energies
Article
Power Management in Three-Phase Grid-Integrated PV System
with Hybrid Energy Storage System
Chinmaya Jagdev Jena and Pravat Kumar Ray *
Citation: Jena, C.J.; Ray, P.K. Power
Management in Three-Phase
Grid-Integrated PV System with
Hybrid Energy Storage System.
Energies 2023, 16, 2030. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en16042030
Academic Editor: Adolfo Dannier
Received: 23 January 2023
Revised: 11 February 2023
Accepted: 16 February 2023
Published: 18 February 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2023, 16, 2030. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16042030
Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Rourkela 769008, India
* Correspondence: rayp@nitrkl.ac.in
Abstract: The management of energy in distribution networks has been gathering attention in recent
years. The simultaneous control of generation and demand is crucial for achieving energy savings
and can further lower energy pricing. The work aims to develop a control scheme for a hybrid
microgrid that can provide stability to the bus voltage and effectively manage the power flow. Solar
energy is the current trend in renewable energy sources (RES). There is a surge in the installation of
solar PV systems both on a large scale and on a small scale, such as rooftop PV systems. Installation
of RES at residential premises has to be conducted with a proper power management scheme. The
hybrid microgrid for this work consists of a PV system with a boost converter to extract maximum
power, a DC-DC bi-directional converter to charge or discharge the hybrid energy-storing devices,
and a three-phase AC-DC interlinking converter for exchange of energy with the utility grid. The
control and power management scheme checks the voltage of each unit and maintains the power
flow according to operating conditions. Disturbances are introduced in the form of load switching
and irradiance variation to check the system performance. The system is tested on the MATLAB
(R2021a) Simulink platform for varying its different modes of operations. An experimental set-up
has been developed with hardware-in-the-loop to validate the simulation results.
Keywords: microgrid; power management system; hybrid energy storage units; bi-directional
converter; photovoltaic system
1. Introduction
Rapidly rising consumption of non-renewable fuels, causing an increase in carbon
emissions to the atmosphere, has forced humanity to switch to RES to fulfill ever-increasing
energy demands. Distribution generation (DG) with renewable energy generation such as
wind energy and solar energy is promising to provide the solution for replacing conven-
tional energy resources. The PV system has become a notable choice for distributed power
generation worldwide because of its abundant availability. Again, the constantly evolving
PV technology and improvement in cost-effectiveness aid the installation of more solar
energy systems. As of 2021, the total solar energy produced in India stands at 40 GW [1].
The PV system supports sustainable growth while fulfilling the country’s energy demand.
The output power fluctuation due to its dependency on irradiance, temperature, partial
shading, and humidity causes issues while integrating the system into the grid. Hybrid
energy storage units (HESUs) are used to address this issue.
A distinctive PV-HESUs system is presented in Figure 1, consisting of a PV array,
battery bank and supercapacitor for energy storage, bidirectional converters, and a three-
phase interlink converter interfacing the DC and AC systems. A boost converter is used
to withdraw the maximum power of the PV, and the bidirectional DC/DC converter
controls the charging and discharging of the HESUs and DC bus voltage control. With
the development of power electronic devices, DC loads are increasing rapidly. The DC
microgrids are becoming popular with the increase in DC loads. The DC microgrid has low
inertia due to the power of electronic devices and DC loads. In recent times, DC microgrid
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
 Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21

Energies 2023, 16, 2030 2 of 20

development of power electronic devices, DC loads are increasing rapidly. The DC mi-
crogrids are becoming popular with the increase in DC loads. The DC microgrid has low
inertia due to the power of electronic devices and DC loads. In recent times, DC microgrid
operation-relatedissues
operation-related issuesarearebeing
beingextensively
extensivelyaddressed
addressed inin research,
research, as as it enables
it enables us us
to to
integrate DC
integrate DC loads
loadsandandRES
RESintointothe
thegrid.
grid.TheThelack
lackofof inertia
inertia and
and random
random regeneration
regeneration of of
power of
power of solar
solar PV
PVsystems
systemsgivegiverise
risetotoDC
DCbus busvoltage
voltageinstability
instability [2].
[2]. Thus,
Thus, thethe increase
increase in in
penetration of the RES into the grid gives rise to challenges of safe and reliable
penetration of the RES into the grid gives rise to challenges of safe and reliable functioning functioning
of the
of the DC
DC microgrid
microgrid [3].
[3].Additionally,
Additionally,there thereare
aresome
some drawbacks
drawbacks in in
thethe
ACAC microgrid,
microgrid,
such as the complexity of controlling active and reactive power, frequency
such as the complexity of controlling active and reactive power, frequency stabilization, stabilization,
and electromagnetic
and electromagneticinterference
interferenceissues
issues[4].[4].Moreover,
Moreover, duedueto to
thethe
useuseof of many
many stages
stages of of
conversion, itit has
conversion, haslow
lowefficiency.
efficiency.All Allofofthese
theseissues
issuesare
areeliminated
eliminated viavia
thethe
useuseof of a DC
a DC
microgrid [5,6].
microgrid [5,6].

DC Grid
Bidirectional DC-AC
LPV Converter
Ipv
LCL FILTER

S5 Lf Lf RELAY
S1 S3

GRID
Vpv SPV Cpv

S2 S4 S6
Iac_load
Cf
Emulated PV System

AC LOAD
Lb S1b Linear and Non
Lcs
Ib Isc linear

Cb Csc
Battery
Bank Vb Vsc Supercapacitor
S2b
Bank

Bidirectional DC-DC
Converter Idc_load
Sdl Dump
Load
Load

+ -
Vdc

Figure
Figure 1.
1. DC
DCmicrogrid
microgridsystem
systemarchitecture.
architecture.

The literature
The literature[7–9]
[7–9]discusses
discussesissues
issuesrelated
relatedtotothe theDCDC microgrid
microgrid system,
system, such
such as as
DCDC
bus voltage
voltage fluctuation,
fluctuation,power
powerquality
qualityissues,
issues,andandunreliable
unreliable power
power transfer
transferbetween
between grid
grid
and microgrid.
microgrid. DC-DCDC-DCbi-directional
bi-directionalconverters
convertersconnect
connect HESUs
HESUs to DC
to DC buses
buses to have
to have power
power management
management [10,11].[10,11].
In a DC In microgrid,
a DC microgrid, maintaining
maintaining the DC thebus
DCvoltage
bus voltage
in theinproper
the
proper
range isrange is a necessity.
a necessity. The microgrid
The microgrid should be should be equipped
equipped with an with an effective
effective control
control algorithm
algorithm
to maintaintothe maintain the DC
DC voltage voltage
in both in both
on-grid andon-grid
islandedand islanded
modes modes [12].
[12]. Hybrid energyHybrid
storage
energy storage are
units (HESUs) units (HESUs)
essential inare essential
PV-fed in PV-fed
microgrids formicrogrids
achieving afor achieving
smooth and acontinuous
smooth
and
power continuous
supply. The power supply.
battery The battery
storage storage
units alone canunits aloneincan
be used thebeDCused in the DC
microgrid formi-
easy
crogrid for easy implementation.
implementation. However, due to However,
the low powerdue to density
the low of power densityitofisthe
the battery, battery, to
preferable
it is preferable
combine it withto combine it withThe
supercapacitors. supercapacitors.
supercapacitors The
havesupercapacitors
a higher power have a higher
density, which
power
succeeds density, which succeeds
in supplying in supplying
the transient the transient
current [13,14]. current [13,14]. reduces
The supercapacitor The superca-
current
pacitor
stress onreduces currentthus
the battery, stress on the battery,
improving thus improving
its longevity [15]. Usingits longevity [15]. PMS
an effective Usingisan also
effective PMS is also essential for ensuring dependable operation
essential for ensuring dependable operation of a hybrid microgrid subjected to various of a hybrid microgrid
subjected
disturbances.to various disturbances.
The scheme should be The scheme
able should
to handle thebe able to
power handle theofpower
distribution all thedistri-
sources
bution of all
and loads, the sourcessystem
maintaining and loads, maintaining
stability and voltage systemwhilestability and voltage while
being cost-efficient being
and operating
cost-efficient
within the SOC andlimits
operating
of thewithin
storage theunits.
SOC limits of the storage units.
There
There have
havebeen beena a
handful
handful of studies
of studies on power
on power management
management schemes for hybrid
schemes mi-
for hybrid
crogrid
microgrid systems.
systems. A multi-mode,
A multi-mode, fuzzy
fuzzylogic-based
logic-based powerpower allocation
allocationis presented
is presented in [16].
in [16].
The proposed
proposedcontrol
controlresolves
resolves thethe
issues
issuesrelated to the
related to Haar wavelet
the Haar method
wavelet that has
method thatne-has
glected the impact of SOC. In [17], an adaptive fuzzy logic-based
neglected the impact of SOC. In [17], an adaptive fuzzy logic-based energy management energy management
system for HESUs is discussed. The solution proposed uses a fuzzy logic-based multi-
agent approach. This approach demands large computational resources and is sensitive
to changes in parameters. A unified control and power management scheme is proposed
in [18], which implements central control of all units in a hybrid microgrid for both grid-
Energies 2023, 16, 2030 3 of 20

connected and islanded modes. It effectively transfers power among the loads, storage
units, and grid. It implements only battery storage units and does not address any power
quality issues. Reference [19] puts forward a control method for managing power flow
based on battery storage systems for PV grid-interactive systems for quick DC voltage
restoration. The work does not take into account the transient current which degrades
battery life and performance. An energy management scheme (EMS) is advised based
on the state of charge of storage units and the surrounding weather conditions [20]. The
SOC limits are changed according to the weather conditions and load demand. The power
allocation to the ESS is defined based on the PV power fluctuation. In [21], a multi-segment
adaptive droop control for energy management is proposed. The PV system operates on a
maximum power scenario or SOC upper limit control scenario. The authors of [22] propose
a power management scheme which considers only the SOC of the battery. It does not
consider the SOC of the supercapacitor. In [23], a unified power management algorithm is
introduced for a grid-tied hybrid microgrid with HESUs for rapid DC voltage restoration
and battery current stress reduction. In [24], a distributed rule-based control and PMS
is proposed. The PMS may make the supercapacitor ideal for maintaining its SOC in a
particular range. A model-predictive control-based EMS is suggested in reference [25].
However, it does not consider fast system dynamics.
Addressing the aforementioned issues, a new PMS is introduced in this paper for a
hybrid microgrid interlinked with a three-phase grid via a bidirectional converter. The
proposed PMS succeeds in regulating the power flow among all sources and loads. The
controller helps us to maintain AC and DC bus voltage under variations of loads and
generation levels. The important features of the work lie in achieving effective and smooth
power-sharing among the storage units and grid by including a distribution coefficient that
considers the SOC limit of the battery storage unit, fast DC voltage restoration, reduction of
transient current stress in the battery, and including all modes of operation. The proposed
method smoothly operates in both grid-connected and islanding modes.
The paper is presented as follows: Section 2 features the hybrid microgrid schematic
and explains the power management algorithm, including its control actions. Section 3
details the design of the controller of the converters. Section 4 describes the simulation and
case studies carried out for verifying the proposed PMS. Lastly, Section 5 concludes the
work.

2. System Schematic and Proposed Power Management Scheme

A hybrid microgrid having a PV system with HESUs, a DC load, and an AC load con-
nected to the grid is illustrated in Figure 1. The intermittent nature of solar PV generation
poses a challenge in terms of integration into the grid. Combined high specific energy and
the power density of HESUs help us overcome this issue. The PV system is integrated into
the DC bus through a boost converter while the SCs and battery modules are linked via
bidirectional DC/DC converters (BDDCs). The DC bus is interlinked to the PCC at the AC
bus via a three-phase interlinking converter. The EMS operates the interlinking converter
as a rectifier/inverter as per the requirement. An LCL filter is used between the interlinking
converter and the PCC to smooth out the voltage and current on the AC side. A sudden
decrease in PV power generation affects the DC bus voltage. Additional currents will be
provided from the HESUs to stabilize the DC bus voltage and maintain the power balance.
On the other hand, with increased power generation with respect to the load demand, a
rise in DC voltage will occur. The controller will feed power to the HESUs. The system
is controlled with the help of control signals provided by the controller to the switches
connecting the solar PV, HESU, and utility grid. The system switches between different
operating conditions as per the energy demand and generation. The islanded operation
takes place when there is no grid power available. The islanded mode is also divided into
different modes of operation according to the SOCs of the HESU and load demand.
The proposed energy management system achieves energy balance by monitoring the
currents of each converter. The proposed scheme mainly consists of a PMS that generates
Energies 2023, 16, 2030 4 of 20

reference currents to control each converter according to the modes of operation. The
reference current to maintain the DC voltage is decided by the voltage control loop. This
is the current drawn or injected by the PV and HESUs in order to stabilize bus voltage
at the desired value. The average and transient parts of the reference current have been
derived using a low-pass filter. The supercapacitor helps in handling the transient part of
the effective current required. The average part of the current is allocated among the grid
and the battery bank with the help of a distribution factor derived from SOC of the battery
bank and PV power generation and availability of the grid. Then, the controller generates
the switching pulse with the help of these reference currents.

2.1. Reference Current Allocation

The total power of the system should be balanced to make the system stable. The PMS
determines the reference current based on the criteria:
load load
Ppv (t) + Pbat (t) + Psupc (t) + Pgrid (t) = PDC (t) + PAC (t) = Pload (t) (1)

where the Ppv is the solar power produced, and Pgrid is the power delivered from/into the
grid. Pgrid is negative while supplying power and positive on receiving. On the islanded
condition of the microgrid, the Pgrid becomes 0. The Pbat is the power provided/consumed
by the battery bank. While charging the battery, Pbat < 0, and on discharging, Pbat > 0.
Pload is the total power required for the load. Equation (1) can be rewritten as follows:

Pbat (t) + Psupc (t) + Pgrid (t) = Pload (t) − Ppv (t) = Pavg (t) + Posc (t) (2)

where Pavg and Posc are the average components of the power and the oscillating compo-
nents of the power required for DC voltage stabilization, respectively. These two compo-
nents can be differentiated as the low-frequency part and the high-frequency part of the
power, respectively. The required power is shared among the three energy sources. The net
power balance is achieved via stabilizing the DC bus voltage, which is given by

Pavg (t) + Posc (t) = Vdc_link Inet (t) (3)

The reference current Inet (t) supplied by the HESUs and grid is determined by the
voltage controller and is given by
Z
Inet (t) = K P_vol ∗ Vdcerror (t) + K Ivol Vdcerror (t)dt − I pv (t) (4)

where K P_vol and K I_vol are voltage control loop integral and proportional constants.
Vdc_error is the error in DC bus voltage and is given by

Vdc_error = Vdc_re f − Vdc (5)

The reference current Inet (t) should be shared effectively among the HESU and the
grid for smooth DC bus voltage restoration. The average component of the current is
distributed between the battery and the grid, while the oscillating component is provided
by the supercapacitor. The average and oscillating components of the current are extracted
using a low-pass filter [23].
 
1
Iosc (t) = Inet (t) 1 − (6)
1 + sτc
 
1
Iavg (t) = Inet (t) (7)
1 + sτc
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 21

Energies 2023, 16, 2030 5 of 20

1
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 (𝑡) ( ) (7)
1 1 + 𝑠𝜏𝑐
where the cut-off frequency f c = τc is selected to be 5 Hz. Along with the oscillating
where the cut-off
component, uncompensated 𝑓𝑐 = 1⁄current
frequencybattery 𝜏𝑐 is selected
is fed byto the
be supercapacitor,
5 Hz. Along with the isoscillating
which given by
(8). The reference
component, current for the
uncompensated supercapacitor
battery is stated
current is fed by theinsupercapacitor,
(9). which is given
by (8). The reference current for the supercapacitor isstated in(9).
Vbat (t)
Ibat_uncomp (t) = Ibat_error (t) 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑡 (𝑡) (8)
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑡_𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑡_𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 (𝑡)V(sc (t) ) (8)
𝑉 (𝑡)
 𝑠𝑐 
Vb at(t)
Isc_re f (t) = Iosc (t) + Ibat_error (t) 𝑉𝑏 𝑎𝑡(𝑡) (9)
𝐼𝑠𝑐_𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑜𝑠𝑐 (𝑡) + 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑡_𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 (𝑡)V (sc (t) ) (9)
𝑉 (𝑡)
The average current reference has been split between the 𝑠𝑐 grid and the battery with the
help The average current
of a distribution reference
factor. has beenequation
A polynomial split between
for thethe grid and the
distribution battery
factor (β) ofwith
the
the order
4th help of
is adeveloped
distribution
by factor.
using the A polynomial
polynomialequation
regression formethod,
the distribution factorvalues
using discreet (𝛽) of
thethe
of 4thsame
orderatisdifferent
developed SOCby using
valuesthe of polynomial
the battery. regression
The discreet method,
valuesusing discreet
of β are givenval-
in
ues of1the
Table same
[23]. at different
Figure 2 showsSOC values of of
the variation theβbattery.
corresponding to SOC
The discreet values 𝛽 are
ofThis
level. given
smooth
variation
in Table 1 helps in a smooth
[23]. Figure 2 showschange
the variation of 𝛽and
in battery grid reference
corresponding current
to SOC instead
level. of the
This smooth
sudden
variationchange
helps in in comparison
a smooth changeto discreet valuesand
in battery of β.grid reference current instead of the
 sudden  change incomparison  to discreet values of 𝛽.
β = 0.025 ∗ SOCb 4 4− 1.5278 ∗ SOCb 3 3 + 9.1242 ∗ (SOCb 22) − 10.0385 ∗ (SOCb ) + 3.303 (10)
𝛽 = 0.025 ∗ (𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑏 ) − 1.5278 ∗ (𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑏 ) + 9.1242 ∗ (𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑏 ) − 10.0385 ∗ (𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑏 ) + 3.303 (10)

Table 1. Distribution
Table1. Distribution factor
factor values
values according
accordingto batterySOC.
tobattery SOC.
SOCbat
SOC (t)
bat(t) 𝜷
β
SOC (t) << LL
SOCbb(t) 0
0.1 < SOC
0.1 < SOCbb(t)
(t) << 0.3
0.3 0.25
0.25
0.3 < SOCb (t) < 0.5 0.5
0.3 < SOCb(t) < 0.5 0.5
0.5 < SOCb (t) < 0.7 0.7
0.5 < SOC
0.7< SOCbb(t)
(t) << 0.7
u 0.7
1
0.7< SOCb(t) < u 1

Figure 2. Variation of distribution factor with SOC.

Figure 2. Variation of distribution factor with SOC.
Thus, the reference current determined for the battery and the grid is given by Equa-
tions Thus, the(12).
(11) and reference current determined for the battery and the grid is given by Equa-
 
tions (11) and (12). 1
Ibat_re f (t) = β ∗ Inet (t) (11)
1 + sτ1c
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑡_𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝛽 ∗ 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 (𝑡) ( ) (11)
1 + 1𝑠𝜏𝑐
Igrd_re f (t) = (1 − β) ∗ Inet (t) (12)
1 + sτc
The Ibat_re f and Igrd_re f are the reference current for the battery converter and the
interlinking AC/DC converter. The battery, supercapacitor, and interlinking converter are
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21

1
𝐼𝑔𝑟𝑑_𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑡) = (1 − 𝛽) ∗ 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 (𝑡) ( ) (12)
Energies 2023, 16, 2030 1 + 𝑠𝜏𝑐 6 of 20

The 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑡_𝑟𝑒𝑓 and 𝐼𝑔𝑟𝑑_𝑟𝑒𝑓 are the reference current for the battery converter and the
interlinking AC/DC converter. The battery, supercapacitor, and interlinking converter are
controlled
controlledusing
usingthe
thegenerated
generatedreference
referencecurrent
currentwith the
with help
the of of
help a PI controller.
a PI TheThe
controller. control
con-
structure of the
trol structure ofmicrogrid is presented
the microgrid in Figure
is presented 3. 3.
in Figure

Ib SOCbo
LPF 1/S 1/(3600Cs) - +

Sharing
coefficient
Isc
Iscrat Ibrat
selection SOCb
β
Itot Ibref δB
S1b-S2b

VDC_ref Itot Iavg Power Iscref

Voltage Rate LPF δSC Switching S1sc\-S2sc
+ controler Limiter + management Reference
- - scheme current tracking Pulse Generator
[PMS] Igr S1-S6
VDC Ipv δCON
- Iscr*
+
Dump
+ load
Ibat_error
LPF
Vb/Vsc Ib Ig
G

Isc
LPF 1/S 1/(3600Cs) -
+
SOCsco

Figure 3.
Figure 3. The overall
overall control
control structure
structure for
for the
the microgrid.
microgrid.

2.2.
2.2. Power
Power Management
Management Scheme
Scheme (PMS)
(PMS)
The
The detailed scheme for the proposed
detailed scheme for the proposed power
power management,
management, considering
considering both
both on-grid
on-grid
and
and islanded modes is illustrated in Figure 4. The PMS operates the system according to
islanded modes is illustrated in Figure 4. The PMS operates the system according to
the
the availability
availability of
of the
the grid
grid and
and the
the power
power conflict
conflict between
between load
load consumption
consumption and and power
power
generation.
generation. The ThePMS
PMSswitches
switchesfrom
fromvoltage-controlled mode
voltage-controlled for the
mode for interlinking converter
the interlinking con-
when islanded to current-controlled mode when integrated to the grid. Under the islanded
verter when islanded to current-controlled mode when integrated to the grid. Under the
condition, the PCC voltage is regulated by the interlinking converter to ensure continuous
islanded condition, the PCC voltage is regulated by the interlinking converter to ensure
power delivery to the AC load. Furthermore, the PMS classifies two modes of operation,
continuous power delivery to the AC load. Furthermore, the PMS classifies two modes of
i.e., surplus power mode (SPM) and deficit power mode (DPM). The modes of operation
operation, i.e., surplus power mode (SPM) and deficit power mode (DPM). The modes of
are decided based on the average current component (Iavg (t)) as shown in Figures 4 and 5.
operation are decided based on the average current component (𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 (𝑡)) as shown in Fig-
The PMS focuses on the succeeding objectives:
ures 4 and 5. The PMS focuses on the succeeding objectives:
1. Maintaining the power balance;
1. Maintaining the power balance;
2. Maintaining the DC bus and PCC voltage;
2. Maintaining the DC bus and PCC voltage;
3. Monitoring power supply or absorption by the battery, considering the available
3. Monitoring power supply or absorption by the battery, considering the available en-
energy stored;
4. ergy stored;
Load layoff in case of islanded deficit power mode.
4. Load layoff in case of islanded deficit power mode.
Under each operating condition, the SOC levels of the HESUs are checked, and the
power allocation to each unit is governed accordingly. The upper and lower limits of the
SOCs of the battery are set to 30% and 90%, respectively, and for the supercapacitor, 20%
and 90%, respectively.
(1) SPM: SPM occurs if the RES produces higher power than the load requirement.
This mode can be identified in PMS when Iavg (t) < 0. In an islanded condition, the balance
power is absorbed by the battery and supercapacitor to increase SOCs to their upper limit.
The interlinking converter is operated in voltage control mode (VCM) to maintain the rated
voltage at PCC. If the HESUs are at their upper limit, then the PV power production can be
decreased by operating it in off-MPPT mode. That is to say, we operate the PV in voltage
control mode. In this case, PV current helps to keep DC voltage at the required value. Here,
the battery units are kept in ideal conditions.
(2) DPM: The PMS switches to the deficit power mode when Iavg (t) ≥ 0. In this mode,
the load power demand is equal to or more than what RES could provide. Hence, to satisfy
Energies 2023, 16, 2030 7 of 20

the load requirement, power is drawn from the HESUs and the grid (when available, i.e.,
under Grid-ON mode). In Grid-ON mode, if the battery SOC is below the allowable limit,
then the grid is to supply power for both battery charging and load. When the system is in
the grid-off condition, the balance power is delivered by the battery, considering the SOCs.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
If the SOC is below the permitted range, some portion of the load is shacked in order 7 of to
21
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 21
maintain the power balance.

Sufficient Power
Sufficient Power
Mode
Mode
IIBref=Iavg
Bref=Iavg iiBref=-iBrat
IISCref =I osc, Igref=0 D-islanded Grid-on Bref=-iBrat
SCref=Iosc, Igref=0 D-islanded Grid-on iiSCref =-i SCrat+iosc
IIPVref =IMPP SCref=-iSCrat+iosc
PVref=IMPP N SOCSC<SU Y SOCB<BU N G=1 Y SOCB<BU Y SOCSC<SU Y IIgref =i Tot-iBref-
N SOCSC<SU Y SOCB<BU N G=1 Y SOCB<BU Y SOCSC<SU Y gref=iTot-iBref-
IIinv =I acload
inv=Iacload iiSCref, iPVref=iMPP
Inverter in VCM SCref,iPVref=iMPP
Inverter in VCM

N N
N N
IIBref =Iavg, Igref=0 IIBref =-IBrat
Bref=-IBrat
Bref=Iavg, Igref=0
IISCref =Iosc+ISCrat Y N IISCref=0,
SCref=0,
SCref=Iosc+ISCrat Y N
IIPVref =IMPP IIgref =I Tot-IBref
gref=ITot-IBref
PVref=IMPP SOCSC<SU SOCSC<SU
N SOCSC<SU SOCSC<SU Y IIPVref =IMPP
IIinv =I acload
inv=Iacload N Y PVref=IMPP
Inverter in VCM
Inverter in VCM
Y N
Y N

IIBref=0 IIBref=0
Bref=0
IIBref=0
Bref=0
Bref=0
IIBref =0, ISCref=Iosc, IISCref =0 IISCref =-I SCrat+Iosc
SCref=-ISCrat+Iosc
Bref=0, ISCref=Iosc, IISCref =I SCrat+Iosc SCref=0
IIgref =0,IPVref=Iavg SCref=ISCrat+Iosc IIgref=Itot,
gref=0,IPVref=Iavg IIgref =0, IPVref=Iavg IIgref =I tot,
gref=Itot, gref=Itot,
IIinv =Iacload gref=0, IPVref=Iavg IIPVref =IMPP
inv=Iacload IIinv =Iacload IIPVref =I
PVref=IMPP
MPP PVref=IMPP
Inverter in VCM inv=Iacload
Inverter in VCM Inverter in VCM
Inverter in VCM

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Proposed
Proposed power
power management
management scheme
scheme for
for SPM.
SPM.

Deficit
Deficit Power
Power Mode
Mode
IIBref =Iavg
Bref=Iavg D-islanded
D-islanded Grid-on
Grid-on IIBref=IBrat
Bref=IBrat
IISCref =Iosc, Igref=0
SCref=Iosc, Igref=0 IISCref =I SCrat+Iosc
SCref=ISCrat+Iosc
IIPVref =IMPP N SOC
SOCSC <SL
SC<SL
Y
Y SOC
SOCBB<B
<BLL N
N G=1
G=1 Y
Y SOC
SOCBB<B
<BLL Y
Y SOC
SOCSC <SL
SC<SL
Y
PVref=IMPP N Y IIgref =Iavg,
IIacLoad =0, gref=Iavg,
acLoad=0, IIPVref =IMPP
IIdcload=0 PVref=IMPP
dcload=0

N N
N
N
IIBref =Iavg, Igref=0
Bref=Iavg, Igref=0 IIBref =IBrat
Bref=IBrat
IISCref =Iosc+ISCrat
SCref=Iosc+ISCrat Y N
Y N IISCref =Iosc,
SCref=Iosc,
IIPVref =IMPP
PVref=IMPP SOC <SL SOC
SOCSC <SL IIgref=Iavg
IIacLoad =0, SOCSC
SC<SL SC<SL gref=Iavg
acLoad=0, N Y IIPVref =IMPP
IIdcload=0 N Y PVref=IMPP
dcload=0
Y N
N
Y

IIBref =Iavg, IIBref =Iavg IIBref =β*(Iavg)

Bref=β*(Iavg)
Bref=Iavg, Bref=Iavg IIBref =β*Iavg
Bref=β*Iavg
IISCref =I osc, Igref=0, IISCref =I SCrat+Iosc IISCref =ISCrat
SCref=ISCrat
SCref=Iosc, Igref=0, SCref=ISCrat+Iosc IISCref =ISCrat
SCref=ISCrat
IIPVref =IMPP IIgref =0, IIgref =(1-β)Ii avg,
gref=(1-β)Iiavg,
PVref=IMPP gref=0, IIgref =(1-β)Iavg,
gref=(1-β)Iavg,
IIacLoad =0 IIPVref =IMPP IIPVref=I MPP
PVref=IMPP
acLoad=0 PVref=IMPP IIPVref=IMPP
PVref=IMPP
IIacLoad =0
acLoad=0

Figure 5. Proposed power management scheme for DPM.

Figure
Figure 5.
5. Proposed
Proposed power
power management
management scheme
scheme for
for DPM.
DPM.

Under
Under each
each operating
operating condition,
condition, the
the SOC
SOC levels
levels of
of the
the HESUs
HESUs are
are checked,
checked, and
and the
the
power
power allocation
allocation to
to each
each unit
unit is
is governed
governed accordingly.
accordingly. The
The upper
upper and
and lower
lower limits
limits of
of the
the
SOCs
SOCs of
of the
the battery
battery are
are set
set to
to 30%
30% and
and 90%,
90%, respectively,
respectively, and
and for
for the
the supercapacitor,
supercapacitor, 20%
20%
 to satisfy the load requirement, power is drawn from the HESUs and the grid (when avail-
able, i.e., under Grid-ON mode). In Grid-ON mode, if the battery SOC is below the allow-
able limit, then the grid is to supply power for both battery charging and load. When the
system is in the grid-off condition, the balance power is delivered by the battery, consid-
Energies 2023, 16, 2030 ering the SOCs. If the SOC is below the permitted range, some portion of the load is
8 of 20
shacked in order to maintain the power balance.

3. Converter Controller Design for the PMS

3. Converter Controller Design for the PMS
3.1. PV Array Converter Control
3.1. PV Array Converter Control
The PV array converter is controlled in two modes: MPPT mode and VCM. The con-
The PV array converter is controlled in two modes: MPPT mode and VCM. The control
trol structure forabove
structure for the the above two modes
two modes is illustrated
is illustrated in Figurein6.Figure
The PMS 6. The PMSthe
decides decides the
preferred
preferred controlled mode and generates the enabling signal. When
controlled mode and generates the enabling signal. When the preferred mode is MPPT, the preferred mode
is MPPT, thethe
PMS PVsets the 𝑃𝑉𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 1 and 0 when it is to be operated in voltage-con-
the PMS sets mode = 1 and 0 when it is to be operated in voltage-controlled mode.
trolled mode. The proposed
The proposed PMS implements PMS
theimplements
incremental the incremental
conductance MPPTconductance
algorithmMPPT algo-
to generate
rithm toreference
voltage generateVvoltage. reference 𝑉𝑚𝑝𝑝𝑡_𝑟𝑒𝑓 . When the PV is switched to the voltage-
mppt_re f When the PV is switched to the voltage-controlled mode, PMS
controlled mode, PMS generates the reference
generates the reference current I pv_re f . These two current 𝐼𝑝𝑣_𝑟𝑒𝑓
reference . These
signals twothen
were reference signals
compared to
were then compared to the actual values and controlled
the actual values and controlled using PI compensators. using PI compensators.

Figure 6. Control
Figure 6. Control scheme
scheme for
for PV
PV boost
boost converter.
converter.
3.2. Bi-Directional DC/DC Converter Control
3.2. Bi-Directional DC/DC Converter Control
The battery bank and the supercapacitor bank are connected to the DC bus via bi-
The battery bank and the supercapacitor bank are connected to the DC bus via bi-
directional DC/DC converters. Both of the converters’ control loop consists of a current
directional DC/DC converters. Both of the converters’ control loop consists of a current
controller, as shown in Figure 7. The DC voltage error generated by comparing Vdc_re f
controller, as shown in Figure 7. The DC voltage error generated by comparing 𝑉
and Vdc is provided to PI controller, which provides us with the net reference current.𝑑𝑐_𝑟𝑒𝑓 The
and 𝑉𝑑𝑐and
battery is provided to PI converters’
supercapacitor controller, which provides
reference currentus with the from
is extracted net reference current.
the net reference
The battery
current, and supercapacitor
as discussed in Section converters’
2. Then, thereference
PMS takes current
theseisreference
extractedcurrents
from theasnet ref-
input
erence current, as discussed in Section 2. Then, the PMS takes these reference
along with the SOCs and generates the final reference current for each converter. These currents as
input along with the SOCs and generates
reference currents are described in the following: the final reference current for each converter.
These reference currents are described in the following:
 Z t0 
re f 1
Ibat = β ∗ f bat_PMS ∗ inet (t)dt (13)
TB t0 −TB
 Z t0  
re f 1 Vb at(t)
Isc = f sc_PMS ∗ inet (t) − inet (t)dt + Ibat_error (t) (14)
TSC t0 −TSC Vsc (t)
where f bat_PMS and f sc_PMS are the functions for generating reference current for the battery
and the supercapacitor defined under the PMS. t0 , TSB and TSC are the arbitrary time instant
and average block window for the battery and the supercapacitor, respectively. β is the
distribution factor defined by (10). The PI controller regulates the current error for each
converter to produce the modulating signal. PWM is implemented to provide the switching
signals for the converter. The detailed control topology is shown in Figure 7.
 where 𝑓𝑏𝑎𝑡_𝑃𝑀𝑆 and 𝑓𝑠𝑐_𝑃𝑀𝑆 are the functions for generating reference current for the bat-
tery and the supercapacitor defined under the PMS. 𝑡0 , 𝑇𝑆𝐵 and 𝑇𝑆𝐶 are the arbitrary
time instant and average block window for the battery and the supercapacitor, respec-
tively. β is the distribution factor defined by (10). The PI controller regulates the current
error for each converter to produce the modulating signal. PWM is implemented to pro-
Energies 2023, 16, 2030 9 of 20
vide the switching signals for the converter. The detailed control topology is shown in
Figure 7.

Sharing
coefficient
Ib
SOCb selection
P
Rate Ibr*
fb_PMS
Ibatref - W
S1b-S2b
Limiter + PI
M
Ibat_error
Vb/Vsc
Isc
P
Voltage + Iscr* Iscref - W S1sc-S2sc
controler + LPF - fsc_PMS + PI
- + M
Ipv
VDC_ref
+
-
VDC

Figure
Figure7.7.Control
Controlscheme
schemefor
forthe
thesupercapacitor
supercapacitorand
andbattery
batterybidirectional
bidirectionalconverter.
converter.

3.3.Three-Phase
3.3. Three-PhaseInterlinking
InterlinkingConverter
ConverterControl
Control
AAthree-phase
three-phase DC-AC
DC-AC interlink
interlink converter
converterlinks
linksthe
theDC
DC microgrid
microgridto to
thethe
main grid.
main The
grid.
PMS operates the converter in two modes, i.e., current-control mode
The PMS operates the converter in two modes, i.e., current-control mode and voltage-and voltage-control
mode. mode.
control When the system
When is in grid-on
the system mode, the
is in grid-on converter
mode, is controlled
the converter in current-controlled
is controlled in current-
mode. In the
controlled event
mode. In of
theanevent
islanding
of an operation, the converter
islanding operation, the is operatedisinoperated
converter VCM to in
maintain
VCM
the required voltage at PCC.
to maintain the required voltage at PCC.
While implementing the power management scheme, system stability and power
While implementing the power management scheme, system stability and power
balance are taken into consideration. The system power management is effectuated in
balance are taken into consideration. The system power management is effectuated in ac-
accordance with the availability of solar irradiance, load demand, and the SOC of ESU.
cordance with the availability of solar irradiance, load demand, and the SOC of ESU.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Fig-
10 of 21
Figure 8 shows the three-phase interlinking converter controller mechanism for providing
ure 8 shows the three-phase interlinking converter controller mechanism for providing
the switching signal.
the switching signal.
G
Idref Iqref
f(PMS)
-+ PI G
Id Idref
1 Idref
Vd Grid_state
+ +
ωLT
δa,δb,δc

+ +
Dq0
signal (SW 1-6)

dq0
Iqref
PWM

Control

to 0
ωLT +
ABC
ABC I
+ Iqref
+ + +
- PI
Vq Vqref
-+ PI
Iq Ea, Eb, Ec PLL θ Vq
Iqref I
Idref
+
- PI
Vdref
ABC Ed ,Eq
To
dq0 Vd

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure8.8.(a)
(a)Control
Controlscheme
schemefor
forthe
theinterlinking
interlinkingconverter;
converter;(b)
(b)d-q
d-qreference
referencecurrent
currentselection
selectionfor
for
converter.
converter.

The
Thecontrolling
controllingof ofthe
theconverter
converterdependsdependson onthe
theavailability
availabilityofofthe
thegrid
grid(grid-on
(grid-onoror
islanded).
islanded).InIngrid-connected
grid-connectedmode, mode,the theangle
angleofofr-phase
r-phasevoltage,
voltage,θ θafter
afterthe
thecircuit-breaker,
circuit-breaker,
isisextracted
extractedusing
usinga aphase-locked
phase-lockedloop loopblock.
block.InInislanded
islanded mode,
mode,θ is produced
θ is produced bybytaking a
taking
a periodical
periodical rampramp signal
signal withwith frequency
frequency f andf0and
to 2π0 asto the
2π lower
as theand
lowerupperandlimits,
upperrespec-
limits,
respectively.
tively. The PCC The PCC voltages
voltages and theand the inverter
inverter output output
currentscurrents are decomposed
are decomposed into d-qinto d-q
frame
variables Vd and VVqd, and
frame variables and IV q , and
d and Iq, Irespectively,
d and Iq , respectively,
using park using park transformation.
transformation. Under
Under islanded
islanded
mode, themode, the converter
converter is to regulateis tothe regulate
PCC voltage d and VqV
the PCCVvoltage d and
. The Vq . The frequency
frequency of the PCC of
voltages (f) is set to 50 Hz in islanded mode. The controller chooses its control variable
depending on the operating conditions.

4. Simulation Result and Analysis

Energies 2023, 16, 2030 10 of 20

the PCC voltages (f) is set to 50 Hz in islanded mode. The controller chooses its control
variable depending on the operating conditions.

4. Simulation Result and Analysis

The microgrid system described above is designed using the MATLAB/Simulink tool
to verify the proposed control and PMS for different operating conditions. The specification
of the system is listed in Table 2. The DC-link capacitor selection is based on allowable dc
voltage ripple [26]. The system encounters four different modes: DPM in grid-connected
condition; SPM in grid-connected condition; DPM in islanded mode; and SPM in islanded
mode. In each mode, different scenarios are considered during the simulation. The results
are discussed for individual modes of operation.

Table 2. Basic specifications for the test system.

Parameters Values
PV module 1 kW
MPP current 8.15 A
MPP voltage 40 V
Inductance Lpv 5 mH
PV converter
Capacitance Cpv 80 µF
Inductance Lb 1.2 mH
Bidirectional converter Capacitance Cb 440 µF
(battery and supercapacitor) Inductance Lsc 2 mH
Capacitance Csc 440 µF
DC link reference voltage 50 V
Battery Voltage/capacity 24 V/14 Ah
AC grid voltage 40 V, 50.0 Hz

4.1. Islanded Mode

At t = 0 s, the system is off in grid for verification of the PMS in islanded mode. The
PMS supplies/draws surplus/deficit power from the HESUs. The two sub-modes for the
islanded mode of operation, i.e., deficit power and surplus power modes, are simulated
and verified in this section. These simulated scenarios are discussed below.
(1) Case 1—Change in load: At t = 0 s, The PV is operating in MPPT mode and is producing
sufficient power to fulfill the power demand of both AC and DC loads, as shown
in Figure 9a. As the SOCs of the HESUs are in between the upper and lower limits,
the balance power from the PV is being absorbed by the HESUs. The system is now
under SPM operation. At t = 1.5 s, the DC load is varied from 700 W to 1100 W,
thus increasing the required power more than the PV production (changed to DPM
from SPM). The total load requirement is at 1250 W. Now, the remaining required
power is supplied by the battery as seen in the result. The SOC of the battery changes
accordingly, as seen in Figure 9b. The supercapacitor deals with the transient part of
the power flow during the perturbation.
 balance power from the PV is being absorbed by the HESUs. The system is now un-
der SPM operation. At t = 1.5 s, the DC load is varied from 700 W to 1100 W, thus
increasing the required power more than the PV production (changed to DPM from
SPM). The total load requirement is at 1250 W. Now, the remaining required power
is supplied by the battery as seen in the result. The SOC of the battery changes ac-
Energies 2023, 16, 2030 11 of 20
cordingly, as seen in Figure 9b. The supercapacitor deals with the transient part of
the power flow during the perturbation.

(a)

(b)
Figure 9. (a)
Figure 9. PV,
(a) DC
PV, load, AC load,
DC load, AC supercapacitor, and battery
load, supercapacitor, and power forpower
battery load variation;
for load (b) battery (b) battery
variation;
SOC.
SOC.
(2) Case 2—Sudden change in irradiance: For the verification of the proposed PMS and con-
(2) Case 2—Sudden change in irradiance: For the verification of the proposed PMS
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW trol of the microgrid under variation of solar power, the system is simulated with a
and
12 of 21
control of the microgrid under variation of solar power, the system is simulated with a
change in irradiance. At t = 2 s, the irradiance is varied from 980 W/m2 to 650 W/m2.
change in irradiance. At t = 2 s, the irradiance is varied from 980
The loads are kept constant here. As the PV power decreases lower than the loadW/m2 to 650 W/m2.
The loads are kept constant here. As the PV power decreases lower than the load
requirement,
requirement,the thebattery
batteryisisdischarged
discharged to to provide
provide the
the deficit
deficit power
power to to the
the loads.
loads. The
The
result for this condition’s case study is represented in Figure
result for this condition’s case study is represented in Figure 10. 10.

Figure
Figure 10.
10.PV,
PV,DC
DCload, AC
load, load,
AC supercapacitor,
load, andand
supercapacitor, battery power
battery flow for
power flowsudden changechange
for sudden in irradi-
in
ance.
irradiance.

(3) Case 3—Smooth change in irradiance: A gradual change in irradiance is also simulated
to see the system behavior. A smooth change in solar irradiance data is given to the
system, and the change in battery power output is shown in Figure 11. The simula-
tion result shows that the decrease in PV power is gradually being compensated by
the battery. In this scenario, the supercapacitor remains ideal. At t = 1.75 s, the system
Energies 2023, 16, 2030 12 of 20
Figure 10. PV, DC load, AC load, supercapacitor, and battery power flow for sudden change in irradi-
ance.

(3)
(3) Case
Case3—Smooth
3—Smoothchange
changeininirradiance:
irradiance:AAgradual
gradualchange
changeininirradiance
irradianceisisalso
alsosimulated
simulated
totosee
seethe
thesystem
systembehavior.
behavior.AAsmooth
smoothchange
changeininsolar
solarirradiance
irradiancedata
dataisisgiven
giventotothethe
system,and
system, andthe
thechange
change inin battery power
power output
outputisisshown
shownininFigure
Figure11.11.
TheThe simulation
simula-
result
tion shows
result showsthatthat
thethe
decrease
decreasein PV power
in PV is gradually
power being
is gradually compensated
being compensated by by
the
battery.
the InIn
battery. this scenario,
this scenario,the
thesupercapacitor
supercapacitorremains
remainsideal.
ideal. At
At t = 1.75
1.75 s,s,the
thesystem
system
changesfrom
changes fromSPMSPMtotoDPM.
DPM.

Figure
Figure11.
11.PV,
PV,DC
DC load,
load, AC load,
load, supercapacitor,
supercapacitor,and
andbattery
batterypower
powerforfor a smooth
a smooth change
change in irradi-
in irradiance.
ance.
In an islanded mode of operation, the PCC voltages (Va, Vb, Vc) are maintained by
In an islanded
the interlinking mode ofwhich
converter, operation, the in
operates PCC voltages
VCM. (Va,voltage
The DC Vb, Vc)isare maintained
maintained by by
the
the interlinking
HESUs. Figureconverter,
12 shows which
that theoperates in VCM.
PCC voltages The
and DCDC voltage
bus is maintained
voltages by theat
are maintained
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
desiredFigure
HESUs. values12 throughout.
shows thatThe
the PMS and the controller
PCC voltages and DC bus arevoltages
able to operate the13system
are maintained of 21
at
smoothly
desired in thethroughout.
values islanded mode
The of
PMSthe and
microgrid.
the controller are able to operate the system
smoothly in the islanded mode of the microgrid.

Figure
Figure12.
12.Islanded
Islandedmode
modePCC
PCCand
andDC
DCbus
busvoltage
voltagevalue.
value.

4.2.Grid-Connected
4.2. Grid-ConnectedMode
Mode
Inthis
In thismode,
mode,as
asthe
thegrid
gridisisavailable,
available, the
the PMS
PMS supplies/draws
supplies/drawsbalance
balancepower
power to/from
to/from
the grid. There are two sub-modes for the grid-connected mode, i.e., deficit
the grid. There are two sub-modes for the grid-connected mode, i.e., deficit power and power and
surplus power modes. These simulated scenarios are discussed in the following
surplus power modes. These simulated scenarios are discussed in the following section. section.

(1) Case1—Variation
(1) Case 1—VariationininPVPVpower:
power:TheThefirst
firstscenario
scenarioisissimulated
simulatedfor forthe
thegrid-connected,
grid-connected,
while PV power is varied at t = 1.5 s from 950 W to 700
while PV power is varied at t = 1.5 s from 950 W to 700 W. Thus, the PVW. Thus, the PVisisunable
unabletoto
solelydeliver
solely deliverthe
theload
loadpower
power requirement.
requirement. In In this
this scenario,
scenario, PVPV power
power production
production is
at 700 W, and the load requirement is at 850 W. The microgrid changes from a surplusa
is at 700 W, and the load requirement is at 850 W. The microgrid changes from
surplus
power power
mode to amode topower
deficit a deficit power
mode. Themode. Theand
battery battery anddeliver
the grid the gridthe
deliver the
average
average power component of the balance power, and the supercapacitor
power component of the balance power, and the supercapacitor handles the oscillat- handles the
oscillating component. With respect to changes in the solar power,
ing component. With respect to changes in the solar power, the DC voltage acquires the DC voltage
its desired value quickly. Figure 13 shows the power flow for each element in the
microgrid. The relative DC voltage variation is illustrated in Figure 14.
 (1) Case 1—Variation in PV power: The first scenario is simulated for the grid-connected,
while PV power is varied at t = 1.5 s from 950 W to 700 W. Thus, the PV is unable to
solely deliver the load power requirement. In this scenario, PV power production is
at 700 W, and the load requirement is at 850 W. The microgrid changes from a surplus
Energies 2023, 16, 2030 power mode to a deficit power mode. The battery and the grid deliver the average 13 of 20
power component of the balance power, and the supercapacitor handles the oscillat-
ing component. With respect to changes in the solar power, the DC voltage acquires
its desired
acquires its value quickly.
desired Figure 13
value quickly. shows
Figure 13 the
showspower flow for
the power each
flow forelement in the
each element
microgrid.
in The relative
the microgrid. DC voltage
The relative variation
DC voltage is illustrated
variation in Figure
is illustrated 14. 14.
in Figure

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 21

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 21
Figure13.
Figure 13. PV,
PV,DC
DCload,
load,AC
ACload,
load,supercapacitor,
supercapacitor,and
andbattery
batterypower
powerfor
forchange
changeininirradiance.
irradiance.

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Dc
Dc link
link voltage with PV
voltage with PV variation.
variation.
Figure 14. Dc link voltage with PV variation.
(2) Case
Case 2—Variation
2—Variation in in load
load demand:
demand: For For this
this scenario,
scenario, the solar power is maintained at
(2) Case
950 2—Variation
W. The load in load demand:
requirement is For this scenario,
increased from 850the
W tosolar
1100power is maintained
W, which at
is higher than
950 W. The load requirement
950
PV W. The load requirement is increased from 850 W to 1100 W, which is higher than
PV power
power production.
production. The The overall
overall scenario becomes that of deficit power mode. The
PV powerstored
energy production.
inthe The
theHESUs overall
HESUs scenario
starts becomes
discharging to that of deficit
provide power mode.
the balance The
energy stored in starts discharging to provide the balance powerpower and
and bring
energy
bring
the DC
stored
the
bus
in
DCvoltagethe HESUs
bus voltage
to the to
starts discharging
the desired
desired level.
level. The
to provide
The battery
battery
the balance
discharges
discharges
power
to provide
to provide
andthe
the deficit
bring thepower,
deficit
power, DC bus
while thevoltage
whileSCthe to the
SC desired
supports
supports level.
the The battery
transient
the transient during during discharges
the change.
the change. FiguretoFigure
provide the
15 illus-
15 illustrates
deficit
thesepower,
trates power while the
flowSC
flow changes
these power supports
for the for
changes the
thetransient
microgrid during
corresponding
microgrid thetochange.
correspondingchangetoFigure
in load.15in
change illus-
The DC
load.
trates these
bus DC
The voltage power flow changes
variationvariation
bus voltage was recorded for the microgrid
at 1.8 V as
was recorded corresponding
shown
at 1.8 V asinshown to
Figurein16. change
Figure 16. in load.
The DC bus voltage variation was recorded at 1.8 V as shown in Figure 16.

Figure 15.
Figure 15. PV, DC load,
PV, DC load, AC
AC load,
load, supercapacitor,
supercapacitor,and
andbattery
batterypower
powerfor
forchange
changein
inload.
load.
Figure 15. PV, DC load, AC load, supercapacitor, and battery power for change in load.
Energies 2023, 16, 2030 Figure 15. PV, DC load, AC load, supercapacitor, and battery power for change in load. 14 of 20

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 21

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 21
Figure 16.
Figure 16. DC bus voltage with load change.
change.

(3)
(3) Case
Case3—Sufficient
3—Sufficientpower powermode:
mode:InInthe thesufficient
sufficientpower
powermode modeofofoperation,
operation,we weconsider
consider
(3) the
Case 3—Sufficient
effects of the power
SOCs mode:
of the In the
HESUs. sufficient
As the power
power mode
the effects of the SOCs of the HESUs. As the power available is more thandemand,
available of operation,
is more thanwe consider
demand,
the
the effects
batteryof
thebattery the SOCs of
isis absorbing
absorbing thethe
the HESUs.
balance
balance As the
power.
power. power
The
The available
battery
battery isischargedis more
charged atat than
thethe demand,
rated
rated cur-
current.
the
Thebattery
rent. The
SOCSOC ofisbattery
absorbing
of battery
keepstherising.
keeps balance Aspower.
rising. As
thethe
SOC The
SOC battery
reaches
reaches is90%,
90%, charged
PMS PMS atmakes
makes thethe
rated
the cur-
bat-
battery
rent.
tery
ideal,The
andSOC
ideal, andthetheof battery
remaining
remaining keeps
power rising.
power is is
fed Astothe
fed tothe SOC
the reaches
grid.
grid. the 90%,
IfIf the PMS makes
load increases the bat-
again,
again, the
the
tery
energy ideal,
energy andinthe
stored
stored the
in remaining
battery
the battery power
will be be
will isused
used fed to
tothe
to negotiate grid.
negotiatethe If perturbation.
the load increases
Figure
perturbation. again, the
17 pre-
Figure 17
energy
sents
presents stored
these these inprocesses.
processes.the battery
At t =At will
0.35 be
t =s, used
the
0.35 to negotiate
battery
s, the is 90% is
battery the
charged.
90% perturbation.
Thus, the
charged. Figure
PMSthe
Thus, 17PMS
pre-
makes
sents
the
makes these
battery processes.
the ideal,
battery Atas
asideal,
shown t =in 0.35
Figure
shown s,inthe
18,battery
and18,
Figure isand
sends 90%
the charged.
sendsremaining Thus, thepower
power
the remaining PMS
to themakes
grid.
to the
the battery ideal, as shown in Figure 18, and sends the remaining power to the grid.
grid.

Figure 17. PV, DC load, AC load, grid, and battery power in SPM.
Figure
Figure 17.
17. PV, DC load,
PV, DC load, AC
AC load,
load, grid,
grid, and
and battery
battery power
power in
in SPM.
SPM.

Figure 18. Battery SOC in SPM.

Figure 18. Battery SOC in SPM.
Figure 18. Battery SOC in SPM.
(4) Case 4—Deficit power mode: In the deficit power mode of operation, we consider
(4) Case 4—Deficit power mode: In the deficit power mode of operation, we consider the
the lower limits of SOCs of the HESUs. As the power available is lower than the
(4) lower
Case 4—Deficit powerofmode:
limits of SOCs In the deficit
the HESUs. As thepower
powermode of operation,
available is lower than we consider the
the require-
requirement, the battery supplies power to provide the deficit demand. While the
lowerthe
ment, limits of SOCs
battery of thepower
supplies HESUs. As the power
to provide available
the deficit is lower
demand. Whilethanthethe require-
battery is
battery is being discharged, the SOC decreases. When the battery SOC is less than
ment,discharged,
being the battery supplies
the SOC power to provide
decreases. When the deficit
batterydemand.
SOC is lessWhilethanthe20%,
battery
PMSis
20%, PMS stops discharging the battery and draws power from the grid. Upon the
being
stops
increasedischarged,
discharging
in demand, the
thetheSOC
battery decreases.
batteryand draws
energy When
will be the
power battery
from
utilized SOC
grid. is
thecomplement
to less the
Upon than 20%, PMS
theperturbation.
increase in
stops discharging
demand, the battery the battery
energy and
will bedraws power
utilized from the grid.
to complement Upon the increase
the perturbation. Figure in
demand,
19 thethese
illustrates battery energy will
processes. be 20
Figure utilized
showsto complement
the contributionthe of perturbation. Figure
the grid and battery
19mitigate
to illustratesthethese processes.
deficit power. As Figure 20 shows
the SOC of the the contribution
battery is low, of
thethe grid and
amount battery
of power
to mitigate
drawn is verythelow.
deficit
Thepower. As thefactor
distribution SOC of the battery
helps is low,
in lowering thethe amount
power drawnof power
from
drawn as
battery is very low. The its
it approaches distribution
lower limit.factor
At t helps
=1 s, thein lowering
battery SOC the drops
powertodrawn from
the allow-
Energies 2023, 16, 2030 15 of 20

Figure 19 illustrates these processes. Figure 20 shows the contribution of the grid and
battery to mitigate the deficit power. As the SOC of the battery is low, the amount of
power drawn is very low. The distribution factor helps in lowering the power drawn
from battery as it approaches its lower limit. At t =1 s, the battery SOC drops to the
allowable lower limit. Thus, the PMS makes the battery ideal and pulls required
power from the grid to fulfill the load demand. The corresponding variation of SOC
Energies 2023,
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21
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16, x FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW of the battery is shown in Figure 21. At t = 1 s, the SOC level reaches to its16 lower
16 of 21
acceptance level and the battery is made ideal.

Figure19.
Figure
Figure 19.PV,
PV,DC
DCload,
load,AC
ACload,
load,grid,
grid,and
andbattery
batterypower
powerin
inDPM.
DPM.
Figure 19.
19. PV,
PV, DC
DC load,
load, AC
AC load,
load, grid,
grid, and
and battery
battery power
power in
in DPM.
DPM.

Figure20.
Figure 20.Grid
Gridand
andbattery
batterypower
powerin
inDPM.
DPM.
Figure 20.
Figure 20. Grid
Grid and
and battery
battery power
power in
in DPM.
DPM.

Figure 21.
Figure 21. Battery
Battery SOC
SOC in
in DPM.
DPM.
Figure21.
Figure 21.Battery
BatterySOC
SOCin
inDPM.
DPM.

4.3. Experimental
4.3. Experimental Results
Results
4.3. Experimental
4.3. Experimental Results
Results
To verify
To verify the
the
the proposed
proposedPMS PMS and
PMSand and control
control algorithm,
algorithm,an islanded
islanded microgrid set-up con-
To
To verify the proposed
proposed PMS and control
control algorithm,
algorithm, an an
an islanded
islanded microgrid
microgrid
microgrid set-up
set-up
set-up con-
con-
sisting of
consistingof a PV-battery-supercapacitor waswasbuilt. An emulated
emulated PV source
source is used
used for solar
solar
sisting of aaofPV-battery-supercapacitor
sisting a PV-battery-supercapacitor
PV-battery-supercapacitor was
was built.
built.built.
An An emulated
An emulated PV PV source
PV source is is used
is used for for
for solar
power
solar
power generation.
power The
generation. block
The diagram
block for
diagram the experimental
for the set-up
experimental is illustrated
set-up is in Figure
illustrated in
power generation.
generation. TheThe block
block diagram
diagram for for the
the experimental
experimental set-up
set-up isis illustrated
illustrated inin Figure
Figure
22. The
Figure
22. experimental
22. The set-up
experimental is presented
set-up is in
presented Figure
in 23.
Figure The
23.controller
The is
controller implemented
is implementedwith
22. The
The experimental
experimental set-up
set-up is
is presented
presented in in Figure
Figure 23.
23. The
The controller
controller is is implemented
implemented with with
the help
the help ofof dSPACE-1202
dSPACE-1202 and and MATLAB/Simulink
MATLAB/Simulink environments.
environments. The The PVPV emulator
emulator is is
the help of dSPACE-1202 and MATLAB/Simulink environments. The PV emulator is
linked
linked to the DC bus via DC/DC converter, and the HESUs via bi-directional converters.
linked toto the
the DC
DC bus
bus via
via DC/DC
DC/DC converter,
converter, and and the
the HESUs
HESUs via via bi-directional
bi-directional converters.
converters.
AA 700
700 WW DCDC load
load is
is linked
linked toto the
the DC
DC bus,
bus, and
and aa 150
150 WW AC
AC load
load isis connected to to the PCC.
PCC.
A 700 W DC load is linked to the DC bus, and a 150 W AC load is connected connected to the the PCC.
The
The reference voltage for the DC bus is set to 50 V, and the PCC voltage DQ-Reference is
The reference
reference voltage
voltage forfor the
the DC
DC bus
bus isis set
set to
to 50
50 V,
V, and
and the
the PCC
PCC voltage
voltage DQ-Reference
DQ-Reference is is
Energies 2023, 16, 2030 16 of 20

with the help of dSPACE-1202 and MATLAB/Simulink environments. The PV emulator is

linked to the DC bus via DC/DC converter, and the HESUs via bi-directional converters. A
700 W DC load is linked to the DC bus, and a 150 W AC load is connected to the PCC. The
Energies 2023,
Energies 16,16,
2023, x FOR
x FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
reference voltage for the DC bus is set to 50 V, and the PCC voltage DQ-Reference17is17
REVIEW of to
ofset
21 21
Vd = 30 V and Vq = 0 V. The results of the experiments are discussed below.

Figure 22. Block diagram for the experimental set-up.

Figure 22. Block
Figure 22. Block diagram
diagram for
for the
the experimental
experimental set-up.
set-up.

Figure 23. Experimental set-up.

Figure 23.
23. Experimental set-up.
set-up.
(1) CaseExperimental
Figure 1—Change in PV power: For the validation of the PMS and control technique in
islanded mode, a sudden change in the PV power is subjected to the microgrid. As a
(1) Case 1—Change in PV power: For the validation of the PMS and
(1) and control
control technique
technique in in
result, the MPPT drops the PV voltage to extract maximum power. Experimental re-
mode, aa sudden
islanded mode, sudden change
change in inthe
thePV PVpower
powerisissubjected
subjectedtotothe themicrogrid.
microgrid.As Asa
sults show that PMS is successful in stabilizing the DC bus voltage at the desired
a result,
result, the
the MPPT
MPPT drops
drops thethe
PVPV voltage
voltage to to extract
extract maximum
maximum power.
power. Experimental
Experimental re-
value despite of the perturbations. Figure 24 shows the voltages at DC bus, superca-
results
sults showthat
show thatPMS
PMSisissuccessful
successfulininstabilizing
stabilizingthe the DC
DC bus
bus voltage at the the desired
desired
pacitor, battery, and PV captured by the oscilloscope. At t1 instant, the system is sub-
value despite of of the
the perturbations.
perturbations.FigureFigure2424shows
showsthe thevoltages
voltagesatat DCDC bus,
bus, super-
superca-
jected to a change in PV power. In this case, the maximum voltage deviation is cap-
capacitor,
pacitor, battery, and PV captured by the oscilloscope. At t instant, the system is
tured atbattery,
1.8 V. Inand PV captured
Figure 25, we can byobserve
the oscilloscope.
the currents At of
t1 instant,
the the system is
1 supercapacitor sub-
and
subjected
jected to
to The a change
a change in PV
in PV power. power. In
In has this
thisacase, case, the
therise maximum
maximum voltage deviation is
battery. supercapacitor current sudden and fall voltage
in value,deviation
indicatingisthe
cap-
captured
tured at
at 1.8
transient 1.8
V. V.
being In In Figure
Figure
handled 25,25,
by wecan
it,we
and can observe
theobserve
gradualthe the currents
risecurrents of the
of
in battery the supercapacitor
supercapacitor
current suggests thatand
and
battery.
battery. The
The supercapacitor
supercapacitor current
current has
has aa sudden
sudden
the shortage of power is being supplied by the battery. rise
rise and
and fall
fall in
in value,
value, indicating
indicating the
the
transient being
transient being handled
handledby byit,it,and
andthethegradual
gradual rise in battery
rise in batterycurrent suggests
current that that
suggests the
shortage
the of power
shortage of poweris being supplied
is being by the
supplied by battery.
the battery.
Energies 2023,16,
Energies2023, 16,2030
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16, x
x FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 18 of
18 of 21
21

Figure 24.Voltages
Voltages ofthe
the supercapacitor,battery,
battery, PV, and DC bus captured by the oscilloscope.
Figure 24. Voltagesof
Figure24. of thesupercapacitor,
supercapacitor, battery,PV,
PV,and
andDC
DCbus
buscaptured byby
captured the oscilloscope.
the oscilloscope.

Figure 25. Supercapacitor and battery currents captured by the oscilloscope.

Figure25.
Figure 25.Supercapacitor
Supercapacitorand
andbattery
batterycurrents
currentscaptured
capturedby
bythe
theoscilloscope.
oscilloscope.

(2) Case
(2)
(2) Case 2—Change
Case 2—Changeinin
2—Change in load:
load: A load
A load
load: A load profile
profile change
profile change is simulated
simulated
is simulated
change is for PMSfor for PMS verification
verification
PMS verification
through
through
the the experiment. A load change is effectuated from 700 W to 1000 W at t22
through the experiment. A load change is effectuated from 700 W to 1000 W The
experiment. A load change is effectuated from 700 W to 1000 W at t2 instant. at t2
instant. The power
power produced by the
PV is below the required power by the
the load, so the
instant.produced
The power byproduced
PV is below by PV required
is below the power by thepower
required load, byso the shortage in
load, so the
shortage
power in power
will will be supplied by the battery bank. the
As acurrent
result, the current rises
shortage in be supplied
power will bebysupplied
the battery bybank. As a result,
the battery bank. As a result, rises to a higher
the current rises
to aa higher
value
to higher value
and can and can
be and
value seen can beinstant
at t2be seen at
seen atintt22Figure
instant25.in Figure
Again, 25.
theAgain, the supercapacitor
supercapacitor provides
2 instant in Figure 25. Again, the supercapacitor
provides
the the
necessary
provides necessary transient
transient support.
the necessary transient The support. The
controller
support. controller
was able to
The controller was
was able
maintain to maintain
the DC bus
able to maintain theand
the DC
DC
bus
PCC and PCC
voltage voltage at the required level. Figure 26 shows the three-phase voltage
bus and PCC at the required
voltage level. Figure
at the required level. 26 shows
Figure 26 the
showsthree-phase voltagevoltage
the three-phase at the
at the
AC ACduring
load load during
both both perturbations.
perturbations. The The voltage
voltage at the at the
AC loadAC is load is maintained
maintained at the
at the AC load during both perturbations. The voltage at the AC load is maintained
at the desired
desired value value
by the by
PMS.the PMS.
at the desired value by the PMS.

Figure 26. Islanded mode: voltage at AC load.

Figure26.
Figure 26.Islanded
Islandedmode:
mode: voltage
voltage at
atAC
ACload.
load.

5.5. ComparativeAnalysis
Analysis betweenConventional
Conventional andProposed
Proposed PMS
5. Comparative
Comparative Analysisbetween between Conventionaland and ProposedPMS PMS
Tobetray
To betraythe therobustness
robustnessofofthe
thepresented
presentedpower
powermanagement
managementscheme, scheme, a comparison
To betray the robustness of the presented power management scheme,aacomparison comparison
ofof the voltage
voltage undershoot/overshoot (Mp) and the settling time (ts) of DC busbus voltage for
of the
the voltage undershoot/overshoot
undershoot/overshoot (Mp) (Mp)andandthethesettling
settlingtime
time(tss(t s ) of
) of DCDC voltage
bus voltage for
load
for change
load change and irradiance change with different methods is presented in Figure 27. Case
load change andand irradiance
irradiance change
change withwith different
different methods
methods is presented
is presented in Figure
in Figure 27.
27. Case
11 is
Caseis due
due to
1 is to
dueaa change
change in PV
to a change
in PVinpower
power due to
PV power
due to
dueirradiance change,
to irradiance
irradiance and Case
change,
change, and Case
and Case 22 is
is due
due to the
2 is to
duethe load
toload
the
Energies 2023,16,
Energies2023, 16,2030
x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of
19 of 20
21

load switching
switching of theofload.
the load. The graph
The graph represents
represents the comparison
the comparison of theofSchemes
the schemes
1 and1 and 2
2 pre-
presented in the literature [22,27], respectively, with the proposed PMS. It can be observed
sented in the literature [22,26], respectively, with the proposed PMS. It can be observed
from
from the
the graph
graph that
that the
the presented
presented PMS
PMS achieves
achieves fast
fast DC
DC voltage
voltage restoration
restoration with
with lower
lower
peak overshoot compared to the other methods.
peak overshoot compared to the other methods.

(a) (b)
Figure 27.
Figure 27. (a)
(a) Performance comparison for
Performance comparison for settling
settling time
time and
and (b)
(b) performance
performance comparison
comparison for
for voltage
voltage
overshoot [22,26].
overshoot [22,27].

6. Conclusions
6.
The paper
The paper proposes
proposes aa newnew power
power management
management strategy
strategy to to integrate
integrate aa DC
DC microgrid
microgrid
consisting of
consisting of solar
solar PV
PV and
and HESUs
HESUs intointo aa three-phase
three-phase gridgrid system.
system. TheThe PMS
PMS andand converter
converter
control are operated
control operated in inboth
bothislanding
islandingand andgrid-on
grid-onmode.
mode. TheThe
DC-AC bi-directional
DC-AC con-
bi-directional
verter gives
converter us the
gives freedom
us the freedom to trade power
to trade with
power the the
with grid. In grid-connected
grid. In grid-connected mode, the
mode,
the interlinking
interlinking converter
converter is operated
is operated in converter/inverter
in converter/inverter mode mode according
according to the
to the load
load re-
requirement.
quirement. The TheHESUs
HESUsare areused
usedfor
forananuninterrupted
uninterruptedsupply
supply of of power
power and also help to to
control
control the
the voltage
voltage level
level in
in the
the microgrid.
microgrid. In In grid-off
grid-off mode,
mode, the the PV
PV power
power and
and the
the HESU
HESU
power
powerisisused
usedtotofulfill thethe
fulfill loadload
requirement.
requirement.The proposed
The proposed scheme gives us
scheme reliable
gives power
us reliable
exchange betweenbetween
power exchange all the sources and loads.
all the sources andThe main
loads. purposes
The of the proposed
main purposes scheme,
of the proposed
such as quick
scheme, such asDCquick
bus voltage restoration
DC bus voltage subjected
restoration to any disturbance,
subjected maintaining
to any disturbance, the
maintain-
SOCs of the HESUs, and effective power sharing among the HESUs,
ing the SOCs of the HESUs, and effective power sharing among the HESUs, are studied are studied using
simulations. The PMS
using simulations. The isPMSsuccessful in controlling
is successful the DC
in controlling thebusDC and
bus PCC voltage
and PCC at the
voltage at
desired levellevel
the desired for both islanded
for both and and
islanded grid-on modes
grid-on of operations.
modes of operations.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization,

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, P.K.R.;
P.K.R.; Methodology,
Methodology, C.J.J.;
C.J.J.; Software,
Software, C.J.J.;
C.J.J.; Validation,
Validation,
C.J.J.; Formal analysis, C.J.J.; Writing—original draft, C.J.J.; Writing—review & editing,
C.J.J.; Formal analysis, C.J.J.; Writing—original draft, C.J.J.; Writing—review & editing, P.K.R.; Super-
P.K.R.; Su-
vision, P.K.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
pervision, P.K.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This
Funding: Thisresearch received
research no external
received funding.
no external funding.
Data
Data Availability Statement:Not
AvailabilityStatement: Notapplicable.
applicable.
Conflicts
Conflictsof Interest:The
ofInterest: Theauthors
authorsdeclare
declareno
noconflict
conflictof
ofintrest.
intrest.

Abbreviations
DG Distribution Generation
RES Renewable energy sources
HESU Hybrid energy storage units
SOC State of charge
Energies 2023, 16, 2030 19 of 20

Abbreviations

DG Distribution Generation
RES Renewable energy sources
HESU Hybrid energy storage units
SOC State of charge
BDDC Bi-directional DC/DC converters
EMS Energy management scheme
PMS Power management scheme
SPM Sufficient power mode
DPM Deficit power mode

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