UNIT

1
TRANSPORTATION

Pretest:

Answer the following questions:

1. Define transportation.
2. Give examples of means of transportation you see in your
community.
3. How is transportation related to community development?

Lesson 1: Importance of Transportation

Different modes of transportation
Characteristics of Road Transportation

Learning Outcomes
 Define Transportation
 Understand the Importance of transportation in the society
 Identify the different modes of transportation
 Identify the characteristics of road transport

Transportation is the process of shipping or moving an item from one point

to another point. Transportation involves the movement of goods and raw
materials. This includes shipment of raw materials to the manufacturer and
movement of finished product to the customer.

Transportation also includes the movement of parts to assembly areas. The

movement of people, goods, and animals from one location to another by air, rail,
road, sea, cable, space, or pipeline. Transportation services are divided into three
aspects: infrastructure, vehicles, and operations.

Transportation is very important because it allows communication and

trade between two parties. Transportation is one of our most basic human needs.
We need transportation because all of life’s necessities and pleasures can’t
possibly fit within the reach of our static bodies from birth to death.
Importance of Transportation

Transportation has a lot of significance in human life. Things need to move

from one place to another. Transportation has evolved over the course of time. It
has become much faster than ever before. Resources can be flown to their
destinations through airplanes, if the distance is wide. Ground vehicles can be
employed for shorter distances. For travel overseas, ships can be used.
Resources can be people or goods which can be moved using different modes.
Like a human body needs to transport blood to function, similarly society also
needs transportation to work properly.

Though, in case of society, many different things must be transported.

People need to get to work in time. Every day they need to go a certain distance
and do their work. After they also must get back home. While working, many
different resources are required at work, they also need to be provided to the
people working there. The resources required to move both materials and people
also come at a cost. So economy is also involved in the process. Transportation
can be called the heart of the society. As it makes it possible for people to deliver
things where they are needed at appropriate times.

Movement of People

Society has always been growing. There is always a need for people to
work in different fields. For the work to be done, people need to move around. A
teacher needs to reach the school so with the students. A clerk needs to reach his
office on time. Similarly, people from other professions also need to reach their
workplaces. It is not always ordinary for people to walk to their workplaces
especially if it is beyond walking distances or it is in other cities or far areas.

So, transportation is required so they can reach work in time. At the end of
the day, they need to go back home to their families to spend the rest of their day.
Not only for professional needs, people need transport for other purposes too.
People planning to go to recreational trips, also need means of transportation.
People having relatives in different parts of the world, also need transport to reach
them.

In modern times, transportation has evolved. Many mobile applications

have been introduced to make it easier for people to move. Applications like Grab,
and Uber are used by people. These apps help people find a suitable driver, who
can take them to their destination.

Movement of Resources

Moving people is one thing, but goods also need to be transported.

Construction sites would cement and other construction materials to function.
Paper and electronic devices are required at offices. All these resources need to
be delivered to them for their proper functioning. Transportation allows the
resources to be provided to the places where they are needed. Without transport,
there would be no material for people to work with on time. Keeping work aside,
normal day routine would be devastated without transportation.

Food we have on our dining table, three times a day, is also made from
different ingredients. These ingredients are grown on a farm, then processed in
an industry and then sold at superstores. They need to be transported from one
place to another from the next stage of process. Similarly, the clothes we wear are
also made from cotton, wool or any other material. These materials are collected
from crops or the animals. Cotton is taken from crops and leather and wool is
taken from animals. Then it is moved to fabric factories, where they are processed
into unstitched clothes. Different brands buy these clothes and sew these
according to their own designs. After being sewed, these are moved to display in
different shopping centers. All of this would not be possible without the service of
transportation.

Employment Opportunities

The fact that transportation has integrated well with technology, has also
created employment opportunities. People can now use apps like Grab, Uber and
many such applications to work. They can take their vehicles, get them registered
and use these apps to help people reach their destinations. This is exactly like
Taxi system, except for the fact that it is completely digitized. As digital information
is faster to process and understand, it is more preferred in modern age.

Modern transportation has created opportunities for people to work in a

more systematic way. People who find it hard to make both ends meet, can use
these apps to make money. People who only drive taxis and found it difficult to
find passengers, can now work more easily. There is also a review system in the
applications. It allows passengers to leave comments and rating for the driver.
This helps maintain merit and good standard for the society. Big companies need
to hire people to manage their records about the transportation. Although it is
indirectly affected, transportation has also given job opportunities to people apart
from vehicle drivers. Transportation companies need to hire people to manage
their operation, clerks to manage their records and technicians to design their
efficient digital storage.

Influence on Economy

The service of transportation is important, and it costs money. When the

people and goods are moved around society, a lot of resources are used.
Transportation is a very important part of society. A country cannot run without a
proper transportation system. It needs to utilize its resources in a reasonable
manner. It means it needs to move both the people and the material resource in a
suitable way. Moving resources can cost a lot as both vehicles and fuel need
money to be bought.

For a country to run properly, money must be invested for the infrastructure
and transportation. Only then the industries will be able to generate revenues
which will help the economy grow. It’s a cycle, better transportation means better
economy and better economy means better transportation. Businesses are also
dependent on transportation. Resources are always required to be moved from
one place to another. If transportation is not handled properly, the goods being
transferred might be damaged resulting in loss for the businesses, therefore
careful consideration should be made during transportation phase. As economy
is greatly influenced by transportation, a significant amount of capital must be
invested in making better infrastructure and vehicles.
Modes of transportation

Modes of transportation includes:

1. Road Transportation
2. Maritime Transportation
3. Air Transportation
4. Rail Transportation
5. Intermodal Transportation
6. Pipeline

Road Transportation

Road is the first and most common mode of transportation. In the ancient
times from walking to horses to wagons to bikes to cars to trucks, road
transportation has been around longer than any mode and is utilized the most of
any mode in logistics.

With the continued improvement of vehicles and road infrastructure,

transportation by road is the most versatile of the four main modes with the least
geographical constraints. This attribute of road transport makes it the preferred
mode for smaller loads over a shorter distance and as such, road is the only mode
that performs door-to-door deliveries. Consequently, most shipments that initially
were carried by another mode of transportation are completed by road
transportation.

Anything that can be shipped in small-to-medium quantities can be shipped

by road. On the other hand, shipments larger than 150lbs. are considered freight
and require a truck. The two main forms of road transport are Less-than-Truck-
load (LTL) and Truck Load (TL). LTL transports smaller shipments to their
respective locations along a specified route. The route begins and ends at a
specified hub of origin and makes various stops according to the number of
different shipments it is carrying. TL is much faster than LTL because it does not
operate on a hub and spoke model. As such, the truck will go from origin to
destination with no additional stops or transfers along the way. The main downside
to road transport is the external influences that play into its effectiveness, primarily
weather, traffic, and road regulations, three things that mostly don’t influence other
modes.

Maritime Transportation

Shipping by water has been practiced for thousands of years and remains
pivotal to today’s global trade. 90% of all international trade is accomplished
through maritime transportation. Cargo ships travel on almost every major body of
water and have capacity to transport the highest volume of freight of any mode of
transportation at the lowest cost. The routes available to container ships are
calculated and strictly followed. Many routes used today have been used for
centuries, however new routes are still being sought out and tested for optimal
supply chain efficiency.

The greatest disadvantage of maritime cargo ships is the speed at which

they operate. By far, maritime is the slowest mode of transportation. It is, however,
the most efficient for the amount of cargo it is capable of carrying. In practice
today, the speed of ships compared to air can have great significance when it
comes to regulations and tariffs. As of January2017 there were 52,183 cargo ships
in service, so at any given time there can be thousands of ships at sea. If a
sanction is put in place during a ship’s 40 days at sea, the operators have to either
turn around or comply with a tariff they were not prepared to pay. The carbon
emissions produced by one cargo ship are equivalent to the emissions produced
by 50 million cars. There is a continued effort to reduce ocean emissions by 50%
by 2050.
Air Transportation

The newest mode of transportation is air. Airplanes are becoming

increasingly important in domestic and international trade. With continually
improving technologies and practically unlimited route possibilities, air
transportation is the fastest growing and most time efficient shipping and
transportation mode.

As air travel has become increasingly advanced and dependable, more

companies are trusting airplanes with high value freight and goods. The increasing
popularity of flight as a preferred way to travel also makes shipping by air more
convenient as shipments regularly piggyback on passenger planes, further making
air an economic way to transport goods. However, there are two setbacks to air
transport. Air transport is by far the most expensive way to ship or travel and
weight and volume of freight has to stay minimal to ensure the safety of the flight.
The level of emissions produced by air transport are also the highest of any mode.
Rail Transportation

First invented for use in the early 19th century, rail transport quickly became
vital for the expansion of the western world and has played a pivotal role in the
realm of logistics for over two centuries. In modern practice, rail is used more
exclusively for the largest and heaviest payloads (bulk cargo) traveling across
land. The vast majority of railway infrastructure connects highly populated areas
with large unpopulated strips of land between them making rail ideal for long-
distance and cross-country hauls.

Rail transport is confined to a more limited infrastructure than road

transport. As a defining trait, locomotives (trains, monorails, etc.) are confined to
a traced path going between point A and B with very few points of divergence.
Railways are costly and time consuming to construct and only a few new railways
have been constructed since the early 1900’s. Additionally, railways are limited to
semi-level geographic areas making construction increasingly laborious. Thus,
railways are primarily only accessible in large metropolitan areas, and the rail
vehicle is not influenced by traffic. This makes the rail the most dependable mode
for making long hauls across land with minimal damage.
Intermodal Transportation (Multimodal)

Intermodal is a combination of two or more means of transportation whose

purpose is to shorten travel time, reduce transportation cost and minimize load
handling and prevents load rupture. Often in logistics, one shipment is completed
using multiple modes of transportation. For example, consider a bottling industry
in Germany shipping goods to the United Sates. Their shipment will most likely
begin on road, be transferred to rail, then to maritime, which transfers to rail in the
US, and then arrives at its destination by road once again. The purpose is to take
advantage of the individual strengths of the different modes, thus reducing costs.
This practice is known as intermodal transportation and is often necessary in
logistics.

Historically, intermodal presented many challenges for shippers and

carriers; primarily, transferring shipments between modes with maximum
efficiency and minimal damage. With the advent of containerization intermodal
means of transportation has become more efficient and safe. By creating a global
system of standardized containers, warehouses and shipping yards can safely
and efficiently transfer containers between road, rail, and maritime. The standard
for intermodal containers is 8’ wide and 20’ or 40’ long. There is no set standard
for height; however, most containers average 8.5’ in height.

10 Advantages of Intermodal Transport

1. Reduction of Transport Times: The transport combination is used that is

faster in each case in order to transport the goods to their destination.
2. Minimization of Loading and Unloading Times: Due to the bundling of loads
in intermodal transport units, the time used in loading and unloading tasks
 is reduced by 70%. The practical disappearance of downtime is the need
to store merchandise in intermediate areas.
3. Lower Costs in the Total Transport Operation: the most economical
transport combination is analyzed according to the characteristics of each
operation.
4. Greater Comfort for the User since the Bureaucracy is Reduced to a Single
Carrier
5. Fosters new commercial opportunities for Non-traditional Exports.
6. Reduce the risk of loss, theft especially at intermediate points when
transported in closed cargo units from the origin to the point of destination.
7. Reduction of controls. Fewer controls and inspections are carried out
because of the sealing of the containers.
8. Documentary Simplification even if different means of transport are used,
the documentation is not the sum but is unified for all of them.
9. Reduce the risk of loss or theft especially at intermediate points when
transported in closed cargo units from the origin to the point of destination.
10. Ease in the Tracking of Merchandise. The control of merchandise it
improved at every moment

Pipeline

Pipeline shipping is not a formal mode of transportation in the traditional

sense. However, it is important to acknowledge for its importance in the current
fossil fuel market. Pipelines transport unrefined fossil fuels such as gas and oil
from their point of origin to the point where they can then be transferred to the
refineries or another mode of transportation. The cost of shipping primarily lies in
its construction, the diameter of the pipeline, and the viscosity of the fluid being
transported. They can be built above ground, underground, or underwater making
them ideal for offshore drilling.
 The pumping of crude oil has risen in recent years the increasing need of
transporting crude oil is correlative with the increase in drilling and extraction.
Traditionally, the transporting of oil was accomplished by rail but oil and gas
companies are quickly turning to pipeline shipping because of increased safety
and efficiency. Regardless, the building of pipelines has been a topic of
controversy because of the environmental damage they will cause by increasing
the speed of the oil industry, creating additional fossil fuel emissions, and slow the
progress of sustainable energy. The controversies surrounding the Trans-Alaska
pipeline are a prime example of this.

Characteristics of Road Transport

1) Road transport offers complete freedom to road user to transfer the

vehicle from one lane to other.
2) It gives quick and easy transportation of men, machineries, materials etc.
3) Road transport serves the agricultural area by transporting of goods
4) Roads are used by various categories of vehicles.
5) Construction and maintenance of road transport is cheaper
6) Road transport is a basic need in case of fire and police protections.
7) It gives door step connectivity even in case of rural area or villages.
8) It is important access to reach railways, waterways and airways.

Learning Activity:

Answer and discuss the following questions.

1. Why is the growth of society partly dependent on transportation?

2. Describe intermodal/multimodal transportation? Cite examples.
 Lesson 2: Scope of Highway and Traffic Engineering

Learning Outcomes
 Know and identify the different scope of highway and Traffic
Engineering

Highway Engineering is a branch of civil engineering that deals with the

planning, location, design, construction, and maintenance of roads, highways,
bridges and tunnels and with the regulations and control of devices employed in
highway traffic operations to ensure safe and effective transportation of people
and goods.

Roads or highways are generally constructed on strategic areas slightly

above the general ground level in order to avoid difficult drainage and
maintenance problems. .

Technical terms related to roads:

Road: A public thoroughfare over which vehicles, cyclist, pedestrians, etc. may
lawfully move from one place to another

Highway: the term is used for an important road of national or state importance
in a country.

Traffic: The vehicles, cycles, cars, pedestrians etc. traveling together on a road.

Foot way, foot path or sidewalk: The portion of roadway of an urban reserved
only for pedestrians. Minimum width should be 1.5 meters.

Cycle track: The portion of a roadway of an urban road reserved only for
bicycles. Minimum width should be 2 meters.

Motor way, express way or super highway: The portion of roadway of an

urban road reserved for the use of high speed and power-driven vehicles. This
caters for the movement of heavy volumes of motor traffic at high speeds.

Scope of Highway Engineering

Apart from the design, construction and maintenance of different types of

roads, highway engineering also includes the study of the following topics:
a. Development planning and locations of roads.
b. Materials required for their construction
c. Highway traffic performance and its control
d. Drainage of roads, etc.
e. Economics, finance and administration
 Highway design geometric and structure. Specifies if the road is rigid or
flexible pavement, overlay design and thickness design.

Development planning and location of roads. Uses historical background,

master plans, engineering surveys, and highway alignment.

Materials, construction and maintenance. Involves highway materials and

mix design, highway construction, earthworks, construction of different types of
pavements, pavement failure, pavement evaluation, and maintenance of
pavements.

Traffic performance and its control. Studies traffic analysis, need for new
road links, traffic regulation and control, intersection design and their controls with
signs, signals and markings.

Drainage of roads. Identify proper and correct drainage and cross drains
for assurance that roads are free of runoff anytime at any point for safety of the
travelers, commuters and pedestrians.

Economics, finance and administration. Includes road user cost and

economic analysis of highway projects, maintenance measures of different
pavement types.

Traffic Engineering is a branch of civil engineering that uses engineering

techniques to achieve the safe and efficient movement of people and goods on
roadways. Traffic engineering is a broad topic that spans a wide spectrum of
services from project planning to design, construction and field operations.

Typical traffic engineering projects involve designing traffic control device

installations and modifications, including traffic signals, signs, and pavement
markings. It focuses mainly on research for safe and efficient traffic flow, such as
road geometry, sidewalks and crosswalks, traffic signs, road surface markings and
traffic lights.

The basic objective of traffic engineering is to achieve efficient, free and

rapid flow of traffic with minimum traffic accidents.

Main aspects of traffic engineering:

1. Traffic characteristics – vehicles and road users

2. Traffic study and analysis - speed, volume, capacity and traffic pattern
3. Traffic flow characteristics, parking and accident studies
4. Traffic operation, control and regulation – laws and traffic regulation
5. Measures, installation of traffic control devices, signs, signals, and islands.
6. Planning and analysis – separate planning for expressways, arterial roads.
7. Mass transit facilities, parking facilities
8. Designs – geometric design, parking facilities, intersections, terminals,
lightings.
9. Traffic administration and management – engineering education and
enforcement.
10. Continual research of the total environment – primary concern at the
beginning was the ability to move people and goods rapidly and efficiently
 and little regard was given to the side effects of transportation on the
environment or to the depletion of natural resources.

Scope of Traffic engineering

1. Traffic characteristics
2. Traffic studies
3. Traffic operation
4. Planning
5. Geometric

Traffic characteristics includes physical, mental, psychological,

environmental. Physical characteristics of the road users may be permanent or
temporary. The permanent characteristics are the vision, hearing, strength and
the general reaction to traffic situation.

Traffic studies measures the quantity of the traffic flow. Traffic volume or
traffic flow describes the number of vehicles that pass across a given point along
the road during a specified unit time.

Planning involves a long-term development or future forecasting of land use

and transportation needs and road net-working of a specific location or region.

Objective:
1. Redesign existing transportation systems to accommodate more traffic
2. Consider developing systems to enable pedestrian movement.
3. Stimulate traffic in an intersection to make sure that traffic movement is
smooth.

Traffic surveys are traffic engineering studies carried out for collecting
traffic data. These are carried out to analyze the traffic characteristics and their
movements along the identified roads.
The different traffic engineering studies generally carried out:
1. Traffic volume studies
2. Speed spot studies
3. Speed and delay studies
4. Origin and Destination (O & D) studies
5. Parking studies
6. Accident studies
7. Traffic capacity studies
8. Traffic flow characteristics studies

Traffic volume studies: The intersection volume count consists of counting

the number of vehicles entering from each approach leg of the intersection at a
fixed-time -intervals of say 5,10,15 minutes. The traffic flow diagram showing the
total number of vehicles entering an intersection and the details of turning
movement.

Speed spot studies: One of the earliest methods for determining spot speed
of a vehicle is by finding the time taken to cover a short distance of say 15 or 30
m. The selected distance may be marked on the pavement surface and the time
taken (t sec) for a vehicle to traverse this distance may be measured either
manually using a timer from an elevated location or recoded automatically using
set of appropriate sensors.
Speed and delay studies. The speed and delay studies give the particulars
of running speeds or the fluctuations in speeds, the locations and duration delays
or stoppages and the overall travel speed between two desired locations along a
road. They also give the information such as the type of delay, location, causes,
duration and frequency of such delays
Origin and Destination studies: Origin and destination studies give
information on the actual location or zone of origin of travel of vehicles or individual
passenger trips and their destination, these studies provide details such as
direction of travel, selection of routes, trip length and the frequency of such trip.
The study area may cover the entire country or a selected region within the
country.
 Traffic Signals/lights

Traffic symbols/warnings

Road Markings

Project Planning

Traffic engineers are essential to the process of transportation planning at

many levels including major roadway corridor studies, focused signalized or
unsignalized intersection evaluations, and the assessment of impacts from new,
or redeveloped, private properties. Traffic evaluations performed at the planning
stage often involve obtaining an understanding of current traffic volumes, roadway
geometry, and historical crash data. The goals are often aimed at assessing both
roadway capacity and safety – now and into the future.

Terms like “Level of Service” are often used to rate roadway and
intersection capacities, and different jurisdictions have different ways to rate
various network elements in terms of safety. Some use the term “High Crash
Locations” to represent intersections and roadway links that exhibit unusually high
crash statistics.

Some of the traffic engineering recommendations that resulted from this

study included upgrades to existing traffic signalization, and improvements to
sidewalks and bike lanes. The City embraced these ideas and have included them
in their future Capital Improvement Program.

Another example of traffic engineering as it relates to project planning can

be found in the development community. Private sector developers are often
required to provide communities with Traffic Impact Studies (TIS’s) which are
prepared by traffic engineers. The objective of these TIS’s is to assess the
potential impacts of a new or redeveloped project on its surrounding roadway
network and to determine how these impacts can be mitigated as part of the
project. TIS’s can be as small as those appropriate for a small residential
subdivision, or as expansive as those needed for major mixed-use development.

Roadway and Intersection Design

Traffic engineers often play a key role in the design of roadways and
intersections, especially in urban settings. The “Complete Streets” movement that
is dominating urban environments these days demands that traffic engineers not
only pay attention to the safe and orderly movement of private vehicles, but also
other modes, such as transit vehicles, bicycles, and pedestrians. Our city streets
are multi-modal and our street and intersection designs need to accommodate all
of these needs equally.

From a roadway perspective, traffic engineers find themselves needing to

be creative when it comes to dealing with the issue of “congestion”. The days of
building more lanes are gone, and now the challenge is to squeeze more capacity
out of the pavement that already exists

Traffic signals are another design element that traffic engineers are
typically responsible for in an urban environment. These installations have gotten
considerably more complicated in recent years, as more and more communities
are seeking “Smart City Solutions”, which often mean adaptive controlled signal
systems
Construction

Traffic engineering is not limited to working in an office on planning and

design projects but can involve going into the field during construction. While
being an electrical engineer is not a pre-requisite, field staff should be International
Municipal Signal Association (IMSA) certified to open and work in the traffic signal
cabinet environment safely. In addition, having a strong background in computers
is essential, because today’s traffic controllers, regardless of the brand, are all
sophisticated computers. Telecommunications is also an area of growing
prominence in the traffic engineering field as central operations and management
is becoming the new norm.

Operations

Today’s traffic signal systems are often centrally controlled with complex
management software that collects and reports data 24/7 in addition to issuing
diagnostic notifications to administrators when issues arise. Traffic Operations
Engineers are the ones post-processing and determining what to do with this data
on an on-going basis. Signal systems are never “set it and forget it” configurations.
Traffic volumes and patterns often vary by season and can even change daily. As
such, signal system optimization requires active rather than passive management.
This is another role traffic engineer play. It is a bridge between the Traffic Signal
Maintenance Technician and the traditional traffic engineer involved in planning
and design.

Research

These are exciting times to be a Traffic Engineer. Not only is this field
changing daily due to technological advances in equipment and system
management as we now know it, but the transportation industry as a whole is on
the verge of a major transformation to Electric Vehicles (EV’s), and Connected
and Autonomous Vehicles (CV’s and AV’s). With this revolution comes many
opportunities to innovate and modify our signal and communication infrastructure
to improve transportation efficiency, safety, and the environment.

Structures which are integral parts of a highway

1. Pipe culverts.
2. Concrete box culverts.
3. Guard rail and parapet.
4. Curbs.
5. Gutters.
6. Curb structures.
7. Sidewalks.
8. Drainage inlet and outlet structures of numerous types.
9. Manholes.
10. Rip-rap and other devices used for bank protection.
11. Fences and right of way
12. Other survey markers

Pipe Culvert (RCPC) is a structure that allows water to flow under a road,
railroad, trail, or similar obstruction from one side to the other. Typically embedded
so as to be surrounded by soil, a culvert may be made from a pipe, reinforced
concrete or other material.
 Concrete Box Culverts are in rectangular shape and generally
constructed by concrete. Reinforcement is also provided in its construction. Box
culverts are suitable for applications such as underpass, tunnels, bridges, stream
spillways. These are used to dispose rain water or stream passage.

Guardrail is a structure constructed along a highway to form a safety

barrier to help protect a motorist who has drifted off the road.

Images of Guardrails
 Curb is the edge of a highway where a raised sidewalk or road median
reservation meets a street or the boundary between the pavement and the
shoulder. Curbs are usually constructed in urban roads

.
 A street gutter is a depression that runs parallel to a road and is
designed to collect rainwater that flows along the street diverting it into a storm
drain.

Catch Basin

A catch basin is an engineered drainage structure with the sole function of

collecting rainwater and snowmelt from streets and parking lots and transporting
it to local waterways through a system of underground piping, culverts, and / or
drainage ditches.

Catch basins are designed to retain matter that would not readily pass
through the sewer.
 Parapet is a dwarf wall or heavy railing around the edge of a roof, balcony
a stairway or a highway designed to prevent those behind it from falling over or to
shelter them from outside force.

Images of Parapets

Manhole is a n opening in a road or pavement covered by a metal plate

that can be removed when workers climb down through it if they want to examine
or clean the drains.
 A Riprap, shot rock, rock armor or rubble is a human-placed rock or
other material used to armor or protect shorelines, bridge abutments, pilings and
other roadside slopes against scour, waves or erosion.

A Gabion is a cage, cylinder or a box filled with rocks, concrete or

sometimes sand and soil for use in civil engineering road building, military
applications and landscaping for erosion control
Learning Activity:
Answer the following questions:

1. What is the scope of highway engineering?

2. What is the scope of traffic engineering?
3. Why is it important to properly manage highway and traffic
operation?

Mastery Test:

Discuss/Identify the following highway structures, its importance and

function.

1. Curb
2. Gutter
3. Catch basin
4. Manhole
5. Guardrail
6. Gabion
7. Parapet
8. Reinforced Concrete Pipe Culverts
9. Riprap
10. Traffic Operation
 UNIT 2 Highway and its Development

Pretest:

1. Define what is a highway?

2. State its importance and contribution to mankind.

Lesson 1: History and development of Highways in the

Philippines

Learning Outcomes:

 Know the brief history and development of roads.

 Know the history and development of highways in the Philippines

Modern road networks make our lives easier as we travel across lands and
borders. With roads today, transport of goods and equipment has been easier.
People can travel to different lands with ease and comfort with short span of time.

Brief history of Roads and its Development

Early roads with hard surface were found in the land of Mesopotamia.
These roads were said to be constructed as early as 3,500 B. C. Another stone-
surface was also found in the Mediterranean island of Crete, similarly constructed
as those in the western hemisphere by the Mayans, Aztecs and the Incas of
Central South Africa.

The early road systems were constructed primarily for two purposes:
1. For the movement of armies in their conquest and in their defense against
any form of invasion.
2. For transport of goods/foods and trade of goods between neighboring
towns and cities.

It was the Romans who discovered cement which allowed them to expand
their vast empire through extensive road networks emanating from many
directions from the capital city of Rome. Many of the roads built by the romans still
exist today.
Early Roman roads were laid in three courses namely:

1. Layer of small crushed stones

2. Over-layered with small stones mixed with mortar and firmly compacted
3. Massive stone blocks properly set and bedded with cement mortar.

An example of Roman Road found in Portugal

During the 17th century under the reign of Napoleon the Great, France
made a great leap on road buildings. Jerome Tresaguet (1716-1796) the famous
French Engineer introduced new methods of construction and maintenance of
stone roads in 1764. He improved the crown, the drainage and the grade of the
road, including the stone foundation by reducing the depth of broken stones to 25
centimeters. Tresaguet made it possible for Napoleon to build the massive
highways of France. He was accredited as the Father of modern road building.

Pierre-Marie-Jérôme
Trésaguet
Father of Modern Road Building
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 Thirty years later a Scottish engineer, Thomas Telford (1757-1834),
president and founder of the Institute of Civil Engineer, improved the
construction methods of Tresaguet. The road foundation of Telford was made of
3 inches thick stones, 5 inches breadth and 7 inches of height. He flattened the
sub-grade using smaller stones driven on top voids.

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England followed the highway development started by France. The

Macadam road concept named after John Louden Mac Adam (1955-1836),
another famous Scottish Engineer road builder and contemporary of Telford, was
developed and widely accepted.

It is amazing to know that through the course of time, modern engineering

technology was able to transcend and made human activities easier.

The early Saxon Laws imposed duties for the people to perform:
1. To repair roads and bridges;
2. To repair the garrisons and castles;
3. To aid repel invasions.

After the Norman’s conquest of England, a decree was passed that:

1. The highway of the king is considered sacred, the landowners should not
exceed their boundaries of the kings’ lands.
2. Property owners adjacent to the roads were required to drain the road,
refrain from planting shrubs or hedges and maintain the trimming or
cutting the roadside vegetation for the convenience of the road users.

Brief History of National Roads in the Philippines

In the early days of 1900, transportation in the Philippines depended largely

on trails, railroads, earth roads, partially graveled roads and waterways. Highway
in the Philippines during this period seems only a dream to Filipinos. It was during
the American period that the government initiated the development of roadways
in the Philippines to connect towns, cities and provinces. The popular macadam
road was introduced and widely accepted because of the abundance of supply of
stones and gravel and minimal cost of construction.

The Department of Public Works and Highway has been the infrastructure
arm of the Philippines. It was after the Second World War when Japan lost the war
in Asia, that the reconstruction and rehabilitation of roads and bridges continued
and intensified through the reparation of the Japanese government. The U.S.
government also helped financed the rehabilitation in the form of grants and aids
to the Philippine government.

Fifty years later, major highways and expressways were constructed

through financial assistance and loans from foreign banks. Parallel with
industrialization of the government, came the vehicles of various types and sizes
which flooded the roadways.

The year 1960 towards the early part of 1980 was considered the
automobile age. Cars were no longer considered a luxury but rather a necessity
in transporting people and goods. Bringing farmers’ produce to the market site
was a necessity for survival. Road constructions became a priority of the
government under the slogan, “This Nation is on Wheels”.

Major highways and thoroughfares were constructed in Manila being the

nation’s capital. But alongside with these road developments, roadways were also
constructed in the key cities in the whole country.

Major roadways today may not look as posh in the early days of their
construction because majority of these structures have undergone a series of
repairs and rehabilitation due to its damage after the Second World War. Some
roads were widened to accommodate the increasing volume of vehicles.

Development and maintenance of roads and highways is a continuing

process together with the advancement in technology. The government needs to
be abreast with the demands of changing times. Engineers are conscious of the
need for roadways to be safe, useful and attractive. Advance knowledge in the
field of soils highway materials and designs are considered and adopted for a safe,
reliable and aesthetic roadway system.

Images of Old Roads and Highways in Greater Manila Area

Ayala Avenue in 1950s

This is a main road at the heart of the country’s business district The
intersection of Paseo de Roxas to Makati Avenue used to be a runway of the
Nielson Airport (which is now Blackbird, the restaurant), one of the first airports
built in Luzon. Unfortunately, the airport was destroyed during the Japanese
occupation. It only resumed operations after World War II in 1947. The runways
were converted into a road in 1949.

EDSA in 1950s
Source of Images: https://www.spot.ph/newsfeatures/the-latest-news-
features/66591/photos-10-metro-manila-roads-then-and-now-a125-20160608

EDSA

`
 First, it was called Avenida 19 de Junio. Then it was called Highway 54. In
1959, it was officially named EDSA, short for Epifanio de los Santos Avenue as
per Republic Act 2140. Epifanio de los Santos was a Rizaleño, jurist, historian,
and academic genius. While EDSA has gotten a bad reputation for heavy traffic,
it is synonymous to the historic People Power Revolution.

Padre Burgos Avenue

Padre Burgos Avenue, named after martyred priest Jose Burgos, is a 14-
lane thoroughfare in Manila. It provides access to other major roads such as Taft
Avenue, Rizal Avenue, Roxas Boulevard, and Quezon Boulevard. Manila City Hall
can also be accessed using this road, as well as Rizal Park and Intramuros.

Calle Escolta

One of the oldest streets in the country, this is the road that government
officials used on their way to Intramuros, as early as 1760. High-ranking officials
were usually escorted, thus its name “Escolta” from the Spanish word which
means “to escort.”
 Aurora Boulevard

Formerly called Calle Quezon, Aurora Boulevard was built in 1900 from Katipunan
Avenue to EDSA. In 1910, it was extended to Infanta, Quezon, and the extension was
called the Marikina Infanta Highway. In 1963, it was further extended to Araneta Avenue
and the highway was renamed Aurora Boulevard, in honor of Aurora Quezon, wife of
President Manuel Quezon.
Photos from Lahat 1900s (Avenida Rizal, Ayala Avenue, EDSA, Padre Burgos, Quezon
Boulevard, Taft Avenue); Lou Gopal (Calle Escolta, Roxas Boulevard); Batang UP
Campus (University Avenue); by Toby Roca (Calle Escolta); and Erika Fille (University
Avenue)

Learning Activity 1:
Write a narrative about the development of highways in the Philippines.

Learning Activity 2: Fill in the Blanks

Direction: write the correct answer on the blanks provided before the number.
__________ 1. Known as the Godfather of Civil Engineering.
__________ 2. Known as the Father of Modern Road Building
__________ 3. The strip of land that connects, provinces, cities, municipalities
for the purpose of transporting people and goods.
__________ 4. The land where the first hard surfaced roads were built as early
as 3,500 B.C.
__________ 5. The period when the Philippines government initiated the
development of roadways.
__________ 6. The early form of roads that became popular because of its low
cost and was named after John Louden Mac Adam.
__________ 7. The government agency in the Philippines that takes care of
infrastructure.
__________ 8. The country that paid majority of the road constructions and
rehabilitation in the Philippines as reparation after losing the
Second World War in the part of Asia.
__________ 9. The present name of a popular highway in the Greater Manila
Area which was named after the wife of the late President
Manuel L. Quezon.
__________10. The inclusive years which was known as the Automobile Age
because cars became a necessity to transport goods from the
farm to the market.
 Lesson 2: Highway Planning and Programming

Learning Outcomes

 Learn the importance of community involvement in highway planning

and programming
 Identify highway locations, plans and specifications through surveys and
mappings.

Highway programming involves a process of selecting and scheduling

improvement projects based on the relative importance and urgency of the work.
A key factor of the process is matching of needed project with available funds to
accomplish the highway improvement objectives during a given period. System
and Highway improvement objectives can be generally grouped into four major
categories: safety, service, condition, energy and environment.

Reduction of potential accident is a primary concern in highway design and

maintenance. The function of a highway system is to provide service to the public,
therefore improvement of the level of service is an important objective.
Consideration must be given to protect the capital investment already made in
highway facilities, so the preservation of the physical condition of highways
become another important objective. The last major objective of highway activity
is associated with energy conservation and the reduction of environmental
pollution and hazard. Any improvement and maintenance activity should be linked
with these objectives through their impact on those physical elements that
contribute to safety, service, condition, and energy and environmental aspects.
Such that, a reconstruction or rehabilitation of a highway would enhance the
condition of a highway system by improving the present safety, serviceability and
condition rating of the structure as well as its energy efficiency and environmental
conservation aspect. Although some improvements have different purpose,
generally these should lead to the safety of the general public.

There are three inseparable sets of inputs involved in highway

programming:
1. Economic
2. Financial
3. Political and Administration

Economic concerns with the availability of resources and spending the

allocated budget for the project. Financial concerns with who pays and who
spends how much and where. Political and Administration involves decision
making irrespective of political color and administration.

In highway programming, projects are prioritized based on the most

economically viable and would fit the financial capability and political criteria. Any
project that failed in any of these criteria are abandoned or modified for a substitute
or replaced by an alternative but shall pass strict test.
Highway Programming Approaches

1. Financial resources are either short or long-range implementation by

the agencies functions like construction, operations and maintenance.
2. Recognition of the legislative and administrative desire and constraint.
3. Tentative priorities based on economic analysis, critical situations,
present and future expected level of traffic and claims based on
political subdivisions
4. Providing continuity of route system and coordination with other
transportation mode.
5. Selection of project based on availability of labor and materials including
climatic conditions.
6. Scheduling the project implementation in coordination with other
agencies, acquiring right of way and making final plan and
specifications.
7. Budgetary reserve to cover emergencies like floods and other natural
disasters.

Direct Effects of Highway Construction and its Use

A. Quantifiable Market Value

1. Cost of highway as to:
a. Planning cost
b. Right of way appropriations
c. Construction cost
d. Maintenance cost
e. Operating cost

2. Cost benefit to highway users

a. Vehicle operating costs (including congestion cost) net
income or decrease in cost of vehicle operation per year
b. Travel savings time (commercial). Net increase or decrease
in travel time multiplied by the peso value of commercial time
c. Motorist’s safety (economic cost accident). Net change in
expected number of accidents times the average cost per
accident per year.

B. Non-quantifiable Non-market Value

1. Cost benefit to highway user
a. Motorist safety – accident cost of pain suffering and
deprivation
b. Comfort and conversion – discomfort, inconvenience and
strain of driving
c. Aesthetic from driving viewpoint – benefit of pleasing views
and scenery from the road

C. Quantifiable Non-Market Value

1. Cost benefits to highway users – traveling savings time (non-
commercial). Minutes save per vehicle trip.
 Before any government road comes to reality, it has to undergo a careful
study with several line agencies involved in the project. All proposals are
scrutinized as to its necessity, economy and functionality.

Community involvement

In a democratic government like the Philippines, its citizens’ voice and

welfare are always the top priority, therefore the public has the right to hear and
be heard, much more to participate in any public hearing where planning and
decision making is concerned in the face of any major decision.

It is a traditional practice to call a public hearing after all major decisions

were made and approved. A public hearing is a gathering of specific cluster of
residents who are concerned and affected when a particular project is to be
implemented. This is an information forum for the public to know what the
administration wants for them rather than what the people wants from them. The
public should be involved from the start of planning to give them a chance to
participate in the deliberation of the project. Citizens who become supportive
through community involvement are likely to spread positive views. This would
help the government improve the efficiency, legitimacy, transparency of their
decision or formulate effective solutions incase unforeseen problems arise. This
also increases acceptance of decisions and community commitment to outcomes
and minimize community resistance to change.

The purpose of the public hearing is to:

1. Solicit the cooperation and support of public officials, non-government
organization, influential persons, and conservative group of the locality.
2. Create a special staff to serve as the focal person to carry out the function.
3. Community leadership opportunity to participate continuously in the
planning stage
4. Organized and develop skilled persons to conduct group meetings,
workshops, and other related activities.

Highway Economy

A country richly dependent on income through taxes in their infrastructure

developments will not feel the impact of the need to avail of loans or grants from
foreign financing institutions. On the other hand, if the country will avail of loans or
grants from financing institution such as the World Bank, they insist that projects
to which they make loans or grants, be justified primarily on the economic basis.

According to W. Gillespe, a professor of Civil Engineering at the Union

College, “A minimum of expenses is of course, highly desirable; but the road which
is truly the cheapest is not the one which has cost the least money, but the one
which makes the most profitable returns in proportion to the amount expended
upon it.”

There are many designs and administrative decisions that need to be

considered but the cheapest alternative in the long run should be selected. The
result from an economic study that is reasonably interpreted must prevail.
The objective of expenditures for highway and public transportations are as
follows:
1. To augment the country’s level of economy.
2. To provide easy access to working place.
3. To facilitate public services; police, fire protection, etc.
4. To facilitate medical care, schooling and delivery of related basic
services.
5. To give landowner benefits to transportation and increase property
assessment.
6. Benefit to motor vehicle users through lower cost of operations and
maintenance.
7. Benefit in time saving.
8. Less road accident.
9. To give maximum comfort and ease of travel.

Traditionally, the country’s expenditures for highway and public transport

facilities are anchored on the principle of “Pay as you go”, which means that road
appropriations are largely dependent on revenue collections. Appropriation and
expenditures of collected taxes being the people’s contribution to the government
must be allocated proportionally to the different provinces, cities and municipalities
in terms of infrastructure projects. Progress of the country would be very slow and
the infrastructure it would accomplish if revenue collection is not efficient. Hence,
the government would resort to borrowing from foreign banks to finance
infrastructure projects to boost the economy.

Highway Location, plans and specifications

In the design of a highway, it is important to have a plan to follow. Plans

and specifications are set of documents of instructions and conditions under which
highways and bridges are built. A bridge forms an integral part of a highway. The
plans contain engineering drawings of the project while specifications contain the
instructions and conditions of the project. These plans and specifications are part
of the contract between the highway agency and the contractor which are
classified as legal documents.

The complete detailed plans of the road which are incorporated in the
geometric designs are:
1. Traffic
2. Drainage
3. Erosion control
4. Roadside development
5. Structure
6. Soils
7. Pavement

Presentation of a Road Plan

1. The upper sheet is allocated for the plan, top view showing the
horizontal alignment, right of way takings, drainage arrangement and
other features.
2. The lower half is allocated to the profile where the original elevation of
the ground surface is plotted. The roadway centerline and the vertical
alignment or grade line for the road is indicated.
 3. The vertical scale of the profile is usually exaggeratedly enlarged from
five to ten times for precise detail.
4. The profile and other details of the drainage, channels or connecting
roads including ramps are also presented.
5. The estimated earthwork quantities for every 50 meters station or other
intervals are indicated on the bottom of each sheet along with the
estimated overhead.
6. The roadway cross sections for every situation in the whole project
stretch are indicated on another sheet of the plan.
7. Another set of drawings showing all structures and roadway
appurtenances are included.
8. The standard size of the drawing sheet is 55 cm x 90 cm.

Structures which are integral parts of a highway:

1. Pipe culverts.
2. Concrete box culverts.
3. Guard rail and parapet.
4. Curbs.
1. Gutters.
2. Curb structures.
3. Sidewalks
4. Drainage inlet and outlet structures of numerous types.
5. Manholes.
6. Rip-rap and other devices used for bank protection.
7. Fences and right of way
8. Other survey markers

The Specifications

A specification is a detailed precise or explicit written or printed description

or presentation of a plan or proposal of construction works. This would serve as a
guide of what should be the quality and quantity of the materials or mode of
construction and dimensions not shown on the drawing.

Writing a specification is generally different and a delicate work which

requires knowledge of the law of contracts as well as highway practices and
experiences. Specifications should be simple, detailed and clearly worded
otherwise vagueness may create disputes and misunderstanding. Specification
which is poorly written and loosely worded may result in the use of substandard
materials and poor workmanship. An unclear specification involves extra cost to
the owner or the contractor and sometimes results in court litigation.

Requirements of a good specification:

1. Should be clear.
2. Should be brief.
3. Should be definite.
4. Should be determinate.
5. Should be fair.
6. Should not be ambiguous.
7. Should not be necessarily severe.
Highway specification is divided into two categories:

1. Standard Specifications. This applies to projects implemented by

administration which treat the subject that repeatedly occurs in the agency
work.
2. Special provisions cover peculiar item of the project in question that include
additional modification to standard specifications. This includes copies of
the documents required in securing competitive bids and contracts.

Specification is also subdivided into two:

a. The general clause that deals with the bidding procedures and award
execution and control of work and other legal matters.
b. Specifying detail regarding the materials, manner of work execution and
who pay quantities are to be measured.

Learning Activity:

Answer the following questions:

1. What is a specification?
2. Contrast specifications from plans.
3. What are the requirements of a good specification?
 Lesson 3: Classification of Roads

Learning Outcomes
 Classify roads according to:
 Location and function
 Importance
 Traffic
 Tonnage

 Identify different road patterns

 Rectangular or block
 Radial or star and block
 Radial or star and circular pattern
 Radial or star and grid
 Hexagonal pattern
 Minimum travel pattern

Classification of roads according to location and function

1. National highway
2. State highway
3. District roads
4. Rural road or village road

National highways are the main roads that connect all major cities to the
capital of the country. They run throughout the length and breadth of the country.
A minimum two-lane road is provided for national highways.
 State highways are the second main roads that connect significant parts
of the state within it. State highways ultimately connect to the national highway.
 District roads are provided within the cities and connect markets and
production places to state and national highways. Two types of district roads are
major and minor district roads.

Rural road or village road connect the nearby villages. They lead to a
nearby town or district roads. Usually low-quality roads are provided as village
roads because of low traffic.

Classification of roads according to importance

Table of Asian highway Classification (as to importance)

Classification Description Pavement Type

Primary Access-controlled motorway Asphalt or cement concrete
Class I 4 or more lanes highway Asphalt or cement concrete
Class II 2 lanes Asphalt or cement concrete
Class III 2 lanes (narrow) Double bituminous treatment
 Primary class in the new classification is the access-controlled motorway.
This shall be used exclusively by automobiles. Access to motorway shall be done
at grade-separated interchanges only. Motorcycles, bicycles pedestrians shall not
be allowed to enter motorway in order to ensure traffic safety and the high running
speed of automobiles except when domestic legislation and regulation allow. At-
grade separation shall not be designed on motorway and carriageway shall be
divided by median strips.

Class I: Motorists expect to travel at high speeds. Major intercity routes,

primary connectors of major traffic generators, daily commuter routes.
 Class II access routes to class I facilities, scenic or recreational routes
Or passing through rugged terrain usually serve relatively short trips.

Class III serve moderately developed areas. Often have reduced speed
limits reflecting higher activity level.

Table of Design Speed, Highway Classification and Terrain Classification

Primary Class I (kph) Class II (kph) Class III

Terrain (kph) (kph)

Level (L) 120 100 80 60

Rolling (R) 100 80 60 50

Mountain (M) 80 60 50 40

Steep (S) 60 60 40 30
According to traffic volume

1. Light traffic roads – roads carrying 400 vehicles daily on the average
2. Medium traffic roads – roads carrying 400 to 1000 vehicles daily
3. High traffic roads – roads carrying more than 1000 vehicles per day.

According to traffic type

1. Pedestrian ways – this way is exclusively built for pedestrians therefore no

vehicles are permitted.
2. Cycle tracks or bicycle tracks are provided on the side of the pavement for
cyclist so they can travel safely.
3. Motorways or expressways – cars which can move with high speed
accelerations are permitted in this way. Motorways make travel quick and
provides comfort for high speed vehicles.

According to tonnage

Type of Roads Vehicle per day (m3)

Very heavy traffic roads Above 1524
Heavy traffic roads 1027 – 1524
Medium traffic roads 508 – 1017
Light traffic roads Below 508

Different Road Patterns

Rectangular or Block/grid pattern is a plan where the streets and roads

are in the form of grids or blocks running perpendicular into each other. Usually
the main road is wide which passes through the center of the area and other roads
connecting to it are narrow.
 Radial or Star and Block I a combination of star and block pattern. The
entire area is divided into a radial network of roads radiating from the center
outwardly with block pattern network of roads in between ra radial main street.

Radial or star and circular pattern is a road system wherein the main
radial roads radiating from central business area are connected together with
concentric roads. In these areas, boundary by adjacent radial roads and
corresponding circular roads and the built-up area is planned with a curved block
system.
 Radial and grid pattern: The radial and the circular pattern is the road
pattern in which the main roads originate from a central point and connected
together by narrow roads that radiate outward. Advantages of Radial and
grid pattern: This road protects the movement of vehicles with high ratios of 3-
way intersections.

Hexagonal Pattern: In this pattern, the entire area is provided with a

network of roads formatting hexagonal figures. At each corner of the hexagon
three roads meet the built-up area boundary by the sides of the hexagons is
further divided in suitable sizes.

Learning Activity: Discuss the following items:

Classification of highways according to:
1. Location
2. Importance
3. Traffic
4. Tonnage
5. Road Patterns
 Lesson 4: Planning Surveys, Highway Alignment

Learning Outcomes:

 Identify the objective or purpose of surveys, the steps and

types of surveys.
 Identify a highway design that is safe for road users
 Identity the controlling factors of highway alignment

The success of a survey starts with detailed and comprehensive planning.

The objective of a survey is to prepare a plan or map so that it may represent the
area on a horizontal plane. A plan or map is the horizontal projection of an area
and shows only horizontal distances and points. Vertical distances between the
points are shown by contour lines and some other methods.

Before a highway alignment is finalized in a highway project, the various

stages of engineering survey are to be carried out.

1. Map Survey
2. Reconnaissance Survey
3. Preliminary Survey
4. Location Survey
5. Engineering Survey for Highways
6. Topographic Surveys

1. Map Study

Various data in the form of maps, aerial photographs, charts or graphs are
collected. Maps show the various topographical features such as rivers, hills and
valleys. With the proper map study, it is possible to obtain the basic details to fix
the alignment of roads. Map study gives a rough guidance of the routes to be
further surveyed in the field.

2. Reconnaissance Survey
A field survey wherein the stretch of land between the terminal stations in
the field along the proposed alternative alignment marked on the map are
examined.
Objective of Reconnaissance Survey
a. To collect the details of obstruction along the route which are not available
in the map like valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills and
permanent structures
b. To collect information regarding the regarding the availability of local
construction material, water and labor.
c. To determine the approximate values of a gradient, length of gradients and
radius of curves of alternate alignments.
d. To locate the obligatory points along the alternative routes.
e. To determine the approximate estimate of the total cost of construction of
the road along each route.
f. To determine two or three best possible routes.

3. Preliminary Survey
Finding the details of the alternative alignments found suitable during the
reconnaissance is important.
The objective of preliminary survey:
a. To survey along the various alignments found after the reconnaissance and
to collect all necessary physical information and details of topography,
drainage, and soil characteristics.
b. To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of good
road alignment.
c. To estimate the cost of constructing the road including bridges and other
construction aspects along each alternative alignment of the road.
d. To finalize the best alignment from construction, maintenance and traffic
operation point of view.

4. Location Survey
The detailed examination of the field along the alignment finally
recommended during the preliminary survey is obtained.
The objective of preliminary survey:
a. The finalized alignment is located first on the field by establishing the
centerline.
b. The detailed survey should be carried out for collecting the information
necessary for the preparation of plans and construction details for the
highway project.
c. To determine the total cost of the road project.

5. Engineering Surveys for Highway

When the selection of the final alignment or final centerline is done, the next
part is to perform an engineering survey.
Three types of engineering survey:
a. Traffic Survey
b. Soil and material survey
c. Drainage Surveys
Traffic Survey
In the case of a highway project, detailed information of traffic is much
necessary in the road pavement design, fixing the number of traffic lanes,
geometric design of roads and other economical aspects.
Traffic surveys are started from simple traffic counts to detailed traffic
nature and transportation studies, like speed studies, traffic volume studies,
delays, travel time. These are essential to carry out road design and improvement
of existing road networks.
Soil and Material Surveys
This is an important survey since earthwork is a major portion of the road
cost. Detailed information on various classifications of soils is collected together
with the field and laboratory tests for the purpose of their suitability for
embankments.
Materials such as road aggregates, bitumen, tar cement concrete, and any
other material required for the construction of the road are checked. Hence
material survey is also carried out in which its suitability, durability, availability has
prime importance and varied laboratory test on-road materials are also being
carried out.
Drainage Surveys
Drainage surveys are required mainly for the purpose of design of cross
drainage structure and survey on drainage is quite useful in fixing the gradient or
grade line of the road. Information about high flood level (HFL), depth of water
table, rainfall intensity, and other matters are being collected. Proper drainage
surveys are helpful in the good design of the surface drainage system.
6. Topographic Surveys
Topographic surveys consist of determining the horizontal and vertical
locations of objects on the surface of the earth. This will show the nature or profile
of the ground which is the most essential part for proper road alignment.

Highway Alignment

Highway alignment or road alignment is the positioning of the centerline of

the highway or road. It is the direction through which the road will pass. Highway
alignment provides a proper guidance to pass the road though the alignment which
is most economical and free from conflict.

Two types of highway or road alignment:

1. Horizontal alignment (includes straight stretches, curves, etc.)
2. Vertical alignment (includes upward or downward gradients)

Improper road alignment results to the following:

a. Increase in the rate of accidents
b. Increase in construction and maintenance cost
c. Increase in the vehicle operating cost and also leads to the
discomfort of the user.
d. Decrease in the durability and strength of the road.
Basic Principles of Road Alignment

1. Alignment of the road should be as short as possible to give the economy

in the cost of construction.
2. The alignment should be as straight as much as possible which provides
higher speed to the traffic and lower cost of construction.
3. The road alignment must be easy for the construction, maintenance, and
traffic operation.
4. The alignment should cross the railway lines and other roads and bridges
at right angles.
5. It should cross the rivers, canals, or stream, etc. at a place where its width
is minimum.
6. The alignment should serve the maximum population by connecting
intermediate important towns and a group of villagers.
7. The road alignment should not pass through regions of natural beauty and
scenery
8. The alignment should be such that it crosses the minimum number of
bridges, crossing culverts and embankment places.
9. It must give a smooth curve and easy gradient.
10. It should be such that minimum earthworks in embankments or cutting are
done.
11. The alignment should give good sight distance.
12. It should be free from obstruction like ponds, lakes, wells, monumental
buildings and historical buildings and landmarks.
13. The alignment should run through such places where materials of road
construction and labor are easily available.
14. As much as possible, it should run on good soil having a good bearing
capacity to bear loads of traffic safely without any damage to the road.
15. The alignment should not pass through more costly and cultivated lands. It
must also avoid forests.

Factors Controlling Road Alignment

1. Class and Purpose

2. Obligatory Points
3. Type of Vehicular Traffic
4. Gradient
5. Horizontal Curve
6. Sight Distance
7. Obstruction
8. Economical Factor
9. Availability of Construction Materials

Class and Purpose

The alignment of the road is affected by class and purpose. National and
state or provincial highways between two stations must be aligned straight as
much as possible. But in the case of other types of roads, a deviation may be
allowed when necessary.
Obligatory Points
Obligatory points define the way through which road should be passed and
through which road should not be passed. The roads are usually built for the
development of the areas therefore, road alignments must necessarily pass
through important towns, group of villages and places of religious, social, political
and commercial importance but not through historical and cultural places.

Type of Vehicular Traffic

Road alignment must be straight as much as possible for fast-moving
traffic. In the case of low traffic, alignment may have sharp turns.

Gradient
Alignment of roads must be selected such that longitudinal slopes are not
steeper than the ruling gradient. to achieve this, alignment might need a deviation
from the straight line.

Horizontal Curve
For national and state or provincial highways, the radius of the horizontal
curve must not be less than 230 meters, otherwise the alignment must be
improved.

Sight Distance
The alignment of roads must be decided such that more and clear sight
distance is available for drivers of the vehicles.

Obstruction
Alignments must avoid obstructions such as, marshy lands, ponds, wells,
graveyards, historical monuments, landmarks, and religious sites.

Economical Factor
Straight alignment must be given priority because construction is
economical for straight road alignments.

Availability of Construction Materials

Construction materials should be easily available and abundant for lower
cost of road construction.

Precautions to take while selecting road alignment

1. Only alignments following the SESE rule should be selected.

SESE rule indicates S – short E – easy S – safe E – economical
2. As much as possible alignment should be free from problems like,
landslide, rockfall, conflicts, etc.
3. Several alternative alignments should be prepared and the best alignment
should be selected.
4. If a large amount of land acquisition has to be done, then it is better to go
with an alternative because it leads to more conflict and cost requirement.