Functional

Group
Classes of Hydrocarbons
Functional Groups
• The structure, properties, and
chemical reactions of organic
compounds are determined by the
functional groups.
• Functional groups hold onto their
properties regardless of the molecule
in which they are found. They are
formed through a based molecule and
an R ( hydrocarbon) group.
Classes of Hydrocarbons Alcohols
Hydroxyl Group
Alcohols
• Is an organic compound commonly used as
reagents, solvents, and fuels. It is colorless and
transparent. It has an OH group attached to a
single bond alkyl group, alkane.
Ethers Ethers
• Is an organic compound in which an oxygen
atom is bonded to two carbon atoms by single
bonds. Ethers act much like alkanes. They burn
and split apart when boiled in concentrated
acids.
Uses of Alcohols
Methanol Uses
• Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, is the simplest alcohol with
the chemical formula CH3OH.
• It is a volatile, colorless, and flammable liquid with an odor similar to
that of ethanol. Methanol is industrially produced by hydrogenation of
carbon monoxide.
• Methanol is not ideally used as fuel because of its reactivity with metal
that can cause corrosion to the engine. Nonetheless, with slight
modifications to the engine, methanol acts as an excellent alternative
fuel in the marine industry as it helps the environment by significantly
reducing the emissions of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and
particulate matter into the atmosphere.
• Another daily life use of methanol is as a solvent and as an antifreeze
in pipelines and windshield washer fluids.
Uses of Alcohols
Ethanol Uses
• Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, is an organic compound
with the chemical formula C2H5OH.
• It is prominently known for its use as a recreational beverage.
Nonetheless, there are several other applications of ethanol
that we may encounter in our daily life. Ethanol is extensively
used in the manufacturing of sanitizers and disinfectants
because of its antiseptic properties.
• Furthermore, it is also used as a solvent in the pharmaceutical
industry to dissolve the medications that are often insoluble in
water. For example, ethanol is used as a solvent for some
analgesics and mouthwashes. It is also used as an antitoxin in
the case of ethylene glycol poisoning and methanol poisoning.
• Typically, a mixture called E10, made up of 10 percent ethanol
and 90 percent gasoline, is used to oxygenate the fuel and
reduce air pollution.
Uses of Alcohols
Isopropyl Alcohol Uses
• Isopropyl alcohol, also known as isopropanol or propan-2-ol (IUPAC
name), is a colorless and flammable secondary alcohol with a very
strong odor and chemical formula CH3CHOHCH3.
• Isopropyl alcohol has several biomedical applications due to its low
toxicity in comparison to other alcohols. For instance, the antibacterial
and antifungal properties of isopropyl alcohol make it a preferable
choice in the manufacturing of hand sanitizers and wet wipes.
• It is also an effective cleaning agent for glasses and electronic
components such as CDs, DVDs, and contact pins in ROM cartridges.
• it is used as a paint thinner in flexography, lithography, and as an
equipment cleaner in other printing processes.
• One of its early uses also includes being used as oral anesthesia;
however, it is now prohibited due to many negative attributes or
drawbacks. Isopropyl alcohol is also used in the automotive industry for
cleaning the traces of contaminated brake oil from hydraulic braking
systems.
Uses of Alcohols
Ethylene Glycol Uses
• Ethylene Glycol (IUPAC name: ethane-1,2-diol) is an
odorless and colorless liquid organic compound with
the chemical formula (CH2OH)2.
• It is the chemical that protects car’s engine from
freezing in the winter and acts as a coolant to
reduce overheating in the summer.
• Other important uses of ethylene glycol include the
manufacturing of heat transfer fluids used as
industrial coolants for gas compressors, heating,
ventilating, and air-conditioning systems, and ice
skating rinks.
Uses of Alcohols
Glycerol Uses
• Glycerol, also known as glycerine or propan-1,2,3-triol, is an organic compound
containing three hydroxyl groups attached to a carbon chain, with the chemical
formula C3H8O3.
• Glycerol has several applications in the food, pharmaceutical, medical, and personal
care industries. For instance, glycerol is used as a humectant (a hygroscopic substance
used to keep things moist), solvent, and chemical sweetener in the foods and
beverages industry.
• It’s also used as a thickening agent in liqueurs and as a filler in commercially
processed low-fat foods.
• Glycerol is also used in the manufacturing of several personal care products, such as
skincare products, shaving cream, hair care products, and glycerin soaps.
• Sold by the name Glycerin in the market, which is an FDA-approved wound medication
that is mildly antimicrobial and antiviral. As a result, it’s commonly used in wound care
products, such as glycerin-based hydrogel sheets for burns and other wounds.
• Glycerol is used to produce nitroglycerin, or glyceryl trinitrate (GTN), which is an
essential ingredient of smokeless gunpowder and various explosives such as
dynamite, gelignite, and propellants like cordite.
Uses of Alcohols
Phenol Uses
• Phenol, also called carbolic acid, is a white-colored crystalline aromatic
compound with the molecular formula C6H5OH.
• Pure phenol is used in certain medical procedures and as an ingredient
in numerous treatments and laboratory applications.
• While toxic to consume on its own, it’s available in tiny doses in many
household products like mouthwash and spray cleaners.
• Due to its inexpensive nature, phenol has found several applications
outside the chemistry labs. When mixed with reagents, phenol can be an
effective disinfectant for toilets, stables, floors, and drains.
• Phenol is a major component of phenolic adhesives used in wood
products like plywood and oriented strand board.
Uses of Alcohols
Butanol Uses
• Butanol, also known as butyl alcohol, is an organic
compound with the chemical formula C4H9OH.
• It is primarily employed as a solvent for paints, lacquers,
and varnishes, In the food and beverage industry.
• Butanol is commonly used to dissolve natural and
synthetic resins, gums, vegetable oils, dyes, and alkaloids.
It is also used as an intermediate in the manufacture of
artificial leather, textiles, safety glass, rubber cement,
shellac, raincoats, photographic films, and perfumes.
• Butanol is also a potential biofuel. Specifically, butanol, at
an 85 percent concentration, can be effectively used in
gasoline (petrol) cars without any engine modifications.
Uses of Ether in Medicine
• 1. Anaesthesia: They are mostly used as anaesthesia in surgeries. As ethers are volatile liquids, they
release vapours that are inhaled by the patients or administered intravenously. They cause loss of
consciousness to the patients before surgery. For example, diethyl ether is used as potent anaesthesia,
and its actions are accompanied by analgesic drugs and also in the relaxation of muscles.
• 2. Nowadays, Halogenated ethers such as Isoflurane (C3H2ClF5O),Desflurane (C3H2F6O) and many more
are used as effective anaesthesia because of their low toxicity and flammability.
• 3. Ethers were used in the treatment of diseases like scurvy and pulmonary inflammation.
• 4. Antiseptic: Ethers were also used as antiseptics. During World War II,Ether was used to disinfect the
wounds of patients and save them from deadly infections. Still, they are used as antiseptics.
• 5. Recreational Drugs: Due to their intoxicating and anaesthetic effects, ethers such as diethyl ethers
are used as recreational drugs. This means they cause unconsciousness and desired effects in drug
addicts and can be used in recreational activities as they are harmless when taken in therapeutic doses.
• 6. Spirit of Ether: This is a solution of one part diethyl ether and three parts of alcohol (ethanol) and is
used as an anodyne (pain killer or hypnotic effect).
Uses of Ether as Perfuming and Flavoring Agents
• Ethers are widely used in the perfumery and aroma industry due to their olfactory and
organoleptic properties. They provide flavours to a variety of food and drugs, including fruit-based
foods and beverages, desserts, fruit jams, yoghurts, ice cream, chewing gum, or some
pharmaceutical preparations. Let’s take some examples:
• 1. Some of the new compounds of ethers, such as diethyl ether, are particularly useful in the
preparation of perfumes or perfumed articles, including soaps, detergents, and household
materials in general use such as essential oils, medicines, etc.
• 2. 1-methoxy-3-hexanethiol, imparts the flavor of grapefruit, giving beverages a fruity-green,
exotic type flavor.
• 3. Some ethers are also used in giving salty aromas, particularly meat-like aromas, to impart the
typical meaty taste to food such as soups and broths, seasonings, snacks, sauces, or ready-to-eat
non-veg meals.
• 4. Methoxy benzene (anisole) is commonly used as a constituent to impart fragrance in the
essential oil of anise seeds.
Uses of Ether in Paints
Ethers are used in dyes and paint industries. Some of those ether
examples are:

• Cellulose Ethers are polymers that are extensively used nowadays in

paint industries as thickening agents. As they are biodegradable
hence, cellulose ethers are used as adhesives, ceramics, food, and
pharmaceutical industry to provide colours to food and drugs.
• Glycol ether is used as a solvent in spray paints as they do not dry in
mid-air. Due to their slow drying character, they give smooth and
flawless paint to cars.
Other Uses of Ether in Our Daily Life
• Ethers are used as cleansing agents in our daily life. For example, Glycol ether is
used as cleaners for window glasses, carpets, floors, etc.
• As ethers are highly volatile compounds, their vapors are used as insecticides,
miticides, and fumigants for soil microorganisms.
• Dimethyl ethers are used to manufacture cosmetic products.
• Dimethyl ethers (DME) are used as refrigerants with carbon dioxide in the air
conditioning system for space ground-based infrastructure.
• Other important uses of ethers are as aerosol spray propellant. Dimethyl ethers
are nowadays being used as an alternative fuel for diesel engines as they are
renewable in nature.
Classes of Hydrocarbons Aldehydes
Carbonyl Group
Aldehydes
• Aldehydes functional group consists of a
carbonyl bonded to a hydrogen atom and an R
group.
Ketones Ketones
• A ketone is a functional group characterized
by a carbonyl groupO C linked to
two other carbon atoms. .
Uses of Aldehydes
• In biological laboratories, formaldehyde is a
frequent chemical. Formaldehyde is most
commonly used to make formalin, which is a
40 percent formaldehyde solution in water.
The preservation of biological specimens is
made easier with this solution.
• Bakelite, a phenol-formaldehyde compound
used in plastics, coatings, and adhesives, is
widely utilized.
Uses of Aldehydes
• Urea-formaldehyde, also called urea-
methanal, is a thermosetting synthetic resin
or polymer that is non-transparent. It’s made
up of [(O)CNHCH2NH]n repeat units and is
made up of urea and formaldehyde.
Adhesives, coatings, particleboard, MDF, and
molded products all employ these resins.
• Insecticides, antiseptics, and fungicides all
work with aldehydes like glutaraldehyde. It
affects bacteria’s and fungi’s cell membranes
and cell walls, preventing them from working
properly.
Uses of Aldehydes
• Many industrial processes, such as the
manufacturing of glue, tanning, and
polymeric products, use aldehydes as a
precursor.
• Photography and drug testing both employ
formaldehyde.
• Perfumes and scents, as well as the cosmetic
and dye industries, rely heavily on aldehydes.
• Acetaldehyde is a chemical that is used to
make acetic acid and its derivatives, such as
pyridine.
Uses of Aldehydes
• Aldehydes are also utilized as artificial flavoring agents, such as Benzaldehyde
(aromatic aldehyde), which is added to different food products to give them an
almond flavor. Perfumes, cosmetics, and colors all require it. It works as a bee
repellent as well.
• Cinnamaldehyde is a flavoring agent that is added to foods to give them a
cinnamon flavor. In vanilla beans, vanillin is the primary flavoring agent.
• Rhodopsin is formed when the retina (an aldehyde) and opsin (a protein) combine
to generate rhodopsin, which is involved in vision.
• The usage of certain herbs, such as coriander, in Indian cookery, is unavoidable.
Because of the presence of some aldehydes, coriander has a distinct aroma.
Uses of Ketones
• Acetone is the most prevalent and basic of all ketones. It’s most typically used as
a paint thinner and to remove nail polish.
• Certain types of synthetic fibers and plastics respond well to ketones as a
solvent.
• Acetone dissolves various chemical compounds and is infinitely soluble in water
at all concentrations. It may be easily eliminated by evaporation when no longer
required because of its low boiling point (56°C).
• Opiate addiction is treated with ketone methadone. Dopamine hormone is
released in excess by opiates. Methadone binds to the brain’s dopamine receptor,
removing the user’s physical need for opiates.
Uses of Ketones
• Ketones are commonly employed in the beauty industry as well as in medicine
for things like chemical peeling and acne treatments.
• In humans and other living beings, ketones serve a variety of vital roles.
Progesterone, testosterone, cortisone, and aldosterone are all steroid hormones
that are ketones.
• Jasmine, honeysuckle, cherry, and strawberry are all perfumes made up of an
aromatic ketone called acetophenone.
• Butanone, or methyl ethyl ketone, is a popular solvent used in the production of
textiles, varnishes, paint thinners, paraffin wax, and plastics, among other
things.
• Cyclohexanone, a cyclic ketone, is used to make nylon
Classes of Hydrocarbons Carboxylic Acid
Carboxyl Group
Carboxylic Acids
• Carboxylic acids are characterized by the
presence of carboxyl group. A carboxyl group with
a carbonyl C O and hydroxyl R OH
which has the general formula of - COOH.
Esters
Esters
• Is a product formed from the reaction between a
carboxylic acid and alcohol. The name ester is
derived from German Essig- Aether, which is an
old name for acetic acid and ethyl ester.
Carboxylic Acid: Examples & Uses

• Acetic acid, also known as ethanoic acid, is an important

carboxylic acid with the chemical formula CH3COOH, a
distinctive pungent odor, and a sour flavor. Acetic acid
has a variety of uses, including as raw material and
solvent for the production of other chemicals. It can be
found in the kitchen in vinegar; however, the acetic acid
present in the vinegar is solute (5-8% as a volume) and
not a solvent.
• Acetic acid is utilized in the production of inks and dyes,
as well as the production of perfumes. It is also involved
in the rubber and plastic production industries.
Carboxylic Acid: Examples & Uses
• One of the most common and vital vitamins is vitamin C,
often known as ascorbic acid. Vitamin C supplementation
is necessary due to its preventive role, especially when
pollution levels are high.
• Ascorbic acid is an organic molecule that occurs
naturally and has antioxidant effects. It is a white solid
that can seem yellowish in contaminated samples. It
readily dissolves in water and produces moderately
acidic solutions.
• Plants, particularly citrus fruits, tomatoes, and green
vegetables, contain ascorbic acid. Scurvy is caused by a
nutrient deficit in the human diet.
Carboxylic Acid: Examples & Uses
• It is one of the most common food preservatives and
flavoring additives. It can be found naturally in citrus
fruits but is also manufactured. Its name is derived from
the fact that it’s an organic acid found in many fruits and
vegetables, especially citrus fruits.
• For these reasons, citric acid is found on the ingredients
list of many foods in your kitchen pantry, including
preserves, candy, and crunchy snacks. It is also known as
“sour salt” due to its flavor and similar appearance and
texture to salt.
Carboxylic Acid: Examples & Uses
• Commonly known as Aspirin, acetylsalicylic acid is a
medicinal organic compound used to treat conditions
such as fever, pain, and inflammation.
• This drug also inhibits platelet aggregation and is used in
the prevention of blood clots stroke, and myocardial
infarction. In fact, aspirin is given shortly after a heart
attack to reduce the risk of death.
• Aspirin as a chemoprotective drug has been found to
reduce overall cancer incidence and mortality in
colorectal, esophageal, and gastric cancers, with minor
effects on prostate, breast, and lung cancers.
Carboxylic Acid: Examples & Uses
• Oxalic acid is an organic compound having the formula
HOOC-COOH and the IUPAC name ethanedioic acid. It is a
white crystalline solid that dissolves in water to generate
a colorless solution.
• The most common natural sources of oxalic acid are
rhubarb, spinach, beet leaves, Swiss chard, chocolate,
cabbage, sweet potatoes, peanuts, cranberries,
strawberries, and bell peppers.
• It is also used in bleaches, especially for pulpwood, and
for rust removal and other cleanings, in baking powder,
and as the third reagent in silica analysis instruments.
Carboxylic Acid: Examples & Uses
• Most of us are familiar with the intense pain caused by
overdoing a strenuous activity. In particular, the pain is
caused by a carboxylic acid known as Lactic acid.
• t is most commonly found in fermented milk products
such as sour milk, cheese, and buttermilk.
• In our body, lactic acid is produced in the blood (in the
form of lactates) when glycogen is broken down in the
muscle. Increased acidic levels due to the anaerobic
respiration during a strenuous are believed to cause
muscle soreness
Carboxylic Acid: Examples & Uses
• Tartaric acid is a white crystalline diprotic organic acid
that occurs naturally in many plants, particularly in
grapes, bananas, and tamarinds.
• Tartaric acid can also aid in the setting of gels and the
preservation of foods like carbonated beverages, fruit
jellies, gelatin, and effervescent tablets.
• Industrially, tartaric acid is used in the plating of gold
and silver, the cleaning and polishing of metals, the
tanning of leather, and the production of blue ink for
blueprints.
Carboxylic Acid: Examples & Uses
• Methanoic acid, also known as formic acid (HCOOH)
is a colorless, corrosive liquid with a pungent odor.
• Formic acid derives its name from ants from which
it was first obtained by dry distillation.
• Formic acid and its salts are used primarily in the
feed industry, grass silage, leather tanning, and
anti-icing. Other applications include textile dyeing
and finishing, food additives, natural rubber, drilling
fluids, and various chemical processes.
Carboxylic Acid: Examples & Uses
• Stearic Acid, also known as Octadecanoic Acid, is a
waxy solid obtained from animal and vegetable fats
and oils.
• Stearic acid also has occlusive properties which
means that it ensures hydration for the skin through
the prevention or delaying of loss of moisture from
the surface of your skin. This property makes it
widely employable in various personal care
products ranging from moisturizing creams to
aftershave lotions.
Carboxylic Acid: Examples & Uses
• In the polymer industry, adipic acid is one of the most
valued monomers feedstocks for producing resins, nylons,
lubricants, and plasticizers. Almost 60 percent of adipic
acid produced is used in the production of nylon 66.
• In the food industry, the use of adipic acid in foods imparts
a smooth texture and tart taste in gelatines, desserts, and
other foods that require acidulation.
• In addition, adipic acid is used in formulation in the field of
pH regulator and buffer and used as laboratory chemicals.
Carboxylic Acid: Examples & Uses
• Fatty acids are the building blocks of the fat in our bodies
and in the food we eat. During digestion, the body breaks
down fats into fatty acids, which can then be absorbed into
the blood.
• In chemistry, fats (oils) often refer specifically to
triglycerides (esters composed of three fatty acid units
joined to glycerol, trihydroxy alcohol).
• Triglycerides are also made in our bodies from the
carbohydrates that we eat. Fatty acids have many
important functions in the body, including energy storage.
Carboxylic Acid: Examples & Uses
• Lauric acid is inexpensive, non-toxic, and safe to handle
carboxylic acid often used in laboratory investigations of
melting-point depression.
• It is mostly used in the manufacturing of soaps and
cosmetics.
• In the medical field, lauric acid is used to treat viral
illnesses such as influenza (the flu), swine flu, avian flu,
the common cold, herpes simplex virus (HSV)-induced
fever blisters, cold sores, and genital herpes; human
papillomavirus (HPV)-induced genital warts; and HIV/AIDS.
• It’s also used to keep HIV from being passed on from moms
to their children.
Uses of Ester
• Two special types of esters are acetates and lactones.
• Acetates are esters that are formed from acetic acid or vinegar.
• Lactones are cyclic esters. Many examples of lactones are found in oak trees and
other plants and help give flavor to whiskey.
• Esters are very popular compounds in both nature and everyday life. They typically
have a sweet smelling fragrance that is responsible for giving many fruits their
sweet scents. Raspberries, grapes, and apples, among others, get their smells from
various esters.
• For example, some nail polish removers get their scents from an ester called ethyl
acetate, and rum’s scent is from an ester called ethyl propionate. The cosmetics,
fragrance, and food industries all rely heavily on esters for their distinct scents.
Classes of Hydrocarbons Amines
Amines and Amides
Amines
• Amines are organic compounds containing a
functional group of basic nitrogen atom. They are
derivatives of ammonia (NH3) where one or more
hydrogen atoms are replaced by an R group.
Esters
Amides
• Amides contain a functional group consisting of a
carbonyl group linked to a nitrogen atom. They are
formed from the reaction of a carboxylic acid and
an amine.
Uses of amines in daily life
• Amines are found in every cell in
your body in the form of proteins.
Proteins are condensation
polymers, made up of repeating
units called amino acids. Each
amino acid has a carboxyl and an
amine functional group. Multiple
amino acids join together to form
a long polymer chain. This chain
then folds into a specific 3D
shape that is unique to each
protein.
Uses of amines in daily life
• Another type of polymer involving
amines is polyamides. These
include nylon, Kevlar, and a variety Kevlar
of plastics.
• Many common drugs and
pharmaceuticals are amines. These
include the analgesic morphine, the
decongestant ephedrine, and the
antidepressant amoxapine.
Uses of amines in daily life
• Amines play a role in cosmetics,
such as shampoos, soaps, and
shaving creams. We'll look at how
they are made in just a second.
• The common compound
tetramethylammonium chloride,
used to disinfect water, is also an
amine.
• Amines are the precursor to many
dyes and tanning agents.
Uses of amides
• Proteins, from the keratin in your hair and nails to the enzymes catalysing your
cellular reactions, are all polyamides. They are made up of lots of smaller monomer
units, called amino acids, joined together by amide linkage groups.
• Plastics and synthetic fibers such as nylon and Kevlar are also types of polyamides.
So too are natural fibers like silk and wool.
• They play a role in the pharmaceutical industry - paracetamol, penicillin, and LSD
are all examples of amides.
• The organic molecule urea, a natural waste product that we excrete in urine, is also
an amide. It is produced industrially for use in fertilizers and animal feeds.