CHAPTER 12

PROCESSING THE LATENT IMAGE

FILM PROCESSING Stop Bath

 Purpose: terminates development &
Automatic Processing removes excess chemical from the emulsion
1942  Manual: 30 s
 Circa: the first automatic film processor  Automatic: included in the fixing
 Introduced By: Pako
 Processing Rate: 120 films/hr Fixing
 Dry-To-Drop Time: 40 mins  Purpose: removes remaining silver halide
from emulsion & hardens gelatin
1956  Manual: 15 mins
 Circa: the first roller transport system  Automatic: 22 s
processor
 Introduced By: Eastman Kodak Company Fixing the silver halide that was not exposed
 Dry-To-Drop Time: 6 mins to radiation is the process of clearing it from
the emulsion & hardening the emulsion to
1965 preserve the image!
 90-second rapid automatic film processor
 Introduced By: Eastman Kodak Company Washing
 Dry-To-Drop Time: 90 secs  Purpose: removes excess chemicals
 The standard automatic film processing  Manual: 20 mins
 Automatic: 20 s
1987
 45-second automatic film processor Drying
 Introduced By: Konika  Purpose: removes water & prepares
 Dry-To-Drop Time: 45 secs radiograph for viewing
 It requires special films & chemicals  Manual: 30 mins
 Automatic: 26 s
Processing Sequence
 Wetting, Developing, Stop Bath, Fixing, Developing, fixing & washing are important
Washing & Drying steps in the processing of radiographic film!
 Dry-To-Drop Time:
o Manual: 70 mins & 45 s PROCESSING CHEMISTRY
o Automatic: 90 s
Wetting
Wetting  Agent: water
 The first step in the processing sequence  Purpose: swell the gelatin to allow
 Purpose: swells the emulsion to permit chemicals to penetrate the emulsion
subsequent chemical penetration
 Manual: 15 s Solvent
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 Automatic: included in the developing  A liquid into which various solids &
powder can be dissolved
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Developing  Water: universal solvent

 Purpose: produces a visible image from the
latent image Developing
 Manual: 5 mins  Principal Action: to change the silver ions
of exposed crystals into metallic silver
 Automatic: 22 s
STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
 CHAPTER 12
PROCESSING THE LATENT IMAGE

 Developer: chemical that performs this tasks  Produces alkalinity

 Controls pH
Reduction To Metallic Silver
Ag+ + e- Ag Sodium Hydroxide
 Strongest alkali
Redox Reactions  Other Name: lye
 Reduction & Oxidation
3. Restrainer
Reduction  Chemical:
 Process by which an electron is given up by o Potassium bromide & Potassium
a chemical to neutralize a positive ion iodide
 Antifog agent
Oxidation  Protects unexposed crystals
 Reaction that produces electron from chemical attack
 Prevents development fog
EUR/OPE
 Electrons are Used in Reduction 4. Preservative
 Oxidation Produces Electrons  Chemical:
o Sodium sulfite
COMPONENTS OF THE DEVELOPER  Controls oxidation
 Maintains balance among
1. Developing Agent developer components
 Primary Component: Hydroquinone
 Secondary Components: Phenidone & Metol Aerial Oxidation
 Chemicals:  It occurs when air is introduced into the
o Phenidone developer after it is mixed, handled & stored
 Reducing agent  Close-Fitting Floating Lids: controls aerial
 Produces shades of gray oxidation
rapidly  Oxidized Developer: brownish
 Controls the toe of the  Hydroquinone: sensitive to aerial oxidation
characteristic curve
o Hydroquinone 5. Hardener
 Reducing agent  Chemical:
 Produces black tones slowly o Gluteraldehyde
 Controls the shoulder of the  Controls emulsion swelling
characteristic curve  Enhances archival quality

Synergism occurs when action of two agents Depletion of Glutaraldehyde

working together is greater than the sum of  The usual cause of damp film that is
52
the action of each agent working dropped from the processor
independently!
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2. Activator/Buffering Agent Lack of sufficient glutaraldehyde may be the

biggest cause of problems with automatic
 Chemicals:
processing!
o Sodium carbonate & Sodium
hydroxide
 Helps swell gelatin
STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
 CHAPTER 12
PROCESSING THE LATENT IMAGE

6. Sequestering Agent Development Fog

 Chemical:
o Chelates
 Remove metallic impurities
 Stabilized developing agent
7. Solvent
 Chemical:
o Water
 Dissolves chemicals for use
Film Development
 Basically a chemical reaction
 Three Physical Characteristics: time,
temperature & concentration of developer
 Long Exposure Time: increases reduction of
silver in each grain
 Higher Temperature: same effect
 Higher Concentration: reducing agents
become more powerful
Unexposed Silver Halide Crystal
 A negative electric charge distributed over
its entire surface
 Causes: increased in developer time,
temperature & concentration
Chemical Fog
 Cause: chemical contamination of the
developer
Radiation Fog
 Causes: unintentional exposure to radiation
or by improper storage at elevated
temperature & humidity
Fixing
 Principal Action: to treat the film so that the
image will not fade but will remain
permanently (archival quality)
 Other Names: clearing agent, hypo &
thiosulfate
Archival quality refers to the permanence of
the radiograph. The image does not
deteriorate with age but remain on its original
state!

Exposed Silver Halide Crystal COMPONENTS OF FIXER

 A negative electric charge distributed over
its surface, except at the sensitivity center 1. Activator
 It serves as Stop Bath
Underdevelopment  Chemical:
 Appearance: dull radiograph o Acetic Acid
 Rationale: the crystal that contain a latent  Neutralizes developer &
image have not been completely reduced stops its action

Overdevelopment 2. Fixing Agent

 Appearance: dull radiograph  Chemicals:
 Rationale: partial reduction of unexposed o Ammonium thiosulfate & Sodium
crystal thiosulfate
 Removes undeveloped silver
bromine from emulsion
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Proper Development
 Appearance: maximum contrast  Sodium Thiosulfate: the agent classically
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known as hypo
Factors Affecting Development
 Crystal size Hypo Retention
 Developer concentration  The undesirable retention of the fixer in the
emulsion
 Developer temperature
 Appearance: brown radiograph
STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
 CHAPTER 12
PROCESSING THE LATENT IMAGE

 Combination of Fixing Agents & Silver o Causes: excessive hypo retention

Sulfide: yellow-brown radiograph o Results: poor archival quality &
brown radiograph
Silver sulfide stain is the most common cause
of poor archival quality! Drying
 The final step in processing
3. Hardener  Principal Action: to remove water used to
 Purposes: wash the film
o Ensures that the film is transported
properly AUTOMATIC PROCESSING
o Allows that rapid & complete drying
occurs Principal Components of Automatic Processing
 Chemicals:  Transport System, Temperature Control
o Potassium alum, Aluminum chloride System, Circulation System, Replenishment
& Chromium alum System & Dryer System
 Stiffens & shrinks emulsion
Transport System
4. Preservative  Purposes:
 Chemical: o transports film through various
o Sodium sulfite stages at precise intervals
 Maintains chemical balance o controls processing by controlling
the time the film is immersed in each
5. Buffer wet chemical
 Chemical:  Subsystems: roller, transport rack & drive
o Acetate  Feed Tray: where transport system begins
 Maintains proper pH  Entrance Rollers: grip the film to begin its
trip through the processor
6. Sequestering Agent  Microswitch: controls the replenishment rate
 Chemical: of the processing chemicals
o Boric acids/salts
 Removes aluminum ions The shorter dimension of the film should
 Aluminum ions: represent the principal always be against the side rail, so the proper
impurity at this stage replenishment rate is maintained!

7. Solvent Roller Subassembly

 Chemical:  Purpose: supports film movement
o Water  3 Types of Rollers:
 Dissolves other components o Transport Roller
 Function: convey the film
Washing
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along its path
 Principal Action: to wash away any residual  Diameter: 1 inch
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chemicals remaining in the emulsion (hypo) o Master/Solar Roller

 Wash Agent: water  Function: used when the film
 Temperature: 3 oC/5 oF below the makes a turn in the processor
developer temperature (35 oC/95 oF)  Diameter: 3 inches
 Purpose: to stabilize developer temperature
 Inadequate Washing:
STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
 CHAPTER 12
PROCESSING THE LATENT IMAGE
o Planetary Roller
 Positioned outside the master
roller & guide shoes
 Diameter: 1 inch
Transport Rack Assembly
 Purpose: moves & changes direction of film
via rollers & guide shoes
 Guide Shoes: used to steer film around
bends
 Turnaround Assembly:
o Composition: master roller, planetary
roller & guideshoes
o Location: at the bottom of the
transport rack assembly
 Crossover Track
o Function: transports film from one
tank to the next
o Composition: rollers & guideshoes
Drive Subsystem
 Purpose: provides power to turn rollers at a
precise rate
 Fractional Horsepower Drive Motor:
provides power for the transport system
 Three Principal Mechanical Devices:
o A belt & pulley
o A chain & sprocket
o Gears
The speed of the transport system is controlled
by the speed of the motor & the gear reduction
system used. The tolerance on this mechanical
assembly is rigid!
Temperature Control System
 Purpose: monitors & adjusts temperature at
each stage
 Developer Temperature: 35 oC/95 oF
o Most critical
 Wash Water Temperature: 3 oC/5 oF lower
than developer temperature
 Thermocouple/Thermistor: monitors
temperature
Circulation System
 Purpose: agitates fluids
STEWART C. BUSHONG
 Importance of Agitation:
o To continually mix the processing
chemicals
o To maintain a constant temperature
throughout the processing tank
o To aid exposure of the emulsion to
the chemicals
 Developer (Automatic): continuously mixes,
filter
 Fixer (Automatic): continuously mixes
 Wash Tank: single-pass water flows at a
constant rate
o Circulation System: open system is
usually used
o Minimum Flow Rate: 12 L/min or 3
gal/min
Cleaning the tanks & the transport system
should be a part of the routine maintenance of
any processor!
Replenishment System
 Purpose: meters the proper quantity of
chemicals into each tank to maintain volume
& chemical activity
 Developer: meter & replaces
o Replenishment Rate: 60-70 mL/14
in. of film
 Fixer: meter & replaces
o Replenishment Rate: 100-110 mL/14
in. of film
 Increased Replenishment Rate:
o Result: contrast is slightly increased
 Decreased Replenishment Rate:
o Result: contrast decreased
significantly
Dryer System
 Purpose: removes moisture, vents exhaust
 Composition: blower, ventilation ducts,
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drying tubes & exhaust system
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Most processing faults leading to damp film
are due to depletion of glutaraldehyde, the
hardener in the developer!
SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO
 CHAPTER 12
PROCESSING THE LATENT IMAGE

ALTERNATIVE PROCESSING METHOD  Two Methods: photothermography (PTG) &

thermography (TG)
Rapid Processing
 Dry-To-Drop Time: 30 secs Photothermography (PTG)
 Essential in: angiography, special  It uses a laser to form a latent image & heat
procedures, surgery & emergency rooms to process the image
 Chemistry: more concentrated  Advantages:
 Developer & Fixer Temperature: higher o Short dwell time (15 secs)
o Laser beam can be modulated in a
Extended Processing more accurate fashion over a very
 Dry-To-Drop Time: 3 mins short interval (1 μm)
 Essential in: mammography
 Chemicals: standard Thermography (TG)
 Developer Immersion Time: doubled  It uses heat (printhead) to directly produce a
 Developer Temperature: standard visible image
 Advantages:  Disadvantages:
o Greater image contrast (15% o Increased image blur
increased) o Pixilated image
o Lower patient dose (30% increased
in IR sensitivity)
 Disadvantage:
o Longer dry-to-drop time
 Film: for single emulsion only

Daylight Processing
 Importance: allows radiographers to provide
uninterrupted patient care
 Advantages:
o No darkroom required
o Speed
 Dry-To-Drop Time: 2 mins
 Microprocessor: monitors unloading &
reloading of the cassette

Dry Processing
 It refers to the development of images
without the use of wet chemistry
 Advantages:
o Elimination of handling,
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maintenance & disposal of chemicals

o No darkroom required (space saved)
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o No plumbing required
o Less environmental impact
o Reduced capital cost
o Reduced operating cost
o Higher throughput
STEWART C. BUSHONG SUMMARIZED BY: MEYNARD Y. CASTRO