire.

Anglo-Norman warfare during the reign of Stephen was characterized

by attritional military campaigns, in which commanders tried to seize key enemy castles
in order to allow them to take control of their adversaries' territory and ultimately win a
slow, strategic victory. The armies of the period centered on bodies of mounted,
armored knights, supported by infantry and crossbowmen. These forces were
either feudal levies, drawn up by local nobles for a limited period of service during a
campaign, or, increasingly, mercenaries, who were expensive but more flexible and often
more skilled. These armies, however, were ill-suited to besieging castles, whether the
older motte-and-bailey designs or the newer, stone-built keeps. Existing siege engines
were significantly less powerful than the later trebuchet designs, giving defenders a
substantial advantage over attackers. As a result, slow sieges to starve defenders out,
or mining operations to undermine walls, tended to be preferred by commanders over
direct assaults. Occasionally pitched battles were fought between armies but these were
considered highly risky endeavors and were usually avoided by prudent
commanders. The cost of warfare had risen considerably in the first part of the 12th
century, and adequate supplies of ready cash were increasingly proving important in the
success of campaigns.

Stephen's personal qualities as a military leader focused on his skill in personal combat,
his capabilities in siege warfare and a remarkable ability to move military forces quickly
over relatively long distances. In response to the revolts and invasions, he rapidly
undertook several military campaigns, focusing primarily on England rather than
Normandy. His wife Matilda was sent to Kent with ships and resources from Boulogne,
with the task of retaking the key port of Dover, under Robert's control. A small number
of Stephen's household knights were sent north to help the fight against the Scots, where
David's forces were defeated later that year at the battle of the Standard in August by the
forces of Thurstan, the Archbishop of York. Despite this victory, however, David still
occupied most of the north. Stephen himself went west in an attempt to regain control
of Gloucestershire, first striking north into the Welsh Marches,
taking Hereford and Shrewsbury, before heading south to Bath. The town of Bristol itself
proved too strong for him, and Stephen contented himself with raiding and pillaging the
surrounding area. The rebels appear to have expected Robert to intervene with support
that year, but he remained in Normandy throughout, trying to persuade the Empress
Matilda to invade England herself. Dover finally surrendered to the queen's forces later
in the year.

Stephen's military campaign in England had progressed well, and historian David Crouch
describes it as "a military achievement of the first rank". The King took the opportunity
of his military advantage to forge a peace agreement with Scotland. Stephen's wife
Matilda was sent to negotiate another agreement between Stephen and David, called
the treaty of Durham; Northumbria and Cumbria would effectively be granted to David
and his son Henry, in exchange for their fealty and future peace along the border.
Unfortunately, the powerful Ranulf I, Earl of Chester, considered himself to hold the
traditional rights to Carlisle and Cumberland and was extremely displeased to see them
being given to the Scots. Nonetheless, Stephen could now focus his attention on the
anticipated invasion of England by Robert and Matilda's forces.

Period of Anarchy (1135 – 1153):

The Anarchy was a period of civil war in England between 1135 and 1153, following the
death of Henry I. The anonymous 12th-century history Gesta Stephani (The Deeds of
Stephen) paints a dismal picture of the state of the country at this time: “England, formerly
the seat of justice, the habitation of peace, the height of piety, the mirror of religion,
became thereafter a home of perversity, a haunt of strife, a training-ground of disorder,
and a teacher of every kind of rebellion.” The Anarchy would be looked back on for
centuries to come as one of the darkest periods in England’s history.

In 1135 Henry I’s death sparked off a succession crisis leading to a period known as The
Anarchy which came to a head during the reign of Stephen of Blois. Stephen was crowned
King of England on the 22nd December 1135, usurping his cousin and royal contender to
the throne, Empress Matilda. As the daughter of Henry I she had expected to be queen, an
arrangement already made clear by her father before his death. In the meantime, Henry
I’s nephew, Stephen of Blois threw his hat into the ring, with the support of his brother,
Henry of Blois who was also the Bishop of Winchester. Stephen, Matilda’s cousin, took the
necessary steps to seize the crown, a task that could not have been easily achieved if it
wasn’t for the support of the English Church and those in court.

Stephen was Henry’s nephew, born around 1097 in Blois: his mother was Adela, daughter
of William the Conqueror. His father, Count Stephen-Henry of Blois had died whilst on
Crusade, leaving young Stephen to be raised by his mother. He was soon sent to England
to be part of Henry I’s court, a decision that would lead to great personal advancement
and achievement for Stephen who flourished in such a setting.

He was thought to be a pleasant looking man with an agreeable character, who soon fell
into Henry’s good books for his part in the Battle of Tinchebray which had helped to
secure Henry’s control of Normandy. Henry subsequently knighted Stephen and
developed a good relationship with his nephew. Stephen went on to make a good
marriage to Matilda of Boulogne, inheriting further estates and earning for himself a new
title, that of Count of Boulogne. As a couple, they were one of the wealthiest in the land.
Meanwhile, tragedy struck in 1120 when the White Ship sank in the English Channel,
killing William Adelin, the rightful heir to Henry’s throne.

The White Ship disaster

Such a tragedy initiated chaos in the royal court with the question of succession needing
to be addressed. Henry-I however soon made clear to the leading lords and bishops of the
land that he wished his daughter Matilda to take the crown upon his death.
He made his court, including Stephen, swear an oath of loyalty to her and also arranged a
marriage for her to Geoffrey of Anjou. Despite making his wishes clear, those in the royal
court did not look favorably on the choice. Not only was she a woman but her husband
was also a traditional rival of Normandy; such a choice would be met by fierce opposition
from the barons.

Such contention did indeed arise in December 1135 when Henry I’s death left succession
open to challenge. Stephen seized his moment: he was crowned king in the same year,
with the most important members of the court and Church welcoming his appointment.
Fortunately for Stephen, much of the nobility was on his side and thus it did not take much
persuading to have support for his coronation.
The imposition of having a female ruler was
felt strongly by those in court who
subsequently pledged their support for
Stephen as king. He soon took the necessary
steps to consolidate his rule, however with
threats to his new regime looming and
Matilda’s claim to the throne remaining ever
present, Stephen’s time as monarch ushered in
a wave of social unrest, political fragmentation
and the breakdown of law and order, which
became known as ‘The Anarchy’.

Whilst Stephen served as reigning monarch,

his personality was noticeably different to that
of his predecessor. Recorded as having a
rather affable personality, his inability to make
tough decisions inevitably led to chaos during his reign as the nobility were able to exploit
his weak leadership for their own gain. During this period the robber barons became
greedy, building unlicensed castles and ruling their local populace with an iron fist. This
was a time of great social upheaval, as documented by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: ‘In the
days of this King there was nothing but strife, evil and robbery, for quickly the great men
who were traitors rose against him.’
He chose to appoint new earls which did not enhance his position and merely irritated
the nobles already in court. Whilst social problems mounted, the challenge to the throne
remained contested, with civil war in England and Normandy lasting from the beginning
to the end of his reign.

Stephen had managed to secure some early victories, despite facing attacks from a
number of different groups including the Welsh rebels and David I of Scotland, Empress
Matilda’s uncle. Matilda remained understandably enraged by his betrayal. In 1138, her
illegitimate half-brother Robert of Gloucester challenged Stephen. In 1139, with the
support of her half-brother Robert of Gloucester and her uncle, King David I of Scotland,
Empress Matilda and her forces invaded England. Meanwhile, her husband, Geoffrey,
Count of Anjou concentrated his efforts on Normandy.

The rebellion soon took hold in the south-west of England whilst Stephen retained
control over the south east. However it was at the Battle of Lincoln in February 1141
where Stephen found himself most vulnerable. In the lead up to the battle, Stephen had
besieged Lincoln Castle however they soon found themselves under attack from an
Angevin army under the command of Robert, the 1st Earl of Gloucester and supported by
Welsh soldiers led by Lord of Powys, Madog ap Maredudd and Cadwaladr ap Gruffydd.
The Angevin knights launched their charge against the earls whilst the Welsh section of
Matilda’s army were routed by Earl Ranulf. Nevertheless, it became clear that the earls
were outmanoeuvred and outnumbered, finding themselves surrounded. After fierce
fighting on both sides and blood spilling out onto the streets, Stephen’s army was
overwhelmed and he was captured and taken to Bristol where he was imprisoned.

For a short while, his imprisonment marked his deposition as king however Matilda’s
claim to the throne was not secure, as she faced bitter opposition from the people of
London. It was made abundantly clear that she was not welcome and thus the formality
of being declared queen never occurred, instead she was titled, Lady of the English.
Fortunately for Stephen, by the following September and thanks to his military
commander, William of Ypres and his wife Matilda of Boulogne, he was set free. Stephen’s
military men had managed to capture Robert of Gloucester at the Rout of Winchester,
enabling a bargain to be brokered, swapping Robert for Stephen and therefore dashing
Matilda’s hopes for ascendancy. Whilst Stephen had his release secured, the war itself
continued for several years with both sides unable to initiate significant defeats against
the other. With Matilda banished from Westminster, she had reassembled her base in
Oxford which had good city walls and rivers protecting it.

The civil war raged on with neither side making decisive victories, leading Stephen in
September 1142 to make an attempt to gain the upper hand during the Siege of Oxford.
With his troops in tow, Stephen launched a surprise attack on Matilda and her small army,
leading many to retreat to the castle where he laid siege for a further three months,
knowing that he would be able to force her out. However one dark chilly winter evening
Matilda managed to sneak out of the castle, dressed in white to blend into the surrounding
snow; she fled from the castle across the frozen River Thames and made it to safety.

Such a daring escape concluded the siege of the castle which surrendered the following
day. Such warfare however continued for the next decade, with Stephen retaining his
crown whilst his rival Matilda reluctantly returned to Normandy in 1148. With both sides
struggling to gain the advantage, Matilda summoned her son Henry Plantagenet, known
as Henry Fitz Empress, to England in order to fight for her claim to the throne. Whilst
Stephen never did relinquish his crown, perhaps Matilda had the last laugh as her son,
Henry, was to succeed Stephen after his own son Eustace died. Under the Treaty of
Wallingford, Stephen agreed that Henry was to be the new king and in October 1154 after
Stephen’s death, Henry became Henry II, the first of the Angevin kings.

Death:
Stephen maintained his precarious hold on the throne for the remainder of his lifetime.
However, after a military standoff at Wallingford with Henry, and following the death of
his son and heir, Eustace, in 1153, he was persuaded to reach a compromise with
Empress Matilda (known as the Treaty of Wallingford or Winchester), whereby her son
would succeed Stephen on the English throne as King Henry II.
Stephen died in Dover, at Dover Priory, and was buried in Faversham Abbey, which he
had founded with Countess Matilda in 1147.
Besides Eustace, Stephen and Matilda had two other sons, Baldwin (d. before 1135),
and William of Blois (Count of Mortain and Boulogne, and Earl of Surrey or Warenne).
They also had two daughters, Matilda and Marie of Boulogne. In addition to these
children, Stephen fathered at least three illegitimate children, one of whom, Gervase,
became Abbot of Westminster.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (the Peterborough Chronicle, second continuation) provides
a moving and succinct appraisal of Stephen's reign:
"In the days of this King there was nothing but strife, evil, and robbery, for quickly the great
men who were traitors rose against him. When the traitors saw that Stephen was a good-
humoured, kindly, and easy-going man who inflicted no punishment, then they committed
all manner of horrible crimes . . . And so it lasted for nineteen years while Stephen was King,
till the land was all undone and darkened with such deeds, and men said openly that Christ
and his angels slept".

The monastic author said, of The Anarchy, "this and more we suffered nineteen winters
for our sins."

King Vijaya Sena

The Sena King of Bengal

Vijaya Sena (1097-1160 AD), also known as Vijay Sen in vernacular literature; was the
founder of the Sena Dynasty in Bengal, which ruled for more almost 200 years. His
ancestors came from the Karnata country in the Deccan. It appears from his records that
he inherited the position of a subordinate ruler in radha under the Palas. He was possibly
the same as Vijayaraja of Nidravali, one of the fourteen Samanta kings who
helped ramapala in his recovery of varendra. Vijaya Sena, son of Hemanta Sena laid the
foundation of the independent rule of the Senas.
Backdrop:
Vijaya Sena took full advantage of the weakness of the immediate past Pala rulers. He
obtained an independent position in Radha in recognition of his help to Ramapala. He
defeated the Palas and captured the throne of gauda afterwards. His queen Vilasadevi
was a princess of the Sura dynasty. Sandhyakar nandi in his ramacharitam attests to the
existence of the Sura family in southern Radha (Burdwan division) in the first quarter of
the 11th century. The same source, however, records the name of Laksmishura, the lord
of the Apara-Mandara (identified with Mandaran in the Hughli district) in the list of vassal
chiefs who helped Ramapala.

Vijaya Sena's matrimonial relation with the Sura family helped him in establishing his
power in Radha. He is also said to have entered into an alliance with the Orissan king,
Anantavarman Codaganga. This alliance certainly enhanced his political prestige. He is
described as Chodaganga-xakha (friend of Codaganga) in the Ballalacharita of
Anandabhatta.

It is beyond any doubt that Vijaya Sena established independent power in Bengal
immediately after the demise of Ramapala. The deopara prashasti records that he
defeated Nanya, Vira, Raghava and Vardhana. He vanquished the kings of kamarupa and
Kalinga. He also compelled the king of Gauda to flee away from his kingdom. It is not very
difficult to identify the rivals of Vijaya Sena. Nanya can be identified with Nanyadeva
(1097-1147 AD) of Mithila, another Karnata chief. Vira was perhaps Viraguna, ruler of
Kotatavi, a member of Ramapala's samantachakra. Vardhana may be identified either
with Dvorapavardhana, ruler of Kausambi, or with Govardhana against whom
Madanapala won a victory. Vijaya Sena's fight against Vira and Vardhana were perhaps
meant to bring under control two other feudatory chiefs who also might have aspired for
power. Raghava was no other than the king of Kalinga. He can be identified with Raghava,
son of Codaganga who ruled Orissa from c 1157-1170 AD. The encounter between Vijaya
Sena and Raghava probably took place towards the end of the former's reign. It is not
unlikely that Vijaya Sena had to wage war against Raghava, although he maintained a
friendly relation with Anantavarman Codaganga. Vijaya Sena's fight against Raghava was
meant to frustrate the latter's aggressive designs. The reference in the Deopara Praxasti
to the fight between Vijaya Sena and the king of Kamarupa does not necessarily mean that
the former invaded the province, although that is not impossible altogether. The king of
Kamarupa, defeated by Vijaya Sena, was perhaps Vaidyadeva, the minister of Kumarapala
who declared independence, or his successor. It is not unlikely that Vaidyadeva or his
successor invaded the newly founded dominions of the Senas and was driven away by
Vijaya Sena.

The lord of Gauda who was made to flee by Vijaya Sena was Madanapala, the last known
Pala king whose authority was, at that time, confined to north Bengal. It is learnt from the
Pala epigraphic records that Madanapala's authority over north Bengal continued up to
the 8th year of his reign, which falls in 1152-53 AD. Most probably Vijaya Sena established
his own supremacy in North and North Western Bengal by ousting the Palas sometime
after 1152-53 AD. It is recorded in the Deopara Praxasti that he erected the magnificent
temple of Pradyumneshvara at the find-place of the inscription, about 7 miles to the west
of Rajshahi town. It is to be remembered here that no Pala record has yet been discovered
in Bengal after Madanapala's eighth regnal year.

It is also recorded in the Deopara inscription that Vijaya Sena's fleet advanced towards
the west along the course of the Ganges. It seems that the Gahadvalas, who by this time
had occupied parts of Bihar, were his target. However it is not clear from the inscription
whether his naval expedition was successful.

Vijaya Sena is said to have extended his

hold over Banga (southeastern Bengal)
also. His Barrackpur copper plate was
issued from Vikramapura, the capital of
the varmans who are found to have
ruled in this area from the last quarter
of the 11th century to the middle of the
12th century AD. So it seems probable
that Vijaya Sena ousted the Varmans
from southeastern Bengal in the middle
of the 12th century AD.
Thus by the middle of the 12th century AD Vijaya Sena supplanted the Varmans, ousted
the Palas and succeeded in establishing the rule of his own dynasty over the whole of
Bengal. He seems to have consolidated his empire in Bengal by defeating other enemies.
He had a very long reign of about 62 years. He was a Shaiva. He was liberal towards
Brahmanas versed in the Vedas and the poor.

Early life, enthronement and regime:

Founded by Samanta Sen, the dynasty was succeeded by Hemanta Sena (1095–1096 AD),
Vijaya Sena (1096–1159 AD), Ballala Sena (1159-1179 AD) Lakshmana Sena (1179-1204
AD), et al. Vijaya Sena was the son of Hemanta Sena and succeeded him in the Sena
dynasty of Rajput rulers of the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. He conquered
Bengal, defeating the kings of Gauda, Kamarupa, and Kalinga. He had capitals in
Vijayapuri and Vikrampura. According to his records, he inherited the position of a
subordinate ruler in Rarh under the Palas. He was possibly the same as Vijayraj of
Nidravali, one of the fourteen Samanta kings who assisted Ramapala in his recovery of
Varendra.

The Sena kings were the pioneers under whom the extensive territory of Bengal enjoyed
unified status and reached zenith in the administrative, military and cultural fields. It is
however presumed by historians that the Sena kings had arrived in Bengal in the wake of
the Chalukya invasion, during the reign of the fragile Pala rulers. However, the foundation
of such a powerful dynasty was laid by Samanta Sena and the legacy was carried out by
his son Hemanta Sena. But the Senas had the ascendancy under Vijaya Sena, the son of
Hemanta Sena, who ascended the throne in 1095 A.D. The Senas under him rose as one
of the dominant power in ancient India, which ultimately led them to be the absolute
sovereign of the whole of Bengal and the adjoining provinces.

Vijaya Sena ruled for an unusually long period of 60 years, a stronghold of the Sena
dynasty in Bengal. It appeared from his records that he inherited the position of a
subordinate ruler in Radha, which was bequeathed to him by his father. Strengthening
his base in Radha, he initiated the policy of expanding his authority.
Establishing Power in Rarh:
The Vijaya Sena took full advantage of the Pala rulers' weakness. In exchange for his
assistance to Ramapala, he was given an independent position in Rarh. He defeated the
Palas and then seized Gauda's throne. Vilasdevi, his queen, was a Shur dynasty princess.
Vijaysena's matrimonial relationship with the Shura family allowed him to gain political
power over Rarh. He is also said to have formed an alliance with Anantavarman
Chorganga, the king of Orissa.

This alliance undoubtedly increased his political clout. In Anandabhatta's Ballalacharita,

he is referred to as Chodaganga-Sakha (friend of Chodaganga).

Conquest of Bengal:
Vijaya Sena established independent power in Bengal immediately following Ramapala's
death. He defeated Nanya, Vir, Raghav, and Vardhan, according to the Deopara Prashasti.
He defeated the kings of Kamarupa and Kalinga. He also forced Gauda's king to flee his
kingdom. It is not difficult to identify Vijaya Sena's adversaries. Nanya is similar to
another Karnat chief, King Nanyadev (c 1097–1147 AD) of Mithila.

Vir was possibly Virgun, ruler of Kotatavi and a

member of Rampala's samantachakra. Vardhan
can be identified as either Dorpavardhan, the
ruler of Kausambi, or Govardhan, against whom
Madanapala won a victory. Vijaya Sena's fight
against Vir and Vardhan may have been
intended to subdue two other feudatory chiefs
who may have aspired to power as well. Raghav
was none other than Kalinga's king.

He is similar to Raghav, son of Chorganga, who

ruled Orissa from around 1157 to 1170 AD. The
meeting between Vijaya Sena and Raghav most
likely occurred near the end of the former's reign. Although he maintained friendly
relations with Anantavarman Chorganga, It is not unlikely that Vijaya Sena had to wage
war against Raghav. Vijaya Sena's fight against Raghav was intended to thwart the latter's
aggressive plans. The mention of a fight between Vijaya Sena and the King of Kamrupa in
the Deopara prashasti does not necessarily imply that the former invaded the province,
though it is not entirely impossible.

The victorious Vijaya Sena defeated Kamrupa's king, who was possibly Vaidyadev,
Kumarapala's minister who declared independence, or his successor. It is not unlikely
that Vaidyadev or his successor invaded the newly established Sena dominions and was
driven out by Vijaya Sena.

Overthrowing the Palas:

The lord of Gauda who was forced to flee by the Vijaya Sena was Madanapala, the last
known Pala king whose authority was confined to north Bengal at the time. According to
Pala epigraphic records, Madanapala's authority over north Bengal lasted until the eighth
year of his reign, 1152–53 AD. Vijaya Sena most likely established his own supremacy in
North and North Western Bengal after ousting the Palas sometime after 1152–53 AD.

According to Deopara prashasti, he built the magnificent temple of Pradyumneshvar near

the location of the inscription, about 7 miles west of Rajshahi. It should be noted that no
Pala records have yet been discovered in Bengal after Madanapala's eighth year of reign.

Overthrowing the Varmans:

The Vijaya Sena is said to have expanded its control over Banga (southeastern Bengal).
His Barrackpur copper plate was issued from Vikrampur, the capital of the Varmans, who
ruled in this area from the late 11th century to the middle of the 12th century AD. As a
result, it appears likely that the Vijaya Sena drove the Varmans out of southeastern Bengal
in the middle of the 12th century AD.

By the middle of the 12th century AD, Vijaya Sena had supplanted the Varmans, ousted
the Palas, and succeeded in establishing his own dynasty's rule over Bengal. He appears
to have solidified his empire in Bengal by defeating other foes.
He ruled for approximately 62 years. He belonged to the Shaiva sect. He was kind to
Brahmanas who knew the Vedas and the poor. He took the imperial titles
Paramaheshvara Parambhattarak Maharajadhiraj. He was also given the honorific title of
Ariraj-Vrsabha-Shankara.

Other important aspects of Sena Dynasty:

Unlike the Pala rulers whose religion was Buddhism, Senas were Hindus and altered
fundamentally the religious society of Bengal by enforcing the Hindu caste system
rigorously. Neither the Pala rulers nor Sena rulers were Bengalis however.

Sena rulers, like the Palas, did not come from the soil—they traced their dynasty from the
South Indian region of Karnataka. Vijay Sena and Ballal Sena are the two most important
rulers of Sena dynasty because during their reign the dynasty was expanded most,
particularly in Bengal and power was consolidated.

The first sovereign ruler of Sena dynasty, Vijaya Sen, was the son of Hemanta Sen. Vijaya
Sen helped Rampal to recover Barind and established himself in the West Bengal. His
reign in Bengal was unusually long, more than 60 years. After the crumbling of Pala
dynasty with the demise of Ramapala, Vijay Sena’s Bengal was an independent country.
According to the Deopara Prashasti, Vijaya defeated many Nanya, Vir, Raghav and
Vardhan. The kings of Kamarupa and Kalinga also surrendered to his power. The king of
Gauda was forced to flee his kingdom. Vijay Sena was a subordinate ruler in Rarh under
the Palas, but took full advantage of the weaknesses of the Pala rulers, conquered Bengal
and ousted the Pala Empire.

Sena power was firmly established in almost the whole of Bengal by the middle of the
twelfth century. It is recorded in the Deopara Prashasti that Vijay Sena built splendid
temple of Pradyumneshvar about seven miles west of Rajshahi town. He also invaded the
South and took Banga (southern Bengal) in his firm grip of power. He ousted the Varmans
from South eastern Bengal in the middle of the Twelfth century.

A Shaiva by religion, Vijaya Sena had sympathy for the Brahmanas and assumed the
imperial title of Paramaheshvara Parambhttarak Maharajadhiraj. The son of Vijay Sena,
Ballal Sena, succeeded his father and conquered the eastern part of Magadh. Ballal Sena
is the best-known Sena ruler and consolidated the Sena kingdom. Ballala Sena's kingdom,
it is generally believed, consisted of five provinces, viz., Banga, Barendra, Rar, Bagri
(possibly a portion of lower Bengal) and Mithila. Ballal Sena was famous for his scholastic
activities and social reforms. He is associated with the revival of orthodox Hindu practices
in Bengal, in particular with the establishment of the reactionary tradition of Kulinism
among Brahmins and Kayasthas.

The rule of the Senas in Bengal is

usually connected with the
emergence of orthodox Hinduism
in a Hindu-Buddhist society
which for long had enjoyed the
peaceful coexistence of the two
religions resulting in an
atmosphere of amalgam of the two. The onslaught on the Buddhists in Bengal is believed
to have started in this period, which resulted in large scale Buddhist migration to the
neighbouring countries. The Sena period witnessed the development of Sanskrit
literature. The Sena rulers were also great patrons of literature, and Bengali literature
grew in leaps and bounds during the Pala Dynasty and the Sena Dynasty. Some Bengali
authors believe that Jayadeva, the famous Sanskrit poet and author of Gita Govinda, was
one of the Pancharatnas (five gems) in the court of Lakshmana Sena. Dhoyin, himself an
eminent court poet of the Sena Dynasty, mentions nine gems in the court of Lakshmana
Sena, among whom were Govardhana, Sarana, Jayadeva and Umapati.

A Sena epigraph says that Ballala was an author. He wrote Danasagara in 1168. And in
1169, he started but did not finish writing Adbhutasagara. In Adbhutasagara, it was
mentioned that Ballala Sena conquered Mithila while Vijaya Sena was still alive.

Banglapedia says, “Ballala Sena is known to have attempted the establishment of an

orthodox Hindu social order with caste rigidity. It was an attempt to bring back Hindu
orthodoxy in a society that had long lived in a social milieu of religious toleration and
Hindu-Buddhist amity. The decline of Buddhism in Bengal may be ascribed to this change
in social order.” Hinduism saw a decline in Bengal during the Pala rulers. But Hindu Sena
rulers as a whole made a revival of Hinduism in Bengal.

During the Sena period, the whole of Bengal’s territory was brought under a single rule
that consolidated the Hindu caste system in Bengal. The Sena period is also famous for
building Hindu temples and monasteries. The famous Dhakeshwari Temple, located in
Dhaka, Bangladesh was founded during the Sena rule. Literature also flourished under
the patronization of Sena rulers.

Conclusion:
The establishment of a strong monarchy under Vijaya Sena put an end to the internal
disruption and the foreign invasion that tormented the people of Bengal during the
closing of the Pala period. A potential authority was needed to keep in check the
independent chiefs of Bengal, under whom Bengal was disintegrated after the downfall
of the Palas. Vijaya Sena however brought those small chiefs under his own authority and
composed the integration of Bengal under his own supremacy.

King Vijaya Sena consolidated his kingdom in Bengal by defeating other enemies and had
a very long reign of about 60 years. He was a Saiva. He was liberal towards Brahmanas
versed in the Vedas and the poor. He assumed the imperial titles of Paramamaheshvara
Paramabhattaraka Maharajadhiraja. He also adopted the proud title of Ariraja-Vrsabha-
Shankara. The literary documents like Gaudorvisakulaprashasti (eulogy of the royal
family of Gauda) and the Vijayaprashasti (eulogy of Vijaya) testify the achievements and
greatness of the Sena King Vijaya Sena.