Helpful Terms for Logic

Argument: (1) an inference, (2) input to a function, (3) a subject-term for a predicate. See
corresponding argument.

Attribute: A property of an object; also (at a different level) a monadic predicate symbolizing
such a property. See predicate logic; relation.

Axiom: The most basic and necessary self-evident(or assumed) truth upon which a logical or
mathematical system is built and which cannot be denied without destroying the consistency of
the system. An axiom is a fundamental statement that cannot be deduced from other statements
and is the primitive beginning point from which other statements can be inferred. Axioms are not
regarded as provable in the same sense as those statements deduced from them are provable.
Their proof is related to the extent to which they can be used to construct a coherent and
inclusive system.

Conclusion: The result of an argument or inference. The wff derived from or supported by
premises. See argument; inference; premise.

Conditional: See implication.

Conjunction: A truth-function that is true when both its arguments (called conjuncts) are true.
Also, the connective denoting this function; also the compound proposition built from this
connective. Notation: p • q; sometimes also pq or pq.

Conjunctive normal form (CNF): The form of a of truth-functional compound when it is

expressed as a series of conjuncts when each conjunct is either a simple proposition or the
disjunction of simple propositions and the negations of simple propositions. See disjunctive
normal form.

Connective: A symbol that functions to join two or more propositions into a compound
proposition. Sometimes applied to symbols (like “~” for negation) which apply only to one
proposition at a time. Sometimes applied to the function denoted by the symbol, rather than the
symbol itself.

 A truth-functional connective is a truth-function; its components are its arguments and

the truth-value of the compound it forms is its value. See truth function; truth-functional
compound proposition; truth-functional connective.

 Connectives that apply to only one proposition at a time are monadic; those that join two
propositions are dyadic; those that join three are triadic, and so on. Monadic connectives
are also called operators.

Constant: A symbol whose referent has been fixed. An abbreviation or name, as opposed to a
place-holder (a variable). See variable.
  Individual constant. A symbol standing for an individual object from the domain of a
system.

 Predicate constant. A symbol standing for an attribute or relation.

 Propositional constant. A symbol standing for a proposition.

Component: A proposition that is part of a compound proposition. A component may itself be

compound. For example, p is a component in p q, and p q is a component in (p q) r.

Composition (of a function): One of the simple function-building operations of recursive

function theory. Given the one-place functions f(x) and g(x), composition allows us to create
function h thus: h(x) = f (g(x)). More generally, if f is an m-place, f(x1...xm), and there is a series
of n-place functions g, g(x1...xn), then we can create the n-place function h by composition:
h(x1...xn) = f (g(x1...xn),..., gm(x1...xn)). Also called substitution. See recursive function theory.

Compound proposition: A proposition made up of two or more simple propositions

(components) joined by a connective. A compound proposition has just one truth-value for a
given interpretation. Also called “molecules” (by writers who call simple propositions “atoms”).

Constructive proof: A proof that actually produces an example of that which it proves to exist
(which might be a number, wff, function, proof, etc. with certain properties). See existence
proof.

Contingency: In truth-functional propositional logic, any proposition that is neither a tautology

nor a contradiction, hence any proposition that is sometimes true, sometimes false, depending on
the row of its truth table column or the interpretation. See contradiction; tautology.

Contradiction: (1) The conjunction of any proposition and its negation, (2) in truth-functional
propositional logic, the negation of any tautology, hence any proposition that is false in every
row of its truth table or in every interpretation. See contingency; tautology.

Deduction: An inference in which (when valid) the conclusion contains no information that was
not already present in the premises, or whose corresponding conditional is a tautology. See
corresponding conditional; induction; tautology; validity.

Derivation: A finite, non-empty sequence of wffs in which the last member is the wff derived,
and each of the others (the premises) is either an axiom, a member of a set of accepted premises,
or the result of applying a rule of inference to wffs preceding it in the sequence. See
corresponding argument; proof. Notation: Γ A (the wff A can be derived from the set of wffs Γ).

Difference of sets: The difference of set B from set A is the set of all members of A that are not
also members of B. Notation: A-B, or A\B. A-B =df {x: (x A) • (x B)}
Disjoint sets: Two sets are disjoint iff they share no members, i.e. iff their intersection is the null
set.

Disjunction: A truth function that is true when one or the other of its components (called
disjuncts) is true, and false otherwise. Also the connective denoting this function; also the
compound proposition built from this connective.

 Exclusive disjunction. One or the other of the disjuncts is true, but not both. Notation: no
standard symbol, but the concept is accurately captured thus: p q (negation of material
equivalence).

 Inclusive disjunction. One or the other or both of the disjuncts is true. Notation: p q.

Disjunctive normal form (DNF): The form of a of truth-functional compound when it is

expressed as a series of disjuncts when each disjunct is either a simple proposition or the
conjunction of simple propositions and the negations of simple propositions.

Equivalence: A truth function that returns truth when its two arguments have the same truth-
value, and false otherwise. Also the connective denoting this function; also the compound
proposition built from this connective. Syntactically: the two propositions imply one another.
Semantically: they have the same models. Also called a biconditional, or biconditional statement.

 Logical equivalence. A tautologous statement of material equivalence.

 Material equivalence. A truth function that is true when its two arguments have the same
truth-value (not necessarily the same meaning). Notation: p q, or p iff q.

Existence proof: A proof that something exists (e.g. a number, wff, proof, etc. with certain
properties) but that does not produce an example. See constructive proof.

Existential import: Quantified statements have existential import iff (in the standard
interpretation) they are taken to assert the existence of their subjects. Aristotle held that all
quantified propositions have existential import. The modern view, due to George Boole, is that
existentially quantified statements do and that universally quantified statements do not. Hence in
the modern view, (x) (Ax Bx) (“All A's are B's”) is non-committal on the existence of any A's; it
may be true even for an interpretation whose domain contains no objects to instantiate x, or none
that happen to be A's. By contrast, (x) (Ax • Bx) (“Some A's are B's”) asserts the existence of at
least one A, and it would be false for any interpretation whose domain contained no such values
for x. See predicate logic, inclusive; quantifier

Generalization: To add a quantifier to a wff so that it either binds previously free variables, or
binds new variables substituted for constants. See bound variables; free variables; instantiation;
quantifier.
  Existential generalization. To generalize using the existential quantifier. For example to
move from propositional functions like Px or propositions like Pa to ( x)Px; from “x is
purple” or “alabaster is purple” to “something is purple”. Valid without restriction.

 Universal generalization. To generalize using the universal quantifier. For example to

move from propositional functions like Px or propositions like Pa to (x)Px; from “x is
purple” or “alabaster is purple” to “everything is purple”. Valid only under several
restrictions.

Iff: Abbreviation of “if and only if”, which designates material equivalence. See equivalence,
material.

Implication: A statement of the form, “if A, then B,” when A and B stand for wffs or
propositions. The wff in the if-clause is called the antecedent (also the implicans and protasis).
The wff in the then-clause is called the consequent (also the implicate and apodosis). As a truth
function, see material implication, below. Also called a conditional, or a conditional statement.
See corresponding conditional.

 Logical implication. A tautologous statement of material implication (next).

 Material implication. A truth function that is false when its antecedent is true and its
consequent false, and true otherwise. Also the connective that denotes this function; also
the compound proposition built from this connective. This truth function is rarely what
implication or “if...then” means in English, but it captures the logical core of that usage
and is truth-functional. Notation: p q.

 Paradoxes of material implication. Two consequences of the formal definition of material

implication that violate informal intuitions about implication: (1) that a material
implication is true whenever its antecedent is false, and (2) that a material implication is
true whenever its consequent is true. These so-called paradoxes do not create
contradictions.

Induction: An inference in which the conclusion contains information that was not contained in
the premises. See deduction; mathematical induction.

Inference: A series of wffs or propositions in which some (called premises) support another
(called the conclusion). Also the act of concluding the conclusion from the premises. See
conclusion; deduction; derivation; induction; premise; proof.

Instantiation: In predicate logic, to remove a quantifier from a wff and either leave the
previously bound variables free or replace them with constants. See generalization; quantifier.
  Existential instantiation. Instantiation from the existential quantifier. For example, to
move from statements like ( x)Px to Px or Pa; from “something is purple” to “x is purple”
or “alabaster is purple”. Valid only under several restrictions.

 Universal instantiation. Instantiation from the existential quantifier. For example, to

move from statements like (x)Px to Px or Pa; from “everything is purple” to “x is purple”
or “alabaster is purple”. Valid without restriction.

Negation: A truth function that is true when its argument is false, and false when its argument is
true (in 2-valued logics). Also the operator or connective denoting this function; also the
proposition built from this operator. Notation: ~p, also ¬p, also, p with a bar on top. (By
convention an unadorned propositional symbol, p, is the affirmation of proposition p.)

Predicate: Intuitively, whatever is said of the subject of a sentence. A function from individuals
(or a sequence of individuals) to truth-values. See attribute; matrix; n-adic predicate; predicate
logic; prefix; propositional function; relation. Notation: in “Px”, P is the predicate.

 Argument of a predicate. Any of the individuals of which the predicate is asserted.

Notation: in “Pxyz”, x, y, and z are the arguments of predicate P. In first-order predicate
logic, only terms can be arguments; see term.

 Extension of a predicate. The set of all objects of which the predicate is true. Notation:
the extension of predicate P is {x : Px}. See Russell's paradox.

Predicate logic: The branch of logic dealing with propositions in which subject and predicate
are separately signified, reasoning whose validity depends on this level of articulation, and
systems containing such propositions and reasoning. Also called quantification theory. See
predicate; first-order theory.

 First-order predicate logic. Predicate logic in which predicates take only individuals as
arguments and quantifiers only bind individual variables.

 Higher-order predicate logic. Predicate logic in which predicates take other predicates as
arguments and quantifiers bind predicate variables. For example, second-order predicates
take first-order predicates as arguments. Order n predicates take order n-1 predicates as
arguments (n > 1). See Grelling's paradox.

 Inclusive predicate logic. Predicate logic that does not exclude interpretations with empty
domains. Standard predicate logic excludes empty domains and defines logical validity
accordingly, i.e. true for all interpretations with non-empty domains. Also called
inclusive quantification theory. See existential import; logical validity.

 Monadic predicate logic. Predicate logic in which predicates take only one argument; the
logic of attributes.
  Polyadic predicate logic. Predicate logic in which predicates take more than one
argument; the logic of n-adic predicates (n > 1); the logic of relations.

 Predicate logic with identity. A system of predicate logic with (x)(x=x) as an axiom, and
the following axiom schema, [(x=y) (A A')]c, when A' differs from A only in that y may
replace any free occurrence of x in A so long as y is free wherever it replaces x (y need
not replace every occurrence of x in A), and when Bc is an arbitrary closure of B. See
first-order theory with identity; identity.

 Pure predicate calculus. A system of predicate logic whose language contains no function
symbols or individual constants. As opposed to a number-theoretic predicate calculus
which contains these things.

Prefix: In predicate logic wffs in which all quantifiers are clustered at the left, the section of
quantifiers. See matrix; prenex normal form.

Premise: Also spelled “premiss”. A wff from which other wffs are derived or inferred. In an
argument, the propositions cited in support of the conclusion are the argument's premises. See
argument; conclusion; derivation; inference.

Proof: A finite, non-empty sequence of wffs in which the last member is the wff proved and
each of the others is either an axiom or the result of applying a rule of inference to wffs
preceding it in the sequence. In short, a derivation in which all premises are theorems. See
constructive proof; derivation; existence proof.

Proposition: (1) In truth-functional propositional logic, any statement. (2) In predicate logic, a
closed wff, as opposed to a propositional function or open wff. (3) In logic generally (for some),
the meaning of a sentence that is invariant through all the paraphrases and translations of the
sentence. See compound proposition; contingency; contradiction; simple proposition; tautology.

Propositional function: In predicate logic, a function from individuals to truth-values. A wff of

predicate logic with at least one free variable. An open wff. A propositional function becomes a
proposition when it is closed; it is closed either by generalization or instantiation, that is, either
by binding free variables or replacing them with constants. See closure of a wff; free variable;
function; generalization; instantiation; wff, open.

Quantifier: In predicate logic, a symbol telling us of how many objects (in the domain) the
predicate is asserted. The quantifier applies to, or binds, variables which stand as the arguments
of predicates. In first-order logic these variables must range over individuals; in higher-order
logics they may range over predicates. See bound variable; existential import; free variable;
generalization; instantiation; predicate logic.
  Existential quantifier. The quantifier asserting, “there are some” or “there is at least one”.
Notation: , also V. For example, the natural translation of ( x)Px is, “There is at least one
thing with property P.”

 Universal quantifier. The quantifier asserting, “for all” or “for all things”. Notation: (x).
For example, the natural translation of (x)Px is, “All things have property P.” The “all” in
the universal quantifier refers to all the objects in the domain of the interpretation, not to
all objects whatsoever. See universe of discourse.

 Vacuous quantifier. A quantifier that binds no variables, e.g. “(y)” in (x)(y)(Ax Bx).

Relation: A way in which two or more objects are connected, associated, or related, or (at a
different level) a polyadic predicate symbolizing such a relation. See attribute; predicate logic.

Rules of inference: Explicit rules for producing a theorem when given one or more other
theorems. Functions from sequences of theorems to theorems. In a formal system they should be
formal (that is, syntactical or typographical) in nature, and work without reference to the
meanings of the strings they manipulate. Also called rules of transformation, rules of production.
See for example modus ponens and modus tollens.

Russell's paradox: Let S be the set of all sets that are not members of themselves. Is S a
member of itself? If it is, then it is not; and if not, then it is. This contradiction infects set theory
when it is permissible to speak of “all sets” or set complements without qualification, or when a
set is defined loosely as any collection of any elements, or when every predicate (intension)
determines a set (extension). See complement.

Soundness: An argument or inference is sound iff its reasoning is valid and all its premises are
true. It is unsound otherwise, i.e. if either its reasoning is invalid, or at least one premise is false,
or both. See validity.

Stroke function: The dyadic truth function “not both”. One of only two dyadic truth functions
capable of expressing all truth functions by itself. Notation: p|q. Also called the Sheffer stroke,
and alternative denial. See dagger function.

Subset: A set all of whose members belong to a second set (a superset of the subset). Notation:
A B (A is a subset of B). See superset.

 Proper subset. A subset lacking at least one member of its superset. Set A is a proper
subset of set B iff all members of A are members of B, but at least one member of B is
not a member of A. Notation: A B.

Substitution: To replace one symbol with another or with a wff. In axiom schemata, to replace
metalanguage variables with object language wffs. In instantiation, to replace a variable with a
constant. In generalization, to replace a constant with a variable. Notation (for one of these): At/v
(the result of substituting term t for the free occurrences of variable v in wff A).

Tautology: A logically valid wff of truth-functional propositional logic. A compound

proposition that is true in every row of its truth table or in every interpretation. See contingency;
contradiction; logical validity; semantic tautology; syntactic tautology.

 Tautology schema (plural: schemata). A formula containing variables of the

metalanguage which becomes a tautology when the variables are instantiated to wffs of
the formal language.

Term: Grammatically, the type of expression that can serve as the argument of a predicate or
function. The subject of predication; the input of a function. As such (in first-order predicate
logic) either an individual constant, individual variable, or a function (with its own arguments)
defined for a domain and range of individuals. See constant; function; variable.

 Closed term. A term without variables.

 Open term. A term with at least one variable.

Theorem: A wff that is proved or provable. Axioms are special cases of theorems. Notation: A
(A is a theorem); or SA (A is a theorem in system S). See antitheorem; proof.

 Theorem schema (plural: schemata). A formula containing variables of the metalanguage

which becomes a theorem when the variables are instantiated to wffs of the formal
language.

Total function: A function whose value is defined for all possible arguments (from that
domain). See partial function.

Truth function: A total function from truth-values (or sequences of truth-values) to truth-values.
See conjunction; dagger function; disjunction; equivalence; function; implication; negation;
stroke function.

Truth-functional compound proposition: A compound proposition whose truth-value can be

determined solely on the basis of the truth-values of its components and the definitions of its
connectives.

Truth-functional connective: A connective that makes only truth-functional compounds. See

connective.

Truth-functional propositional logic: The branch of logic that deals with the truth-functional
connectives and the relations they permit among propositions. The logic of the relations between
or among propositions, as opposed to predicate logic which covers the structure within
propositions.
Truth-value: The state of being true or the state of being false.

 2-valued logics. Logics in which there are only two truth-values, namely, truth and
falsehood.

 Many-valued logics. Logics that recognize more than two truth-values. In 3-valued
logics, for example, the third truth-value is often “unknown” or “unprovable” or “neither
true nor false”. Also called n-valued logics.

Validity: (1) For wffs or propositions, see logical validity. (2) For arguments and inferences, see
semantic validity; soundness; syntactic validity.

Variable: A symbol whose referent varies or is unknown. A place-holder, as opposed to an

abbreviation or name (a constant). See bound variables; constant; free variables.

 Individual variable. A variable ranging over individual objects from the domain of a
system. Only individual variables and constants can serve as the arguments of functions
and first order predicates. See domain.

 Metalanguage variable. A variable in the metalanguage of some system S which ranges

over wffs of S.

 Predicate variable. A variable ranging over attributes and relations in higher order logic.

Wff: Acronym of “well-formed formula”, pronounced whiff. A string of symbols from the
alphabet of the formal language that conforms to the grammar of the formal language. See
decidable wff, formal language.

 Closed wff. In predicate logic, a wff with no free occurrences of any variable; either it
has constants in place of variables, or its variables are bound, or both. Also called a
sentence. See bound variables; free variables; closure of a wff.

 Open wff. In predicate logic, a wff with at least one free occurrence a variable. See free
variables; propositional function. Some logicians use the terms, 1-wff, 2-wff,...n-wff for
open wffs with 1 free variable, 2 free variables, ...n free variables. (Others call these 1-
formula, 2-formula,...n-formula.)

Modus ponens: A rule of inference by which we infer B when given A and A B.

Modus tollens: A rule of inference by which we infer ~A when given A B and ~B.

Liar paradox: “This very statement is false.” If it is true, then it is false; if it is false, then it is
true. Also called the Epimenides paradox.

Logical axiom: See axioms.

Logical validity: For a wff, to be true for every interpretation of the formal language; to have
every interpretation be a model. “Every interpretation” here is understood to mean all, but only,
those interpretations in which the connectives and/or quantifiers take their standard meanings. In
truth-functional propositional logic, logically valid wffs are also called tautologies. In standard
predicate logic, logical validity is limited to interpretions with non-empty domains. Logical
validity is also called logical truth. See k-validity; model; predicate logic; tautology; true for an
interpretation. Notation: A (A is a logically valid wff).