Water

Water is the chemical substance with chemical formula H2O: one molecule of water has two
hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom.

Water appears in nature in all three common states of matter and may take many different forms
on Earth:

water vapour and clouds in the sky; seawater and icebergs in the polar oceans; glaciers and rivers
in the mountains; and the liquid in aquifers in the ground.

At high temperatures and pressures, such as in the interior of giant planets, it is argued that water
exists as ionic water in which the molecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen
ions, and at even higher pressures as superionic water in which the oxygen crystallises but the
hydrogen ions float around freely within the oxygen lattice.

The major chemical and physical properties of water are:

 water is a tasteless, odourless liquid at standard temperature and pressure. The colour of
water and ice is, intrinsically, a very slight blue hue, although water appears colourless in
small quantities. Ice also appears colourless, and water vapour is essentially invisible as a
gas.

 water is transparent, and thus aquatic plants can live within the water because sunlight
can reach them. Only strong UV light is slightly absorbed.

 Since the water molecule is not linear and the oxygen atom has a higher electronegativity
than hydrogen atoms, it carries a slight negative charge, whereas the hydrogen atoms are
slightly positive. As a result, water is a polar molecule with an electrical dipole moment.
Water also can form an unusually large number of intermolecular hydrogen bonds (four)
for a molecule of its size. These factors lead to strong attractive forces between molecules
of water, giving rise to water's high surface tension and capillary forces. The capillary
action refers to the tendency of water to move up a narrow tube against the force of
gravity. This property is relied upon by all vascular plants, such as trees.

 Water is a good solvent and is often referred to as the universal solvent. Substances that
dissolve in water, e.g., salts, sugars, acids, alkalis, and some gases – especially oxygen,
carbon dioxide (carbonation) are known as hydrophilic (water-loving) substances, while
those that do not mix well with water (e.g., fats and oils), are known
as hydrophobic (water-fearing) substances.

 All the major components in cells (proteins, DNA and polysaccharides) are also
dissolved in water.

 Pure water has a low electrical conductivity, but this increases significantly with the
dissolution of a small amount of ionic material such as sodium chloride.
  The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is dependent on the barometric pressure.
For example, on the top of Mt. Everest water boils at 68 degrees Celsius, compared to
100 degrees Celsius at sea level. Conversely, water deep in the ocean near geothermal
vents can reach temperatures of hundreds of degrees and remain liquid.

 water has the second highest molar specific heat capacity of any known substance, after
ammonia, as well as a high heat of vaporisation (40.65 kJ·mol-1), both of which are a
result of the extensive hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These two unusual
properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in
temperature.

 The maximum density of water occurs at 3.98 degrees Celsius. It has the anomalous
property of becoming less dense, not more, when it is cooled down to its solid form, ice.
It expands to occupy 9 percent greater volume in this solid state, which accounts for the
fact of ice floating on liquid water.

What Are the Methods of Purification?

There are different approaches you could investigate or test for a "methods of purification of
water" project. They can be broken down into fairly simple groups though: boiling or
distillation, filtration and various chemical treatments.

Boiling is undoubtedly the simplest method of purifying water, although you do need a source
of heat to do it, and it takes some time for the water to cool back down so it can actually be
used. However, boiling is a very effective method of purificiation, and it only takes three
minutes of vigorous boiling to remove the risk from bacteria, parasites and viruses in the water.
The main challenge, provided you have the right equipment, is preventing recontamination
after the water has been purified.

Distillation is very similar to boiling, but it requires a bit more equipment and is generally
more effective at removing contaminants. You set the water boiling, and collect the vapor as it
condenses. This leaves behind most contaminants, although it’s worth noting that any
contaminants with boiling points below that of water (at 100 degrees Celsius/212 degrees
Fahrenheit at sea level) will still be present in the condensed water, possibly with greater
concentrations than before. Other downsides are the time-consuming nature of the process and
the fact that it generally requires too much energy to be economically viable in large-scale
water treatment.

Filtration is another conceptually simple approach to water purification, but it isn’t quite as
straightforward as you might think. The basic concept is that by forcing the water through
small spaces, contaminants that can’t fit through are left behind. It’s quite economical, because
very little water is wasted in the process, and it doesn’t use much energy. Many different filters
are available, and the contaminants they’re capable of removing depends on the size of the
mesh. The vast majority of filters can’t remove waterborne viruses, and most of them are quite
bulky so would be difficult to carry around. The filter itself also has to be clean, and as with
many methods, the water could easily become contaminated again after the process has
completed.

Chemical treatments depend on chemical reactions to remove contaminants from water, and
different chemicals are more effective for different contaminants. Iodine is one of the oldest
approaches to chemical water purification, and tablets or solutions containing it are generally
effective at neutralizing bacteria and viruses present in water. However, iodine turns water
yellow and leaves an unpleasant taste and odor. Plus, it only really works on water that is
already clear (so filtration may be required first). The water to be treated also can’t be cold; for
instance, the water must be at 21 C/68 F for giardia to be removed with iodine.

Chlorine is the widest-used chemical water treatment in the world, and it’s available in the
form of tablets, liquids and granules. Despite being effective, it has to be handled carefully,
and it does leave an unpleasant taste in the resulting water, much like iodine – but as you may
expect, it tastes a bit like drinking swimming pool water. Alternatives like sodium
dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC) release free chlorine, but the chemical mixture is safer to
handle and doesn’t leave a taste in the water, so these are the most common choices for water
purification tablets.

Generally speaking, water purification systems consist of multiple components to ensure the
resulting water is safe to drink and pure in taste. Aeration is often the first stage, allowing any
gases trapped in the water to escape, followed by coagulation, where dirt and other solid matter
stick together to make them easier to remove, and sedimentation, where the particulates
gradually sink and separate from the water under the influence of gravity. After this, the water
is filtered to separate the coagulated (floc) materials, and finally, chemical treatment ensures
safety from micro-organisms. If you’re looking to create a working model of a water
purification plant, these stages should be incorporated into your process.

Upthrust in Fluids and Archimedes Principle

Push an empty can in water. You will feel an upward force and you will find it difficult to push
the can further. Water exerts force on the can in the upward direction. When a body is immersed
in a liquid, the liquid exerts an upward force on the body. This force is called the upthrust or
buoyant force.
Why do you feel lighter when you are in a swimming pool? This is due to upthrust. The effect of
upthrust is that weight of the body immersed in a liquid appears to be less than its actual weight.
There are two factors on which upthrust depends - Volume of the body and Density of the
Liquid. Larger the volume of body submerged in liquid, greater is the upthrust. More the density
of liquid, greater is the upthrust.
Upthrust = Volume of body x density of liquid x acceleration due to gravity.
Learn why bodies with density greater than density of liquid sink while body with density less
than density of liquid float.
You can find out the magnitude of the upthrust by Archimedes' Principle. Archimedes' Principle
states that when a body is immersed partially or completely in a liquid, it experiences an
upthrust, which is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by it. This principle is applied to
liquids as well as gases.
 Effects of Water Pollution

Dangers to our Health

Virtually all types of water pollution are harmful to the health of humans and animals. Water
pollution may not damage our health immediately but can be harmful after long term exposure.
Different forms of pollutants affect the health of animals in different ways:
 Heavy metals from industrial processes can accumulate in nearby lakes and rivers. These are
toxic to marine life such as fish and shellfish, and subsequently to the humans who eat them.
Heavy metals can slow development; result in birth defects and some are carcinogenic.
 Industrial waste often contains many toxic compounds that damage the health of aquatic animals
and those who eat them. Some of the toxins in industrial waste may only have a mild effect
whereas other can be fatal. They can cause immune suppression, reproductive failure or acute
poisoning.
 Microbial pollutants from sewage often result in infectious diseases that infect aquatic life and
terrestrial life through drinking water. Microbial water pollution is a major problem in the
developing world, with diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever being the primary cause of
infant mortality.
 Organic matter and nutrients causes an increase in aerobic algae and depletes oxygen from the
water column. This causes the suffocation of fish and other aquatic organisms.
 Sulfate particles from acid rain can cause harm the health of marine life in the rivers and lakes it
contaminates, and can result in mortality.
 Suspended particles in freshwater reduces the quality of drinking water for humans and the
aquatic environment for marine life. Suspended particles can often reduce the amount of sunlight
penetrating the water, disrupting the growth of photosynthetic plants and micro-organisms.
Dangers to our Economy
Water pollution can be damaging to the economy as it can be expensive to treat and prevent
contamination. Waste that does not break down quickly accumulates in the Earth’s waters and
eventually makes its way to the oceans.
Water pollution can be prevented by stopping pollutants from contaminating nearby waters.
There are a number of water treatments to prevent pollution such as:
 Biological filters
 Chemical additives
 Sand filters
These simple techniques cost money to maintain, but prevention is much cheaper than cleaning
up water pollution that has already occurred. The cost of a pollution clean-up depends on many
factors:
 The location of the pollution is important in determining how much the clean-up will cost. If the
contamination is in an area that is easy to get to, then the clean up cost will be cheaper.
 The contamination size also needs to be considered, the larger the area of contamination, the
more expensive the cost of the clean-up.
 The type of pollutant may also have an effect on the clean-up cost, some pollutants are more
difficult to clean up than others, and therefore more expensive.
Dangers to our Environment
There are many different types of water pollution and all have a different adverse effect on the
environment.
 Heavy metals from industrial processes can accumulate in nearby lakes and rivers. These are
toxic to marine life such as fish and shellfish, and can affect the rest of the food chain. This
means that entire animal communities can be badly affected by this type of pollutant.
 Industrial waste often contains many toxic compounds that damage the health of aquatic animals
and those who eat them. Some toxins affect the reproductive success of marine life and can
therefore disrupt the community structure of an aquatic environment.
 Microbial pollutants from sewage often result in infectious diseases that infect aquatic life and
terrestrial life through drinking water. This often increases the number of mortalities seen within
an environment.
 Organic matter and nutrients causes an increase in aerobic algae and depletes oxygen from the
water column. This is called eutrophication and causes the suffocation of fish and other aquatic
organisms.
 Sulfate particles from acid rain change the pH of water making it more acidic, this damages the
health of marine life in the rivers and lakes it contaminates, and often increases the number of
mortalities within an environment.
 Suspended particles can often reduce the amount of sunlight penetrating the water, disrupting the
growth of photosynthetic plants and micro-organisms. This has subsequent effects on the rest of
the aquatic community that depend on these organisms to survive.

Fishing

Several methods for catching fish are used:

1. Fillet (gill) nets

2. Trawling
3. Line fishing
4. Seining
 5. Fish pots and reels.
6. Hand fishing eg harpooning, spear
The method of fishing depends on the type and size of the fish to be caught. Trawling is used to
catch shrimp, carite, snapper and cavali. The main catches from seine and gill nets are king
fish, shark and carite. Fish pot catches are red snappers and jacks. Fishing is a year-round
activity in the Caribbean and it directly employs thousands of people.
Trawling is a method of fishing that involves pulling a fishing net through the water behind one
or more boats. The net that is used for trawling is called a trawl.
The boats that are used for trawling are called trawlers or draggers. Trawlers vary in size from
small open boats with as little as 30 hp (22 kW) engines to large factory trawlers with over
10,000 hp (7.5 MW). Trawling can be carried out by one trawler or by two trawlers fishing
cooperatively (pair trawling).
Trawling can be contrasted with trolling, where baited fishing lines instead of trawls are drawn
through the water. Trolling is used both for recreational and commercial fishing whereas
trawling is used mainly for commercial fishing. Trawling is also commonly used as a scientific
sampling, or survey, method.

Longline fishing, or longlining, is a commercial fishing technique. It uses a long line, called the
main line, with baited hooks attached at intervals by means of branch lines
called snoods (or gangions). A snood is a short length of line, attached to the main line using a
clip or swivel, with the hook at the other end. Longlines are classified mainly by where they are
placed in the water column. This can be at the surface or at the bottom. Lines can also be set by
means of an anchor, or left to drift. Hundreds or even thousands of baited hooks can hang from a
single line. Longliners – fishing vessels rigged for longlining – commonly
target swordfish, tuna, halibut, sablefish and many other species.
In some unstable fisheries, such as the Patagonian toothfish, fishermen may be limited to as few
as 25 hooks per line. In contrast, commercial longliners in certain robust fisheries of the Bering
Sea and North Pacific generally run over 2,500 hand-baited hooks on a single series of connected
lines many miles in length.
Longlines can be set to hang near the surface (pelagic longline) to catch fish such as tuna and
swordfish or along the sea floor (demersal longline) for groundfish such as halibut or cod.
Longliners fishing for sablefish, also referred to as black cod, occasionally set gear on the sea
floor at depths exceeding 1,100 metres (3,600 ft) using relatively simple equipment. Longlines
with traps attached rather than hooks can be used for crab fishing in deep waters.
Longline fishing is prone to the incidental catching and killing of dolphins, seabirds, sea turtles,
and sharks, but can be considerably more ecologically sustainable than some other commercially
significant harvesting methods
Seine (/seɪn/ SAYN) fishing (or seine-haul fishing) is a method of fishing that employs a fishing
net called a seine, that hangs vertically in the water with its bottom edge held down by weights
and its top edge buoyed by floats. Seine nets can be deployed from the shore as a beach seine, or
from a boat.
Boats deploying seine nets are known as seiners. Two main types of seine net are deployed from
seiners: purse seines and Danish seines.

A fish trap is a trap used for fishing. Fish traps can have the form of a fishing weir or a lobster
trap. Some fishing nets are also called fish traps, for example fyke nets.
A typical contemporary trap consists of a frame of thick steel wire in the shape of a heart,
with chicken wire stretched around it. The mesh wraps around the frame and then tapers into the
inside of the trap. When a fish swims inside through this opening, it cannot get out, as the
chicken wire opening bends back into its original narrowness. Contemporary eel traps come in
many shapes and sizes and are constructed of many materials. In earlier times, traps were
constructed of wood and fibre.
 Personal research
1. Describe various navigational devices used at sea. E.g. sonar, compass, GPS, radar
2. Identify water safety devices.
3. What does the term ‘bends’ mean?