INTRODUCTION TO

MEDICAL PHYSICS
(BMB 34103)

Lecturer : SITI AFIFAH MOHSHIM

(STAM)

Lecture 2.3 : NUCLEAR REACTIONS

TOPIC 2

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 2

1
 TOPIC 2.3

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 3

INTRODUCTION
• In nuclear physics, a nuclear reaction is a
process ini which
hi h ttwo nuclei
l i or nuclear
l
particles collide to produce products
different from the initial particles.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 4

2
 INTRODUCTION

Figure : Nuclear Reaction

(Lithium-6 – Deuterium Reaction)
Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 5

INTRODUCTION
• In the symbolic figure shown to the right,
6Li and
dddeuterium
t i reactt tto fform th
the hi
highly
hl
excited intermediate nucleus Be which
8

then decays immediately into two alpha

particles.
• Protons are symbolically represented by
red spheres, and neutrons by blue
spheres.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 6

3
 INTRODUCTION
• In principle a reaction can involve more
th ttwo particles
than ti l colliding,
llidi but
b t because
b
the probability of three or more nuclei to
meet at the same time at the same place
is much less than for two nuclei, such an
event is exceptionally rare.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 7

INTRODUCTION
• While the transformation is spontaneous in
th case off radioactive
the di ti ddecay, it iis iinitiated
iti t d
by a particle in the case of a nuclear
reaction.
• If the particles collide and separate without
changing, the process is called an elastic
collision rather than a reaction.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 8

4
 2.3.1 Nuclear Fission
• Nuclear fission occurs when a heavy
nucleus,
l such
h as 235U,
U splits,
lit or fissions,
fi i
into two smaller nuclei.
• In such a reaction the total mass of the
products is less than the original mass of
the heavy nucleus.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 9

2.3.1 Nuclear Fission

• The fission of 235U by slow (low-energy)
neutrons can be represented by the
sequence of events :

• where 236U* is an intermediate state that

lasts only for about l0-I2 s before splitting
into nuclei X and Y called fission
fragments.
Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 10

5
 2.3.1 Nuclear Fission
• Many combinations of X and Y satisfy the
requirements of conservation of energy
and charge.
• In the fission of uranium, about 90 different
daughter nuclei can be formed.
• The process also results in the production
of several (typically two or three) neutrons
per fission event.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 11

2.3.1 Nuclear Fission

• A typical reaction of this type is :

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 12

6
 2.3.1 Nuclear Fission

A slowly moving neutron causes the uranium nucleus 235 92 U to

fission into barium 141
56 Ba
, krypton 92
36 Kr
, and three neutrons
Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 13

2.3.1 Nuclear Fission

• The reaction begins when 235U absorbs a
slowly moving neutron, creating a
"
"compound d nucleus,"
l " 236U.
U
• The compound nucleus disintegrates
quickly into 141Ba, 92Kr, and three neutrons
according to the following reaction:

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 14

7
 2.3.1 Nuclear Fission

A nuclear fission even as described by the

liquid-drop model of the nucleus
Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 15

2.3.1 Nuclear Fission

From the figure :
• (a) A slow neutron approaches a 235U nucleus
nucleus.
235
• (b) The neutron is absorbed by the U nucleus,
changing it to 236U*, which is a 236U nucleus in
an excited state.
• (c) The nucleus deforms and oscillates like a
liquid
q drop.
p
• (d) The nucleus undergoes fission, resulting in
two lighter nuclei X and Y along with several
neutrons.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 16

8
 2.3.1 Nuclear Fission
• Sequence of events in a nuclear fission
process.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 17

2.3.2 Nuclear Reactor

• A nuclear reactor is a type of furnace in
which energy is generated by a controlled
fission chain reaction.

• There are a number of kinds and sizes of

reactors,, and manyy have the same three
basic components: fuel elements, a
neutron moderator and control rods.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 18

9
 Nuclear Reactor
• Calder Hall, the
world's first
commercial i l nuclear
l
power station.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 19

2.3.2 Nuclear Reactor

• Figure illustrates these components :

A nuclear reactor Consists of fuel elements control

rods and a moderator (in this case, water)
Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 20

10
 2.3.2 Nuclear Reactor
• The physics of nuclear reactors
– Reactor Core – may be thousands of fuel
element placed close together.
– The fuel elements - contain the fissile fuel
and, for example, may be thin rods about 1
cm in diameter.
235
– Uranium ( 92 U ) is a common reactor fuel
fuel.
– The control rods - contain an element, such
as boron or cadmium, that readily absorbs
neutrons without fissioning.
Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 21

2.3.2 Nuclear Reactor

• The physics of nuclear reactors (cont.)
– Whereas neutrons with energies of
about 0.04 eV (or less) readily fission ( 92 U )
235

; the neutrons released during the

fission process have significantly greater
energies of several MeV or so.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 22

11
 2.3.2 Nuclear Reactor
• The physics of nuclear reactors (cont.)
– Consequently, a nuclear reactor must contain
some type of material that will decrease or
moderate the speed of such energetic neutrons
so they can readily fission additional ( 235
92 U ) nuclei.

– The material that slows down the neutrons is

called
ll d moderator
d t (th (thatt iis water).
t )

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 23

2.3.2 Nuclear Reactor

• The physics of nuclear reactors (cont.)
– When an energetic neutron leaves a fuel element
element, the
neutron enters the surrounding water and collides with
water molecules.
– With each collision, the neutron loses an appreciable
fraction of its energy and slows down.
– Once slowed down to thermal energy by the moderator,
a process that
th t ttakes
k lless th
than 10-33 s, the
th neutron
t is
i
capable of initiating a fission event upon re-entering a
fuel element.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 24

12
 2.3.2 Nuclear Reactor
The physics of nuclear
reactors (cont.)
• A chain reaction.
• For clarity, it is assume
that each fission
generates
t twot neutrons
t

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 25

2.3.2 Nuclear Reactor

• The physics of nuclear
reactors (cont
(cont.))
– If the output power
from a reactor is to
remain constant, only
one neutron from each
fission event must
trigger a new fission
fission,
as in Figure

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 26

13
 2.3.2 Nuclear Reactor
• The physics of nuclear reactors (cont.)
– When each fission leads to one additional
fission - no more or no less - the reactor is
said to be critical.
– A reactor normally operates in a critical
condition, because then it produces a steady
output
t t off energy.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 27

2.3.2 Nuclear Reactor

• The physics of nuclear reactors (cont.)
– The reactor is subcritical when, on average,
the neutrons from each fission trigger less
than one subsequent fission.
– In a subcritical reactor, the chain reaction is
not self-sustaining and eventually dies out.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 28

14
 2.3.2 Nuclear Reactor
• The physics of nuclear reactors (cont.)
– When the neutrons from each fission trigger
more than one additional fission, the reactor is
supercritical.
– During a supercritical condition, the energy
released by a reactor increases.
– If left unchecked the increasing energy can
lead to a partial or total meltdown of the
reactor core, with the possible release of
radioactive material into the environment
Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 29

2.3.2 Nuclear Reactor

• The physics of nuclear reactors (cont.)
– Clearly
Clearly, a control mechanism is needed to keep the
reactor in its normal or critical state.
– This control is accomplished by a number of control
rods that can be moved into and out of the reactor
core.
– If the reactor becomes supercritical, the control rods
are automatically
t ti ll moved d ffarther
th iinto
t th
the core tto
absorb the excess neutrons causing the condition.
– In response, the reactor returns to its critical state.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 30

15
 2.3.2 Nuclear Reactor
• The physics of nuclear reactors (cont.)
– Conversely, if the reactor becomes subcritical,
the control rods are partially withdrawn from
the core.
– Fewer neutrons are absorbed, more neutrons
are available for fission, and the reactor again
returns
t to
t its
it critical
iti l state.
t t

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 31

2.3.3 Nuclear Fusion

• Define as : When two light nuclei combine
t form
to f a heavier
h i nucleus,
l th
the process iis
called nuclear fusion.
• Because the mass of the final nucleus is
less than the sum of the masses of the
original nuclei, there is a loss of mass,
accompanied by a release of energy.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 32

16
 2.3.3 Nuclear Fusion
• Deuterium and tritium
are fused together
g to
 4
form a helium 2 He 
nucleus.
• The result is the
release of an
enormous amount of
energy, mainly carried
by a single high-
energy neutron 0 n  
1

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 33

2.3.3 Nuclear Fusion

2
• Two isotopes of hydrogen, 1 H
(deuterium, D) and 13 H (tritium, T),
fuse to form 24 He and a neutron
according to the following reaction :

2
1 H 13H  24He 01n

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 34

17
 Conclusion

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 35

Conclusion
From the figure above :
• When fission occurs,, a massive nucleus
divides into two fragments whose binding
energy per nucleon is greater than that of
the original nucleus.
• When fusion occurs, two low-mass nuclei
combine to form a more massive nucleus
whose binding energy per nucleon is
greater than that of the original nuclei.
Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 36

18
 2.3.4 The α, p Reaction
• The first nuclear reaction was observed by
R th f d iin 1919 iin an experiment
Rutherford i t iin
which he bombarded nitrogen gas with α
particles from a radioactive source.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 40

2.3.4 The α, p Reaction

• A reaction in which an α particle interacts
with a nucleus to form a compound
nucleus which, in turn, disintegrates
immediately into a new nucleus by the
ejection of a proton is called an α,p
reaction.
• The first letter
letter, α,
α stands for the
bombarding particle and the second letter,
p, stands for the ejected particle, in this
case a proton.
Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 41

19
 2.3.4 The α, p Reaction
• Rutherford's original transmutation
reaction
ti can beb written
itt as:
A
Z X  24He AZ31Y 11H  Q
• For example ;
14
7 N  24He178 O 11H  Q

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 42

2.3.4 The α, p Reaction

• where Q generally represents the energy
released
l d or absorbed
b b dd during
i a nuclear
l
reaction.
• If Q is positive, energy has been released
and the reaction is called exoergic.
• If Q is negative
negative, energy has been
absorbed and the reaction is endoergic.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 43

20
 2.3.4 The α, p Reaction
• Q is also called nuclear reaction energy or
di i t
disintegration
ti energy and d iis equall tto th
the
difference in the masses of the initial and
final particles.
• Therefore,
 931.5Mev 
Q = (minitial – mfinal)  1u 
 
 931.5Mev 
= Δ m  1u


44
Intro To Medical Physics_STAM

2.3.4 The α, p Reaction

• As an example :
Mass of Initial Mass of Final Particles
Particles (amu) (amu)
N-14 =14.003074 O-17 = 16.999133

He-4
He 4 = 4.002603 H-1
H 1 = 1.007825

Total = 18.005677 Total = 18.006958

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 45

21
 2.3.4 The α, p Reaction
• The total mass of final particles is greater
than that of the initial particles.
particles
 931.5Mev 
Q = (minitial – mfinal )  1u


 931.5Mev 
 
=Δm  1u 
 931.5Mev 
= (18.005677 amu - 18.006958 amu)  
 931.5Mev   1u 
 
= (- 0.001281 amu )  1u 
= - 1.19 MeV

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 46

2.3.4 The α, p Reaction

• Thus the above reaction is endoergic, that
i att lleastt 1
is, 1.19
19 M
MeV
V off energy mustt b
be
supplied for the reaction to take place.
• This minimum required energy is called
the threshold energy for the reaction and
must be available from the kinetic energy
of the bombarding particle.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 47

22
 2.3.5 The α, n Reaction
• The bombardment of a nucleus by α
particles
ti l with
ith th
the subsequent
b t emission
i i off
neutrons is designated as an α,n reaction.
• An example of this type of reaction is
9Be(α,n)12C.

• This was the first reaction used for

producing small neutron sources.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 48

2.3.5 The α, n Reaction

• A material containing a mixture of radium
anddbberyllium
lli h
has b
been commonly l usedd as
a neutron source in research laboratories.
• In this case, the α particles emitted by
radium bombard the beryllium nuclei and
eject neutrons.

Intro To Medical Physics_STAM 49

23