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COURSE CODE:
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
COURSE INTENDED
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
LEARNING MATERIAL FOR
Topic 2 (Midterm)
I. TITLE:
II. OBJECTIVES:
III. INTRODUCTION:
LECTURE NOTES COMPILATION
2nd Semester A.Y. 2022-2023
ETH101
ETHICS101
Ethics deals with principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of
the person, society, and in interaction with the environment and other shared
resources. (CMO 20 s2013).
Morality pertains to the standards of right and wrong that an individual originally
picks up from the community. The course also teaches students to make moral
decisions by using dominant moral frameworks and by applying a seven-step oral
reasoning model to analyze and solve moral dilemmas. The course is organized
according to the three main elements of the moral experience a) agent, including
context- cultural, communal, and environment; b) the act, and c) reason or
framework
1. Explain the influence of Filipino culture on the way students look at moral
experiences and solve moral dilemmas
2. Use ethical framework or principles to analyze moral experiences
3. Understand and internalize the principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the
level of the person, society, and in interaction with the environment and other shared
resources.
Moral Character; How is it Developed?
Stages of Moral Development
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
• understand that the 6 stages of moral development as the way an individual
reasons about a dilemma that determines positive moral development;
• give guidance to the moral characters of learners and help them to become the
best that they can be; aid in socialization process, prevent acting on unchecked
urges, instead considering what is right for society and the community as a
whole;
• Accept that rules are necessary for keeping society running smoothly and
believe it is their duty to obey them; make sure that over time the learning will
evolve to a desire to make the world a better and more just place for all people.
This lesson gives an overview that the main point of Kohlberg about moral
reasoning is that it changed as a person grew older. There are three levels of
moral reasoning and each includes two stages of moral development. This also
includes how people make decisions based on what actions will please others,
especially authority figures and other individuals with high status. People looks
to society for guidelines about right or wrong. It also makes us aware that people
also recognize that rules can be flexible, meaning that if they do not serve the
society’s best interest can be and should be changed.
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IV. CONTENT:

Moral Character [1]

An assessment of a particular person's enduring moral characteristics is known as moral character or character.
Character can refer to a wide range of qualities, such as the presence or absence of virtues like integrity, courage,
fortitude, honesty, and loyalty, as well as positive actions or habits.

Although on a cultural level, the set of moral behaviors to which a social group adheres can be said to unify and define it
culturally as distinct from others, moral character largely refers to the collection of attributes that set one individual apart
from another.

"A disposition to exhibit conduct in consistent patterns of functions across a range of settings" is the definition of moral
character. (Psychologist Lawrence Pervin)

What is moral character? [2]

The concepts of right and wrong behavior, as well as the goodness or imperfection of human character, are referred to as
moral. (Merriam-Webster, 2017).

The "distinctive mental and moral traits of an individual" are referred to as character. (Merriam-Webster, 2017).
But in philosophy, the term character usually denotes to the moral dimension of a person (Timpe 2007).

The "presence (or absence) of attributes such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty, and loyalty" is referred to as moral
character. (Merriam-Webster, 2017).

The Circular Relation of Acts and Character [3]

Acts that form character and moral character itself are inextricably linked in the process of moral growth.

Not all actions contribute to the development of moral character, but those that spring from moral characters
unquestionably have an impact on moral development.

Hence, it seems that there is a causal link between moral character and individual actions. While a person's moral
character is determined by their deeds, moral character also inspires deeds that either promote virtue or vice.

This goes to show that moral development should also be understood in the sense of human flourishing.

➢ Human flourishing is accomplished by the regular exercise of moral and intellectual virtues.

➢ In the framework of moral development, which also leads to self-realization and satisfaction, acting in
accordance with virtues is acting rationally.

➢ Moreover, according to thinkers like Aristotle, a human being's purpose is to carry out actions that display
the highest manifestations of his reasoning side, or virtues.

What are Virtues? [4]

The core of our character is comprised of our virtues, and when we place the practice of virtue at the center of our daily
activities, we live with intention.

Virtue refers to a person's high moral standards.

• Morally upright persons possess a character made up of virtues that are seen as positive.

• They exhibit traits like honesty, respect, bravery, forgiveness, and kindness.
They act morally, resist urges, desires, or instincts, and instead act in accordance with beliefs and
ideals.

• Some people may believe that virtues come naturally to us, but this is not true. For virtues to be more widespread
in life, they must be developed.

• With the habit of virtue, we take control of our own lives and steer them in the direction of greater fulfillment and
happiness.

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Why Practice Virtues? [4]

Virtues are universal and recognized by all cultures as basic qualities of well-being.

As we put our "character muscle" into practice and cultivate our virtues, we attract the things that may have been
missing from our lives, such as meaningful relationships and the accomplishment of our goals.

→ Discipline enables a person to achieve the goal of running a 25-mile race, creating better health.
→ Kindness towards someone who is having a bad day can make him or her smile and build rapport.
→ Creativity can result in an idea that changes how people relate to one another such as social media.
→ Trust in a relationship fosters dependability and intimacy, creating valuable, meaningful relationships.
→ Gratitude in a job loss can shift our focus from feeling low to how we can have a new, more fulfilling career.
→ Service to others can change lives, better neighborhoods, and create stronger nations.

Becoming More Virtuous People [4]

Because of the results as well as how other people react to us, we are aware that we are evolving into more moral beings.

Our close friends, relatives, coworkers, and neighbors will rely on and trust us.

They will turn to us for advice and assistance.

They will want to be with us because we motivate them to behave better.

People will remember us as people of extraordinary character who choose the right course of action and pursue excellence
in whatever we do. Can life be any better lived?

By engaging in virtues, we can reach our full potential and lead richer, more fulfilling lives—lives that are anything but
ordinary.

Virtuous Traits of Character [3]

→ Character virtues should be durable and stable; they are not merely the result of luck, but rather of education, practice,
and nurture.

❖ But we should also note that virtues are what people refer to as human excellence because they are the best
uses of reason, which is what makes people human.

❖ The Greek moralists thought that virtue completed or perfected human life in this way.

❖ However, according to Greek philosophers, it takes someone of good moral character to decide regularly and
consistently what actions are appropriate and reasonable in specific circumstances, as well as regularly and
consistently decide how and when to secure resources for oneself and others.

❖ Hence, Aristotle asserts that it is difficult to specify in laws which acts merit moral praise and blame and that these
issues call for the judgment of a virtuous person, that is, a person of high moral principles.

Philosophical Views on Moral Character [2]

What do the great ancient minds think about moral character?

A. Confucian Traditions (Eastern) [2]

The foundation of moral growth philosophy is found in prehistoric ideas.

➢ According to Confucian teachings, the "four beginnings" of the human psyche were responsible for moral
growth. (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017).

➢ These four points were thought of represent the seeds of the human personality, which would organically develop
into human activities.

➢ Be aware, however, that in Confucian view, individuality signified "an accomplished level of moral excellence,"
not, as in Western thinking, a given human condition. (Ammes, 1997; Klemme, WEB).

Thus, in this concept, every person is born with four beginnings.

• However, each of these do not yet capture the concept of self.

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• However, when the four beginnings are put together, it may then be perceived in Western understanding as the
“pre-self or “potential self” (Klemme, WEB).

The four beginnings in Confucian traditions:

1. The heart of compassion, which leads to Jen

2. The heart of righteousness, which leads to Yi
3. The heart of propriety, which leads to Li
4. The heart of wisdom, which leads to Zhi

Jen denotes compassion, empathy with others, and benevolence.

Yi refers to righteous behavior and the respect for one's obligations, i.e., regard for one's role as a protector of people and
nature.
Li relates with external conduct including manners, traditions, and rituals.

Zhi, which meaning wisdom, is a result of living a life that incorporates Jen, Yi, and Li.

B. Aristotle and Virtue Ethics [2]

One approach known as virtue ethics places less focus on rules, consequences, and specific behaviors.

▪ Instead, virtue ethics emphasize a person's character.

▪ Although action and result are important, virtue ethics does not concentrate on whether a particular action
is right or wrong or whether the results are positive or negative.

▪ It is more important to consider whether the person is acting in accordance with what a moral person
would do.

Virtue Ethics is largely identified with Aristotle.

o In ancient Western philosophy, Aristotle’s discussion on moral character, particularly virtue, is the most influential
view on the topic.

o Aristotle argued that each person has a built-in desire to be virtuous and that if a person is focused on being a
good person the right actions will follow effortlessly and you will do good things.

What does it mean to be a good person?

➢ Aristotle believed that humans have an essence. He called this essence proper functioning where everything
has a function and the thing that performs as intended is called good when it can fulfill this function.

➢ Thus, a scissor is a good scissor if it can cut. A car is good if it runs and takes you to your destination. A person
is also good if he or she fulfills what nature expects of him or her. Hence, a person needs to sleep, be healthy,
grow, and develop as nature intended.

➢ However, aside from its natural instincts, a person according to Aristotle is also a “rational animal” and a “social
animal”.

➢ Therefore, using reason to live and get along with other people is also the human person’s function. A ‘good’
person is one who fulfills all these functions.

So, what does it mean to be virtuous?

Virtue for the Greeks is equivalent to excellence.

▪ A man has a virtue as a flautist, for instance, if he plays the flute well, since playing the flute is the distinctive
activity of a flautist.

▪ A person of virtue is someone who performs the distinctive activity of being human well.

▪ The principle of being virtuous is called the “Doctrine of the Golden Mean”- that moral behavior is the one that
is in the middle of two extreme behaviors (or what he called vices).

▪ When he said “extreme behavior,” it meant the act was either excessive or deficient.

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▪ For example, in Aristotelian view eating is a human function as demanded by nature. When a person overeats
(gluttony), this behavior is excessive;

▪ while a person who diets too much (starvation) is deficient. Thus, the virtue when eating is temperance or to
always eat just the right amount to keep your body nourished and healthy.

▪ Temperance is the golden mean between gluttony and starvation. Aristotle understood virtue as a character
that can be developed, and that this can be developed by practicing the golden mean (the doctrine of the Mean).
In time, good behavior will come naturally.

It is important to note that Aristotle’s Doctrine of the Golden Mean does not claim that you always behave in
moderately; such as when you get angry, you should only ever be ‘moderately’ angry.

✓ In Aristotle’s philosophy, you should be as angry as the situation demands which can be very angry or slightly
irritated.

✓ He concluded that virtue is a choice of behaving the right way, at the right time, with the right people, and that
this choice is determined by rational principle and practical wisdom.

✓ The virtuous man wants to do what is good and does it because he/she derives pleasure from choosing and
doing what is moral.

But why do we have to be virtuous?

o The reason, according to virtue ethics is Eudaimonia. Generally, Eudaimonia can be translated as “happiness,”
“well-being” or the “good life” and that this is the goal of human life.

o Aristotle believed that to achieve eudaimonia you need to practice the virtues in your everyday activity all
through your life.

STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT [2]

How did we develop a sense of what is right or wrong?

Lawrence Kohlberg was a 20th century development psychologist and moral philosopher.

➢ Kohlberg’s research focused on the moral development of children particularly on how they develop a sense of
what is right or wrong, as well as justice. (When he was the director of Harvard’s Center for Moral Education)
➢ He observed that children move through what he believed as definite stages of moral development.

Kohlberg’s Theory [2]

Lawrence Kohlberg studied morality using a very interesting (if controversial) technique.

• In his research, Kohlberg would ask children and adults to try solve moral dilemmas in short stories and asked
the participants to think out loud so he could follow their reasonings.

• The reason for this was that Kohlberg was not interested with the specific answers to the dilemmas- he wanted to
know how the person got to his or her answer.

The story below is one of Kohlberg’s best- known stories concerns a man called Heinz:

A woman in Europe who had a unique form of tuberculosis was on the verge of death. The doctor thought there
was one medication that might help her. It was a type of radium that had just just been discovered by a pharmacist in the
same city. Although the medicine was expensive to produce, the druggist was charging ten times what it cost him to
produce the drug. He spent $200 for the radium and $2,000 on a tiny amount of the medication. Heinz, the sick woman's
husband, asked everyone he knew for a loan, but he was only able to scrape together approximately $1,000, or half of
what it cost. He informed the pharmacist that his wife was ill and urged him to reduce the price or accept payment from
him.

Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:

o Should Heinz have stolen the drug?

o Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
o What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?
o Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?

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His theory holds that moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical behavior, has identifiable developmental stages
and each become more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas as the person progresses from one stage to the next.

✓ Kohlberg asserted that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that the
process goes on throughout the individual’s lifetime.

✓ After looking at hundreds of interviews using several stories, Kohlberg outlined →

3 Broad Levels and 6 Specific Stages of Moral Development. [2]

Level I: Pre-conventional morality

Judgment at this level is solely focused on the self.

➢ This line of moral reasoning is common among children although some adults would also exhibit such behavior.
➢ The child, having no concept about society’s conventions on what is right or wrong, would base its judgment
mainly on the external consequences of its actions.

Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation

This is also called the ‘pre-moral stage’ where decisions and actions are determined by immediate physical consequence
and not the true moral value.

❖ The overall goal at this stage is to avoid punishment.

❖ For example, “I am going to study my lessons because mom will get mad at me if I do not pass this test.”

Stage 2: Reward Orientation

As children grow older, they begin to see that there is actually room for negotiation because other people have their own
goals to meet and wants that must be satisfied too.

• Children learn to behave in a manner based on the principle,” What’s in it for me”?
• For example, an older child might reason: If I get good grades mom and dad will buy me a new smart phone. So,
I am going to do my homework.”

Level II: Conventional Morality

This level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults.

➢ Conventional morality is to reason in a conventional (something that is generally accepted) manner. It is

accepting the rules and standards of one’s group.

➢ This means decisions and the morality of his/her actions are based on society’s views and expectations.
The focus on this level is the “significant others” or what is also called “Tyranny of the They (They say this…. They
say that…. They say I should….)

Stage 3: Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation

At this stage, the child tries to seek approval from other people by living up to their expectations.

❖ He/ She also now understands the concept of loyalty.

❖ Trust, and gratitude as well as become interested in motives and intentions behind a particular decision or action.
❖ For example, children understand and live by the Golden Rule.

Stage 4: Authority Orientation

By this time, individuals have reached adulthood and they usually consider society when making judgments.

• The focus at this stage is following the rules, maintaining law and order, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.
• For example, when someone violates the law, it is morally wrong; culpability is therefore a significant factor in this
stage because it separates what is bad from what is good.

Level III: Post conventional

This is also known as the ‘principled level’.

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➢ It is marked by a growing realization that people are unique and are an independent part of the society.

➢ Therefore, the individual’s own perspective is more significant over what the rest of the society thinks and that this
would sometimes lead to disobeying the law to follow personal principles.

At this level, a person does not see rules and laws as absolute or beyond question, but a changeable mechanism.

➢ Kohlberg asserted that post conventional individuals view rules and laws to be important in maintaining peace
and order but it only serves as a guide that needs to be weighed against personal principles and beliefs to
uphold one’s human rights.

Stage 5: Social contract orientation

This stage means that individual is aware that much of what is considered to be moral or good is mainly based on
personal beliefs as well as on the social group they belong to and that only a very few of the known fundamental values
are actually universal.

The person at this level understands that the world holds different opinions, rights, and values; thus, different views
should be mutually respected.

❖ Laws are also regarded as a matter a social contract with one’s fellow human beings in order to promote
universal values and that decisions are made for “the greater good for the number of people.
❖ The best example for this level is the Democratic form of government.

Stage 6: Ethical - Principle - Orientation

At this point, social contract takes a clear back seat and the person makes a personal commitment to uphold universal
principles of equal rights and respect.
• At this stage, an individual already has a principled conscience; and will follow universal, ethical principles
regardless of what the laws or the rules say.
• Judgment here is based on abstract reasoning such as being able to put oneself in other people’s shoes.

V. REFERENCES

1. definitions.net/definition/Moral%20character, Moral Character

2. Gallinero, W. B. et al 2018 Ethics. Mutya Publishing House Inc. Pateros Malabon City, emaul: www.mutyapublishinghouse.com
3. De Guzman, J.M. et al 2017 Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern Society. Mutya Publishing House Inc. Potrero, Malabon, email:
www.mutyapublishing.com.ph
4. https://www.virtues for life/what-are-virtues?

VI. ASSESSMENT TASK:

(Assignment/activity will be sent to students’ respective sections)

Rubrics

Poor 1 Fair 2 Good 3 Excellent 4

Focus on No attempt has been Some part of the work is Most part of the work is Entire work is related to
Assigned Topic made to relate the related to the assigned topic, related to the assigned the assigned topic and
work to the assigned but a reader does not learn topic. The work wanders allows the reader to
topic. much about the topic. off at one point, but the understand much more
reader can still learn about the topic.
something about the
topic.
20%
Reflection of Little or no explanation Does not go deeply into the Relates learning with Shows great depth of
Personal or reflection on reflection of learning, research and project, knowledge and
Learning learning, no or few generalizations and limited personal and general learning, reveals
details to support insight, uses some detail. reflections included, uses feelings and thoughts,
reflection. concrete languages. abstract ideas reflected
through use of specific
details.
20%
Mechanics Many grammatical A few grammatical spelling Almost no grammatical No grammatical
spelling or punctuation or punctuation errors. spelling or punctuation spelling or punctuation
errors. errors. errors.

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20%
Organization Ideas seem to be The work is a little hard to The work is pretty well The work is very well
randomly arranged. No follow. Paragraphs are organized. One idea may organized. One idea or
effort at paragraph unclear. The transitions are seem out of place. Clear scene follows another
organization. sometimes not clear. transitions are used. in a logical sequence
with clear transitions.
20%
Conclusion Incomplete and/or The conclusion does not The conclusion restates The conclusion is
unfocused. adequately restate the the learning. engaging and restates
learning. personal learning.
20%
Total: 100%

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