HARAPPAN/INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION

“If civilization is to survive, we must cultivate the science of human

relationships - the ability of all peoples, of all kinds, to live together,
in the same world at peace.” – Franklin D. Roosevelt

The Indus Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization or

Harappan Civilization, is the oldest known urban culture of the Indian
subcontinent. The nuclear age of the civilization appears to be between
2500 and 1700 BC, although southern sites may have existed as late
as the2ndmillennium BC.
One Of the world's first three civilizations - the other two being those of
Mesopotamia and Egypt - the Indus civilization was the most extensive.

Introduction - Indus Valley Civilization

 The Indus civilization is also known as the Harappan civilization,
as Harappa was the first site excavated under the supervision of
Daya Ram Sani in 1921.
  IVC's known range is as west as Suktagendor in Baluchistan.
Alamgilpur (UP) to the east.
Southern Daimabad (Maharashtra). Manda (Jammu &
Kashmir) to the north.

 The Indus Civilization is the largest

of his four modern urban civilizations: Mesopotamian
or Sumerian, Egyptian and Chinese.

 Egyptian civilization flourished on the banks of the Nile,

Mesopotamian civilization on the banks of the Tigris
or Euphrates, and Chinese civilization on the banks of the Yellow
River, while the IVC was on the banks of the Indus. Bronze
Age/Limestone Age, also known as the Bronze Age civilization.

 In the 1920s, excavations were carried out in the Indus

Valley region where the ruins of an ancient city were discovered. The
first city excavated was Harappa.

 In 1924, John Marshall, then director of archaeology, announced the

discovery of the Indus civilization.

Geographical Extent of Indus Valley Civilization:

 Geographically, the Indus civilization included Punjab, Sind,

Baluchistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Western Uttar Pradesh

  (Western UP) to the east. & From Mandu (Jammu) in the north to Daimabad

(Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the south.

 Several sites in the Indus Valley have also been found in remote areas

of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.

 Also found in Mehrgarh, Pakistan provides the first evidence of cotton

cultivation.

THEORY OF ORIGIN OF IVF [ INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION]

Examination of the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) of skeletal

remains unearthed at the Harappan Cemetery in Rakhigarhi

(the largest IVC site in Haryana) shows researchers that the people of

the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) have independent origins

 This study refutes the theory that the Harappans have steppe pastoral or
ancient Iranian peasant ancestry. Not
 The findings also refute the hypothesis of mass migration from outside
South Asia during the Harappa period.
 According to this study, genetic continuity from hunter-gatherers to the
present day is evident in the DNA results.
 The same hunter-gatherer communities developed into agricultural
communities and formed the Harappan civilization.
  Therefore, researchers concluded that agriculture in South Asia was not due
to migration of people from Western agricultural cultures to the Indian
subcontinent, but rather that people developed their own agricultural culture
during the IVS. .

Various phases of Indus valley civilization:

Early Harappan Phase From 3300 BCE to 2600 BCE:

 This stage may also be associated with the Hakra stage at

region in the GhaggarHakra river valley. 
 The earliest example of Indus Script from 3000 BC. belong
to this phase.
  This stage was probably characterized by centralized rule
and an increasingly urban lifestyle.
  Trade networks were also established in the early stages
of Harappa
  At this stage there are also indications of growing various
crops such as peas, sesame, dates and cotton.

Mature Harappan Phase à From 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE:

 This stage dates back to 2600 BC.

 Beginning around 1000 BC, early Indus Valley
communities such as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in
Pakistan and Lothar in India began to
transform into metropolitan centres
transitioning from "Early Harappan" to "Late Harappan".

Late Harappan Phase From 1900 BCE to 1300 BCE:

 The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) emerged from around

1800 BC. It gradually showed signs of decline,
around 1700 BC. Most cities have been abandoned.
 The sudden decline of the Indus Valley civilization
could have many reasons: external warfare, floods,
droughts, chemical reactions.
 This has been described in detail earlier and is manifested
in later cultures.
 Furthermore, modern archaeological data indicate that the
Harappan culture existed from 1000 to 900 BC. To

Important Sites of Indus Valley Civilization:

 This civilization had many prominent sites in both Pakistan - Harappa,
Mohenjo-Daro, Amri & India – Kalibangan, Lothal, Surkotada,
Banawali, Chhanhudaro, Dholavira.
 Let us study some of the sites in detail.
 Few Important Sites of IVC

S.N SITE EXCAVAT PRESENT IMPORTANT

O ED BY LOCATION
FINDINGS

1. Harappa Daya Ram Situated on  Sandsto

Sahini in the bank of ne

1921 river Ravi in statues

the of

Montgomer Human

y district of anatomy

Punjab ,

(Pakistan).  Granarie

 Bullock

carts

2. Mohenjo- R.D Situated on  Great bath

 Granary
Daro Banerjee the Bank of
 • Bronze
(Mound of in 1922 river Indus
dancing

in Larkana
 Dead) district of girl

 Seal of
Punjab
Pasupathi
(Pakistan).
Mahadev

 Steatite

statue of

beard

man

 A piece of

woven

cotton

3. Sutkagend Stein in In A trading

or 1929 southweste point

rn between

Baluchistan Harappa and

province, Babylon

Pakistan on
 Dast river

4. Chanhudar N.G Sindh on  Bead

o Majumdar the Indus makers

in 1931 river shop

 The

footprint

of a dog

chasing

a cat

5. Amri N.G On the  Antelop

Majumdar bank of the e

in 1935 Indus river evidenc

– Sindh, e

Pakistan

6. Kalibanga Ghose in Rajasthan  Fire

n 1953 on the bank altar

of Gagger  Camel

river bone
  Wooden

plough

7. Lothal R.Rao in Gujarat on  First

1953 Bhogavo manmad

river near e port

Gulf of  Dockyar

Cambay d

 Rice

husk

 Fire

altars

 Chess-

playing

8. Surkotada J.P Joshi Gujarat  Bones

in 1964 of

horses

 Beads

9. Banawali R.S Bisht Hisar  Beads

 in 1974 district of

Haryana  Barley

 Evidenc

e of

both pre

Harappa

n and

Harappa

10. Dholavira R.S Bisht Gujarat in • Water

in 1985 Rann of harnessing

Kachchh system

• Water

reservoir

• 1st IVC

Site in India
 to have

received the

‘World

Heritage

Site’ Status

by UNESCO

Features of the Indus Valley Civilization Society:

 . IVC society was essentially a city, divided into three main

sections. à The elite class, the middle-class residents (or

wealthy merchants), and the relatively weaker section

(workers) live in the fortified area in the western part of the city.

of the lower town where the city lives.

 There was a division of labour, and the IVC society was

diversified and stratified.

  People were scholars, craftsmen, merchants, warriors and

businessmen.

 The IVC society is considered a matrilineal society because

terracotta (fire-baked clay) female figures have been found in

 different locations, depicting the worship of the Great Mother

Goddess. increase.

  Clothing styles for men and women of the Indus civilization

are also illustrated by terracotta and stone carvings.

 Men are usually shown wearing a dress wrapped

around their lower body with one end under their left

shoulder and right arm.

 Clothing in the Indus civilization was made of various

materials such as cotton, silk, and wool.

Various aspects of The Indus

valley civilization

Economic Aspect
  Business occupied a very important place in the life
of the IVC people. This is evidenced by the presence of
numerous seals, uniform letters, regulated weights and
dimensions.
 Here is the elaboration on various economic aspects of the
Indus Civilization:

AGRICULTURE:

 Agriculture flourished in IVC due to timely rains & fertile land.

  Residents of IVC sowed many crops such as rice, wheat,
cotton, barley, dates, melons, peas, lentils, mustard,
linseed, sesame, ragi, vajra and jawar. •
  In Harappa his three main varieties of wheat and barley were
sown.
  A wooden plough found in Kalibangan (Rajasthan). Evidence
of barley growth found at Mohenjo-Daro (Pakistan) and barley
growth at Banawali (Rajasthan) all point to the presence
of agriculture.
 The Indus were the first peoples to produce cotton. . They
used bulls and oxen to plough.
 Traces of canals have been found at the Harappa site
in Shortgai, Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sind.

Trade and Foreign Links:

  The Harappans carried out considerable trade in the form

of stones, metals, shells, etc.
 Trade in the Indus civilization was both interregional and
intraregional.
 No metal money was used. Instead, a barter system made
the deal.
  Inhabitants of the IVC practiced navigation on the coast of
the Arabian Sea, established trading colonies in
 northern Afghanistan, and supported trade with
Mesopotamian and Persian civilizations in Central Asia.
 Mesopotamian records show trade ties with "Melha" (the
old name for the Indus region), and
the existence of commercial ports
called "Dilmun" and "Makhan"
 It imported copper, ivory, pearls, and ebony, and
exported clothing, perfumes, leather goods, and silver
to the IVC people. • The Harappans also engaged in long-
distance trade in lapis lazuli, contributing to the prestige of
the ruling class.
 jade, which mainly used oxcarts for inland transportation,
may have come from Central Asia, turquoise from
Iran, amethyst from what is now
Maharashtra, and lapis lazuli from Afghanistan.
 Horse-drawn carriages and chariots were means
of transport, and large ships were used for maritime trade.

Seals:

 The seal is one of the greatest works of art of the

Indus civilization.
 About 2000 seals were found with short
inscriptions such as one-
 horned bull, buffalo, tiger, rhinoceros, goat and elephant
(excluding horses).
 These three Mesopotamian-types cylindrical
seals were found at Mohenjo-Daro, representing
trade relations.

Weights and Measures:

  People at IVC used weights and measures in

trading and other transactions.
  A number of articles were found with results
showing that 16 or multiples thereof were
primarily used for weighing.
 An ivory scale was found at Lothal, and a shell for
measuring angles was found at Saurashtra.

Animal Husbandry

  The IVC people domesticated

bulls, buffaloes, pigs, elephants,
donkeys, goats and sheep.
 Evidence of horses has been found only at
Surkotada, otherwise absent from the Indus
Valley Civilization.

Religious aspects:
 Unicorns are the most prominent religious figures of the
Indus civilization.
 Unicorn characters had names such as Pasupathi/Protohis
Shiva, Seven Mothers (Sapta Matrica), and Compound His
Creatures.
 These numbers are mostly imprinted in Hinduism today.

 The dominance of the terracotta mother goddesses indicates that

IVC societies were primarily matrilineal societies.
 Evidence that the Harappans regarded the earth as a fertility
goddess and worshiped it in the same way that the
Egyptians worshiped the Nile goddess 'Isis'.

 The figure of primordial Shiva or Pasupathi appears to be the only

male deity depicted on the IVC seal.
 Pasupathi figure is surrounded by his four wild animals:
an elephant, a tiger, a buffalo and a rhinoceros.
 A figure of Pasupathi wears several bracelets and a headdress, and
on the top he has a seven-letter inscription.

 IVC residents also believed in the worship of stones in the form

of lingam (phallus) and yoni (fertility), as derived from
terracotta figurines found in Kalibangan (Rajasthan).
  People at IVC practiced yoga in both physical exercise
and religious rituals.

 . The existence of sacred ritual sites is evident from

the excavations of the Great Baths of Mohenjo-Daro, where all
elites performed their religious baths
   His worship of trees is also evident, as many of his IVC seals feature
bell trees.
  There is also evidence of serpent worship and serpent charmers.
  A large number of amulets were also found
 No evidence of temples or an elaborate caste system has been
found in the Indus Civilization.

Burial pattern:

• .The corpses were arranged in a north-

south direction, and food and pottery were
placed in the graves along with
the corpses. Coffin with dead body found in
Harappa.

• Small circular pits with large pots and

pottery have also been found in
Kalibangan (Rajasthan).

• Three forms of burial have been found at Mohenjo-Daro:

A. Full Burial - means a full body burial.

B. Partial burial – means collecting some bones after the
body has been exposed to wildlife or birds.
C. Burial after cremation – cremation followed by ashes
  A triangular terracotta cake was discovered. The cake depicts a
horned deity on one side and an animal on the other,
suggesting animal sacrifice. 
 A pair of male and female skeletons were found together in Lothal.
 Surkotada and Dholavira are two of his places where burial practices
resemble megalithic practices.

Political aspect:

 Some archaeologists believe that Harappan society had

no ruler and everyone had equal status.

 Another theory holds that the ruler was not his one, but multiple

rulers, each representing a city centre.

 However, the uniformity of tools, weapons, bricks, seals,

and urban architectural styles indicates the presence of centralized
political authority.

  Since there are no temples at the IVC site, it is possible that a

merchant class ruled the Indus civilization, unlike Egypt and
Mesopotamia, which were ruled by a clerical class.

  The proper layout of the streets, the presence of an extensive

drainage system, and the monumental citadel all point to the
presence of a strong central government.

  However, no conclusive evidence was found.

Language and Script of the Indus Valley

Civilization:

  The Harappan language and script have not yet been deciphered, so

we do not have much knowledge about it.

 The language was largely figurative, inscribed on seals, bones, ivory,

etc.

 Harappan script virtually disappeared around 1700 BC.

 However, archaeologists are finding more and more

connections between the Indus script and the Tamil
Brahmi script.
 In 2019, excavations at the Khizadi site in the Shiva Ganga
district of Tamil Nadu uncovered graffiti from 580 BC. It clearly
resembles the Indus script.

Town Planning in the Indus Valley Civilization:

 The Indus civilization is known for its vast urban perspective and

sophisticated sense of urban planning.
 Most of the IVC's cities were divided into two parts: a
smaller but higher part to the west called the 'Citadel' or 'Acropolis'
and a larger but shorter part to the east called the 'Lower City'.

 It is believed that the citadel may have been occupied by members of

the ruling class, as it contains notable buildings such as the Mohenjo-
Daro Baths.
  In the lower town, there were ordinary houses where common people
lived.

 Most of the cities in the IVC were divided into two parts: a smaller,

taller part in the west called the 'Citadel' or 'Acropolis' and a larger,
shorter part in the east called the 'Lower City'.
 It is believed that the citadel may have been occupied by members of
the ruling class, as it contains notable buildings such as the Mohenjo-
Daro Baths.
 In the lower town, there were ordinary houses where common people
lived.
  In residential construction, the use of fired bricks was common.
 Since the city was divided into many blocks, the houses in the city
also followed a grid system. The houses were often
two storeys or more.
 Every house had a garden, a window, a bathroom, and some even
had a well.
 But there were no windows facing the street. Also, the streets
intersected at right angles.
 Therefore, the people of the Indus Valley Civilization can easily be
called the best engineers of their time.
  In places such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), whole settlements
were fortified and parts of the city were also separated by walls.
  Chamhudaro was the only city in the Indus Valley without a fortress.
Residents of
 IVC are also known as pioneers in irrigation and water
harvesting technology.
 Therefore, the people of the Indus Valley Civilization can easily be
called the greatest engineers of their time.

The drainage system;

 The drainage system of the Indus Civilization was also impressive.

  Drains were made of mortar, lime and gypsum, slightly sloping and
had manholes for regular cleaning.
 Granaries were also found where grain was stored, such as Mohenjo-
Daro.
  In places like Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), whole settlements were
fortified and walls also separated parts of the city.
 Chamhudaro was the only city in the Indus Valley without a fortress.
 IVC residents are also known for pioneering irrigation and water
harvesting techniques.

Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization:

Various Theories:

1. Aryan Invasion Theory: According to this, an Aryan

invasion of Harappan territory led to the destruction of the IVC.
2. Plague Theory: According to this, an uncontrolled
plague must have spread through his IVC city, leading to its
destruction.
3. Natural Disaster Theory: According to this, massive
earthquakes, floods and droughts hit the IVC cities and
destroyed the Indus Civilization.
4.  Reduced rainfall leads to drought: Reduced rainfall
due to changing climatic conditions would have caused
drought in IVC cities and reduced IVCs. Drought and
subsequent destruction in cities of the Indus civilization.

India and the world marvel at the wonders of the

Indus civilization, but this culture, too, was unable to defeat
the laws of nature and slowly declined due to a combination
of man-made and natural factors, ultimately led to the rise
of the Indus civilization. An early Vedic tradition in India.