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    teshal bekele
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    This document provides an overview of a course on moral and civic education. The course is organized into five chapters that cover key concepts. The first chapter defines concepts like civics, ethics, and morality. It also discusses the goals of civics and ethics and competencies of good citizenship. The second chapter presents major theories and perspectives on ethics. The third examines ethical decision-making and moral judgments. The fourth discusses concepts like citizenship, state, and government. The fifth deals with constitutions, human rights, and democracy. The objectives are for students to understand concepts in ethics, civics, and citizenship and be able to discuss the relations between society, state, and government.

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    This document provides an overview of a course on moral and civic education. The course is organized into five chapters that cover key concepts. The first chapter defines concepts like civics, ethics, and morality. It also discusses the goals of civics and ethics and competencies of good citizenship. The second chapter presents major theories and perspectives on ethics. The third examines ethical decision-making and moral judgments. The fourth discusses concepts like citizenship, state, and government. The fifth deals with constitutions, human rights, and democracy. The objectives are for students to understand concepts in ethics, civics, and citizenship and be able to discuss the relations between society, state, and government.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    34 views65 pages

    4 5938284696130555203 PDF

    Uploaded by

    teshal bekele
    This document provides an overview of a course on moral and civic education. The course is organized into five chapters that cover key concepts. The first chapter defines concepts like civics, ethics, and morality. It also discusses the goals of civics and ethics and competencies of good citizenship. The second chapter presents major theories and perspectives on ethics. The third examines ethical decision-making and moral judgments. The fourth discusses concepts like citizenship, state, and government. The fifth deals with constitutions, human rights, and democracy. The objectives are for students to understand concepts in ethics, civics, and citizenship and be able to discuss the relations between society, state, and government.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
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    of 65

    HAWASSAUNI

    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    HAWASSAUNIVERSI
    TY
    COLLEGEOFLAW ANDGOVERNANCE
    DEPARTMENTOFCIVI
    CSANDETHI CALSTUDIES
    COURSEMATERIALFORMORALANDCI VICSEDUCATION
    COURSETI
    TLE–MORALANDCI
    VICSEDUCATI
    ON
    COURSECODE-MCED–1011
    CREDI
    THOUR–2HOURS
    PROGRAM –REGULAR
    I
    NSTRUCTOR–KEDI
    RABDALLA(
    MAI
    NPEACEANDCONFLI
    CTSTUDI
    ES)
    - Tel–0916469355 -Email
    –kedi
    rabdal
    l
    a@y
    ahoo.
    com
    COURSEDESCRIPTION
    Thi
    smodul eisor gani
    zedintofivechapters.Thef i
    rstchapt erdealswitht hedefi
    niti
    onofconcept s
    andterms,di f
    fer
    encesbet weencivi
    csandet hics,goal sofci vi
    csandet hicsaswel lascompet ences
    ofagoodci ti
    zen.Thesecondchapt erpresent st hemaj orri
    valtheori
    esandper spectivesonet hi
    cs
    andmor al
    i
    ty.Thet hir
    dchapterdwellswithet hi caldeci sionmakingandt hejust
    ifi
    cati
    onbehi ndthe
    moralj udgment s,whi l
    e chapterfourcont ains aboutt he concepts ofci ti
    zenship,state and
    gover
    nmentpar ti
    cular
    lythestatest
    ructuresandt heoriesofst at
    e,sy st
    emsofgov ernment,theori
    es
    ofcit
    izenship,way sofacquir
    ingandlosingci ti
    zenshi pandt heinterpl
    aybet weenciti
    zens,stateand
    gover
    nmentandf i
    nalfi
    ft
    hchapterdealswithconst it
    ution, humanr i
    ghtsanddemocr acy.
    COURSEOBJECTI
    VES
    Af
    tert
    hesuccessf
    ull
    ycompl
    eti
    ngoft
    hiscour
    se,
    ast
    udentt
    eacherwi
    llbeabl
    eto:
     Concept
    ual
    i
    zewhatmor
    ali
    ty,
    ethi
    csandci
    vi
    csmean.
     Compr
    ehendt
    hegoal
    sofci
    vi
    csandet
    hicsaswel
    last
    hecompet
    encesofagoodci
    ti
    zen.
     Di
    scusst
    her
    elat
    ionsbet
    weensoci
    ety
    ,st
    ateandgov
    ernment
    .
     Dif
    ferent
    iatef
    ederalst
    atest
    ruct
    uref
    rom uni
    tar
    yanddi
    scusst
    headv
    ant
    agesanddi
    sadv
    ant
    ages
    ofthestatest
    ruct
    ures.
     Di
    scusst
    hepr
    ocessesofmoder
    nEt
    hiopi
    anst
    atef
    ormat
    ionandnat
    ionbui
    l
    ding.
     Compr
    ehendt
    hef
    eat
    uresofEt
    hiopi
    anf
    eder
    ali
    sm.
     Concept
    ual
    i
    zeconst
    it
    uti
    on,
    itscl
    assi
    fi
    cat
    ionanduni
    quef
    eat
    ures.
     Def
    inet
    het
    erm humanr
    ight
    s,t
    heuni
    quef
    eat
    uresandi
    tscl
    assi
    fi
    cat
    ions.
     Di
    ff
    erent
    iat
    ethet
    eleol
    ogi
    cal
    ,deont
    ologi
    cal
    andv
    irt
    uet
    heor
    ies.
    COURSECONTENTS
    1.CHAPTERONE:UNDERSTANDI
    NGCI
    VICSANDETHI
    CS
     Def
    ini
    ngCi
    vi
    cs,
    Ethi
    cs,
    Mor
    ali
    ty

    MORALANDCI
    VICSEDUCATI
    ON(
    MCED-1011) I
    NSTRUCTOR:KEDI
    RA.
    Page1
    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
     Ci
    vi
    cEducat
    ion
     Nat
    ureofEt
    hicsandMor
    ali
    ty
     Et
    hicsandLaw
    2.CHAPTERTWO:APPROACHESTOETHI
    CS
     Nor
    mat
    iveEt
    hics
     Non-
    Nor
    mat
    iveEt
    hics/
    Met
    a-et
    hics
    3.CHAPTERTHREE:ETHI
    CALDECI
    SIONMAKI
    NGANDMORALJUDGMENTS
     HowCanWeMakeEt
    hical
    Deci
    sionsAndAct
    ions?
     ToWhom orWhatDoesMor
    ali
    tyAppl
    y?
     Whoi
    sMor
    all
    y/Et
    hical
    l
    yResponsi
    ble?
     WhyShoul
    dHumanBei
    ngsBeMor
    al?
    4.CHAPTERFOUR:STATE,
    GOVERNMENTANDCI
    TIZENSHI
    P
     Under
    standi
    ngSt
    ate
     Ri
    val
    Theor
    iesofSt
    ate
     TheRol
    eoft
    heSt
    ate
     Under
    standi
    ngGov
    ernment
     Under
    standi
    ngCi
    ti
    zenshi
    p
    5.CHAPTERFI
    VE:CONSTI
    TUTI
    ON,
    DEMOCRACYANDHUMANRI
    GHTS
     Const
    it
    uti
    on
     Const
    it
    uti
    onal
    i
    sm
     TheConst
    it
    uti
    onal
    Exper
    ienceofEt
    hiopi
    a:Pr
    eandPost1931
     Democr
    acyandDemocr
    ati
    zat
    ion
     HumanRi
    ght
    s:Concept
    sandTheor
    ies

    MORALANDCI
    VICSEDUCATI
    ON(
    MCED-1011) I
    NSTRUCTOR:KEDI
    RA.
    Page2
    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    CHAPTERONE:UNDERSTANDI
    NGCI
    VICSANDETHI
    CS
    ASeedwi
    l
    lonl
    ybecomeaf
    loweri
    fitget
    ssunandwat er.
    - Loui
    sGottschalk.
    1.
    1.Def
    ini
    ngCi
    vi
    cs,
    Ethi
    cs,
    Mor
    ali
    ty
     Ci
    vi
    cEducat
    ion
     Thesubj
    ectassumeddi
    ff
    erentnamesandpur
    posesbasedoncount
    ri
    es’i
    deol
    ogi
    es&def
    ini
    ti
    ons
    v
    aryacr
    ossSt
    ates.
     Hence,i
    tisRi
    ghtEducat
    ioni
    nRSA,Ci
    ti
    zenshi
    pEducat
    ioni
    nUSA&Ger
    many
    ,Char
    act
    erEducat
    ion
    i
    nSi
    ngapor
    eandCi
    vi
    csandEt
    hical
    Educat
    ioni
    nEt
    hiopi
    a).
    I
    nmost
    ,ci
    vi
    ceducat
    ionst
    udi
    esaboutr
    ight
    sandr
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tiesofci
    ti
    zensorpol
    i
    tical
    l
    yor
    gani
    zed
    gr
    oupofpeopl
    e.
    I
    tisl
    ear
    ningf
    oref
    fect
    ivepar
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    nademocr
    ati
    canddev
    elopmentpr
    ocess.
    I
    tist
    hepr
    ocessofhel
    pingy
    oungpeopl
    etobecompet
    entandr
    esponsi
    bleci
    ti
    zens.
     Et
    hics
     Et
    hicsisabr
    anchofphilosophythatatt
    empt stounder
    standpeopl
    e’
    smoralbel
    i
    efsandact
    ions.
     Et
    hics,ormoralphi
    losophy,consider
    st heori
    esaboutwhathumanbeingsarecapabl
    eofdoing
    andwhatt
    heyoughtt
    odof
    orl
    i
    vinget
    hical
    l
    ygoodl
    i
    fe.
     Et
    hicsal
    soexpl
    orest
    hemeani
    ngandt
    her
    anki
    ngofdi
    ff
    erentet
    hicalv
    alues,suchashonest
    y,
    aut
    onomy
    ,equal
    i
    tyandj
    ust
    ice.
     Et
    hicsshar
    ecommonal
    i
    tywi
    thl
    aw,r
    eli
    giousbel
    i
    ef,popul
    aropi
    nionandpr
    ofessi
    onalcodesbuti
    t
    i
    sbr
    oaderandof
    fer
    stool
    sofi
    tsappr
    opr
    iat
    enesscanbeev
    aluat
    ed.
     Occasi
    onal
    l
    y,t
    het
    erm et
    hicsi
    susedi
    nter
    changeabl
    ywi
    thmor
    als.Busi
    nessormedi
    calet
    hics,f
    or
    exampl
    e,i
    sgener
    all
    ysy
    nony
    mouswi
    thmor
    als.
    Inshort
    ,moral
    i
    tyr
    efer
    stothedegr
    eetowhi
    chanacti
    onconf
    ormstoast
    andar
    dofhumanconduct
    .
     Et
    hicsr
    efer
    stothestudyofval
    uesandwhatconst
    itut
    egoodandbadhumanconduct
    .Hence,
    et
    hicsi
    ssci
    ent
    if
    icst
    udyofmor
    ali
    ty.
     Forpur
    posesofunder
    standi
    ng,t
    hough,wecanv
    iew et
    hicsasdi
    vi
    dedi
    ntot
    wof
    iel
    ds;nor
    mat
    ive
    et
    hicsandnon-
    nor
    mat
    iveet
    hics.
    Gener
    all
    y,Et
    hicsi
    s:
    1.Thecr i
    ti
    calexaminat
    ionandev
    aluat
    ionofwhati
    sgood,ev
    il
    ,ri
    ghtandwr
    ongi
    nhuman
    conduct(Guy
    ,2001).
    2.Aspecif
    icsetofpr
    inci
    ples,v
    aluesandgui
    del
    i
    nesf
    orapar
    ti
    cul
    argr
    ouporor
    gani
    zat
    ion(
    Guy
    ,
    2001)
    .
    3. Et
    hicsi
    sthest
    udyofgoodness,r
    ightact
    ionandmor
    alr
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    ty,i
    taskswhatchoi
    ces

    MORALANDCI
    VICSEDUCATI
    ON(
    MCED-1011) I
    NSTRUCTOR:KEDI
    RA.
    Page3
    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    andendsweoughttopur
    sueandwhatmor
    alpr
    inci
    plesshoul
    dgov
    ernourpur
    sui
    tsand
    choi
    ces(
    Madden,
    2000)
    .
     Mor
    ali
    ty
     Ofcour
    se,mor
    ali
    tyi
    sacompl
    exconcept
    .Thoughi
    tisoneofmostf
    requent
    lyusedt
    erms,i
    tcan
    meandi
    ff
    erentt
    hingst
    odi
    ff
    erentpeopl
    e.
     Mor
    ali
    tycanbev
    iewedf
    rom di
    ff
    erentper
    spect
    ivesandl
    etusst
    artwi
    tht
    hesi
    mpl
    edef
    ini
    ti
    onoft
    he
    wor
    dit
    sel
    f.
     Mor
    ali
    tyder
    ivedf
    rom Lat
    inmor
    ali
    tas“
    manner
    ,char
    act
    er,pr
    operbehav
    ior
    ”)r
    efer
    stot
    heconcept
    ofhumanact
    ionwhi
    chper
    tai
    nst
    omat
    ter
    sofr
    ightandwr
    ong.
    Itcanbeusedasgenerall
    yacceptedcodeofconducti
    nasociet
    y,orwi
    thi
    nasubgr
    oupofsociet
    y.
     Moral
    it
    yhasbeenatopicofdiscussionf
    oraver
    ylongti
    me.
     Accor
    dingt
    oSocrat
    es“ Wearedi scussi
    ngnosmallmatt
    er,
    buthowweoughttoli
    ve”whenissues
    ofmor
    ali
    tyar
    edi
    scussed.
     Socr
    atesi
    sri
    ght
    lyasser
    tedt
    hatmor
    ali
    tyi
    snotasmal
    lmat
    ter
    .InSocr
    ates’wor
    dsi
    t’
    s“how we
    oughtt
    oli
    ve”
    .
     However
    ,li
    vi
    ngi
    namul
    ti
    cul
    tur
    alEt
    hiopi
    a,howweoughtt
    oli
    vecanbev
    erycompl
    i
    cat
    edbecause
    oft
    hedi
    ver
    sit
    yofcul
    tur
    ethati
    svastanduni
    que.
     Mor
    ali
    tyi
    stheef
    for
    ttogui
    deone’
    sconductbyr
    easont
    hati
    s,t
    odowhatt
    her
    ear
    ethebest
    r
    easonsf
    ordoi
    ngwhi
    l
    egi
    vi
    ngequal
    wei
    ghtt
    oot
    her
    sint
    erestwhowi
    l
    lbeaf
    fect
    ed.
    I
    tisi
    mpor
    tantt
    hati
    ncount
    ri
    esl
    i
    keEt
    hiopi
    a,mor
    ali
    tyi
    sshar
    edasacommongoalt
    oensur
    e
    har
    monyandi
    ntegr
    it
    y.
     Mor
    ali
    tyi
    samoregeneralt
    ermrefer
    ri
    ngtothechar
    act
    erofi
    ndivi
    dual
    sandcommuni t
    y.
    Inotherwor
    ds,Mor
    ali
    tyisusedtorefert
    owhatwewouldcallmoralconductwhi
    l
    eethi
    csi
    sused
    t
    oref
    ert
    othef
    ormal
    studyofmor
    alconduct
    .
    I
    tcanbecl
    aimedt
    hatmor
    ali
    tyi
    srel
    atedt
    opr
    axi
    s,butet
    hicsi
    srel
    atedt
    otheor
    y.

    Mor
    ali
    tyi
    s:
    1.Thosepri
    nci
    plesandval
    uest
    hatact
    ual
    l
    ygui
    de,f
    orbet
    terorwor
    se,ani
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    ’
    sper
    sonal
    conduct(
    Guy,2001)
    2.Morali
    tyi
    stheinfor
    malsy
    stem ofrat
    ionalbeingsbywhichtheygover
    nthei
    rbehavi
    orinorder
    tolesson harm orevi
    land do good,t his syst
    em,al t
    hough i
    nformal
    ,enjoy
    s amazi ng
    agr
    eementacr ossti
    meandcultur
    esconcer ningmoralrul
    es,morali
    deasandmor alvi
    rt
    ues
    (Madden,2000)

    MORALANDCI
    VICSEDUCATI
    ON(
    MCED-1011) I
    NSTRUCTOR:KEDI
    RA.
    Page4
    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)

    Et
    hics Mor
    ali
    ty
    I
    ti sthest
    udyofthecode,st
    andar
    dsor r
    efer
    stot hecodeofconductonefol
    lowswhil
    eethi
    cs
    norm ofhumanconductanditismore i
    sthestudyofmoralconductor
     thestudyoft
    hecode
    theor
    eti
    cal
    andgener
    alone. t
    hatonefoll
    ows
    Ethi
    cs establi
    sh standards,nor
    ms,or i stheconf
    ormi
    tyofhumanbehav i
    ortot
    heest
    abl
    ished
    codesto bef ollowed byhuman beings code of conduct .I
    f an act
    ion conf
    orm to the
    arethestudyofmor al
    i
    ty,moral
    pri
    nciples, est
    abl
    i
    shedcode,i
    tiscal
    ledmor
    al ,
    i
    fnoti
    mmoral
    andmor aldeci
    sionmaking.
    Is t he dev el
    opment of reasonable r
    eferstotheef f
    orttoguideone’sconductbyreason
    standards and procedur
    es f
    or ethi
    cal whil
    e giv
    ing equalweighttot he i
    nter
    ests ofeach
    decision-
    making? i
    ndivi
    dualwhowi l
    lbeaf
    fectedbyone’
    sconduct
    Isasetofr ul
    esofconduct
    ,acode,a Has t o do wi t
    h whatone shoul
    d do,al
    lthi
    ngs
    standar
    dthatgov
    ernwhatoneoughtt
    o considered,notwhat
    ,inf ,anyofuswi
    act llsoi
    na
    do. part
    icularinst
    ance
     Et
    hicsandLaw
     Asagai
    nstmor
    alsandet
    hics,l
    awsar
    enor
    ms,f
    ormal
    l
    yappr
    ovedbyst
    ate,powerornat
    ionalor
    i
    nter
    nat
    ional
    pol
    i
    tical
    bodi
    es.
     Manyl
    awsar
    einst
    it
    utedi
    nor
    dert
    opr
    omot
    ewel
    l
    -bei
    ng,r
    esol
    veconf
    li
    ctsofi
    nter
    est
    ,andpr
    omot
    e
    soci
    alhar
    mony
    .
     However
    ,ther
    ear
    esev
    eral
    reasonswhyet
    hicsi
    snotl
    aw.
     Fi
    rst
    ,someact
    ionst
    hatar
    eil
    l
    egal
    maynotbeunet
    hical
    .Speedi
    ngi
    sil
    legal
    .
     Second,someact
    ionst
    hatar
    eunet
    hical
    maynotbei
    l
    legal
    .Ly
    ing.
     Thi
    rd,
    lawscanbeunet
    hical
    ori
    mmor
    al.UShadl
    awsper
    mit
    ti
    ngsl
    aver
    yint
    he1800s.
     Four
    th,weusedi
    ff
    erentki
    ndsofmechani
    smst
    oexpr
    ess,t
    each,i
    ncul
    cat
    e,andenf
    orcel
    aws
    andet
    hics.
     Fi
    nal
    ly
    ,weuset
    hecoer
    civ
    epowerofgov
    ernmentt
    oenf
    orcel
    aws.Peopl
    ewhobr
    eakcer
    tai
    n
    l
    awscanbef
    ined,
    impr
    isoned,
    orexecut
    edbutnotf
    oret
    hics.
     Of
    tenwe“
    puni
    sh”peopl
    ewhodi
    sobeymor
    aloret
    hicalobl
    i
    gat
    ionsbysi
    mpl
    yexpr
    essi
    ngour
    di
    sappr
    oval
    orbycondemni
    ngt
    hebehav
    ior
    .
     Goal
    sofMor
    alandCi
    vi
    cEducat
    ion
    Ci
    vi
    ceducat
    ioni
    sadi
    sci
    pli
    net
    hatdeal
    swi
    thv
    irt
    uet
    rai
    tsr
    oot
    edi
    nval
    uesofr
    espectandcul
    tur
    eof

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    VICSEDUCATI
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    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    t
    oler
    ancet
    omakei
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    sresponsi
    bleandef
    fi
    cient
    .
    Inhighereducati
    onali
    nst
    itut
    ions,i
    tisgiv
    enwit
    ht heai
    m ofeducat
    ingst
    udent
    saboutdemocr
    ati
    c
    cul
    ture,et
    hicalv
    alues,
    rul
    eofl aw,r
    ight
    sanddut
    iesofci
    ti
    zens.
    Theseel
    ementsareimperat
    ivei
    nthepr
    ocessofpr
    oduci
    ngsel
    f-
    conf
    identci
    ti
    zenswhodeci
    deson
    i
    ssuesbasedonreason.
    I
    tisalsoaimedatcr
    eat
    ingagener
    ati
    onwhohast
    hecapabi
    l
    ityt
    oshoul
    derf
    ami
    l
    yandnat
    ional
    r
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    ty.
    Inor
    dert
    ounder
    standt
    hei
    mpor
    tanceofet
    hics,
    ethi
    csshoul
    dbepl
    acedasacour
    sei
    neducat
    ional
    syst
    em.
    Gener
    all
    y,t
    henecessi
    tyofdeli
    veringthecourseemanat
    esfrom:
    i.Theneedtoinsti
    llcit
    izensaboutt
    hei
    rri
    ghtsanddut
    ies:
     Thetwophr
    asesri
    ghtsanddut
    iesco-exi
    stwit
    heachother
    .Fori
    nst
    ance,t
    heSt
    atehasobl
    i
    gat
    ion
    topr
    ovi
    deheal
    thcar
    ebecausecit
    izenshav
    etheri
    ghtt
    oaccess.
     Howev
    er,the St
    ate wil
    lbe unableto ensur
    ethatcit
    izensl
    ed a heal
    thyl
    i
    feunl
    essci
    ti
    zens
    t
    hemselv
    esactresponsi
    blywi
    threspectt
    othei
    rownheal
    t h.
     Sast
    ryetal
    .(2011)pr
    esent
    edf
    ouri
    ssuest
    olookt
    hei
    nter
    playbet
    weenr
    ight
    sanddut
    ies.
     Fi
    rst
    ,one'sri
    ghtimpli
    es t
    he other'
    s dut
    y.Thi
    s means ev
    eryr
    ightofan i
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    aut
    omat
    ical
    lyi
    mposesadut
    yonothers.
    Forexample,t
    heri
    ghttofr
    eedom ofmov ementi
    mposesadutyonot
    her
    snott
    oint
    erf
    ere
    wit
    htheri
    ghtofmovementofanybody
    ,exceptr
    egul
    atedbyl
    aw.
     Second,
    one'sri
    ghtimpl
    iesone'sdutytorecogni
    zesi
    mil
    arr
    ight
    sofot
    her
    s.Thi
    simpl
    i
    est
    hat
    ever
    yexerci
    seofri
    ghti
    ssubjecttorest
    ri
    cti
    ons.
    Forexample,onehast hefr
    eedom ofspeechandexpressi
    on,but
    ,atthesamet
    ime,t
    he
    exer
    ciseoff
    reespeechandexpr
    essi
    oninnowayaffect
    stheri
    ghtsofot
    hers.
     Thir
    d,oneshoul
    dexerci
    sehi
    sri
    ght
    sf orpr
    omoti
    ngsocialgood.I
    fanypersont
    ri
    est
    omi
    suse
    theri
    ghts,
    gover
    nmenthasadut
    ytotakeappr
    opr
    iat
    elegalacti
    ontoprev
    ent.
    Forexample,i
    faper sontri
    est
    oabusehi
    sri
    ghtt
    ofr
    eedom ofspeechandexpr
    essi
    on,t
    he
    Stat
    ecantakelegal
    action.
     Four
    th,
    theSt
    ateneedst
    otakecar
    eofsoci
    alandl
    egali
    nter
    est
    sofal
    lit
    sindi
    vi
    dual
    s.
    AstheStat
    eguar ant
    eesandpr
    otect
    sther
    ight
    sofev
    ery
    body
    ,onehasadut
    ytosuppor
    tthe
    St
    ateini
    tslegal
    endeavor
    s.
    Theref
    ore,t
    her
    eisnodoubtt
    hatt
    her
    emustbeabal
    ancebet
    weenci
    ti
    zenshi
    pri
    ght
    sand
    obl
    igat
    ions.
    i
    i.TheNeedf
    orPar
    ti
    cipantPol
    it
    icalCul
    tur
    e:
     Pol
    it
    icalcul
    tur
    eist
    hesetofat
    ti
    tudes,
    bel
    i
    efs,
    andsent
    iment
    swhi
    chgi
    veor
    derandmeani
    ngt
    oa
    pol
    i
    tical
    process.

    MORALANDCI
    VICSEDUCATI
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    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    I
    tist
    henor
    msofconductbot
    hofandbet
    weent
    hev
    ari
    ouspol
    i
    ticalact
    orsoper
    ati
    ngi
    nsoci
    ety
    ,
    t
    oget
    herwi
    tht
    hei
    rexpect
    ati
    onsandunder
    standi
    ngsofr
    ight
    sanddut
    ies.
     Pol
    i
    ticalcul
    tur
    eshapeswhatpeopl
    eexpectoft
    hei
    rpol
    i
    ticalsy
    stem andwhatt
    heyseeas
    possi
    bil
    i
    tiesf
    ort
    hei
    rownact
    ion.
     Gener
    all
    y,pol
    i
    ticalcul
    tur
    edefinestheroleswhi
    chani ndi
    vidualmayplayinthepoli
    ti
    calpr
    ocess.
     Al
    mondandVer ba(1963)constr
    uctthreepoli
    ti
    calcult
    ures:parochi
    alcult
    ures,subj
    ectcul
    tures,
    andpar
    ti
    cipantcul
    tur
    es.
    I
    npar
    ochi
    alcul
    tur
    es,ci
    ti
    zenshav
    elowcogni
    ti
    ve,af
    fect
    ive,andev
    aluat
    iveor
    ient
    ati
    onofpol
    i
    tical
    sy
    stems,
    gov
    ernmentf
    unct
    ionsandev
    ent
    hei
    rpr
    ivi
    l
    egesanddut
    ies.
    Insuchcult
    ure,t
    her ol
    eofci
    ti
    zensisi
    nsi
    gni
    fi
    cantsi
    ncei
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    sthi
    nksoft
    hei
    rfami
    l
    ies
    adv
    antageastheonl
    ygoalt
    opur
    sue.
    I
    nsubj
    ectcul
    tur
    es,t
    her
    eishi
    ghcogni
    ti
    ve,af
    fect
    ive,andev
    aluat
    iveor
    ient
    ati
    ont
    owar
    dst
    he
    pol
    it
    icalsy
    stem andpoli
    cyoutputs,butor
    ient
    ati
    onst
    owar
    dsi
    nputobj
    ect
    s(l
    i
    kepol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    es)
    andtheselfasact
    ivepar
    ti
    cipant
    sar emini
    mal.
    Thus,or
    ient
    ati
    ontowar
    dsthesystem anditsout
    put
    sischannel
    edv
    iaar
    elat
    ivel
    ydet
    ached,
    passi
    verel
    ati
    onshi
    pont
    hepar
    tofthecit
    izen.
    Subj
    ectcul
    tur
    esar
    emostcompat
    ibl
    ewi
    thcent
    ral
    i
    zed,
    aut
    hor
    it
    ari
    anpol
    i
    tical
    str
    uct
    ures.
    I
    n par
    ti
    cipantcul
    tur
    es,member
    s ofsoci
    etyhav
    e hi
    gh cogni
    ti
    ve,af
    fect
    ive,and ev
    aluat
    ive
    ori
    entat
    iontothepoli
    ti
    calsyst
    em,i
    nputobj
    ect
    s,pol
    i
    cyout
    put
    s,andr
    ecogni
    zet
    hesel
    fasan
    act
    ivepart
    ici
    panti
    nthepol
    it
    y.
    Lar
    gely
    ,iti
    smostcompati
    blewithdemocrat
    icsy
    stemsbecauset
    hequal
    i
    tiesandat
    ti
    tudesof
    ci
    ti
    zensdet
    ermi
    net
    hestabi
    l
    ityofcount
    ry’
    sdemocr
    acy.
     Democr
    acycanonl
    ythr
    ivewhenci
    ti
    zensunder
    standandpar
    ti
    cipat
    eact
    ivel
    yinci
    vi
    candpol
    i
    tical
    l
    i
    febuti
    nfor
    medandeducat
    edpar
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    smor
    eimpor
    tant
    .
     However
    ,ther
    ear
    emanyf
    act
    orschal
    l
    engi
    ngt
    hedemocr
    acyanddemocr
    ati
    zat
    ionpr
    ocessof
    count
    ri
    esi
    ncl
    udi
    ngEt
    hiopi
    a.
     Wi
    thoutci
    ti
    zenswho possesst
    hesequal
    i
    ties,democr
    aci
    esbecomedi
    ff
    icul
    tto gov
    ern,ev
    en
    unst
    abl
    e.
     Fort
    hisr
    eason,ci
    vi
    csandet
    hicshasbeengi
    vent
    oincul
    cat
    ethesecompet
    enci
    esuponl
    ear
    ner
    s
    and,
    int
    urn,
    adv
    anceandst
    rengt
    hent
    hedemocr
    ati
    zat
    ionpr
    ocess.
    I
    nact
    iveci
    ti
    zenshi
    p,al
    so,par
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    snotr
    est
    ri
    ctedsi
    mpl
    ytot
    hepol
    i
    ticaldi
    mensi
    onr
    atheri
    t
    al
    soi
    ncl
    udessoci
    o-cul
    tur
    alandenv
    ironment
    alact
    ivi
    ti
    es.
     Gener
    all
    y,t
    hesubj
    ectpl
    aysundeni
    abl
    erol
    eindemocr
    ati
    zat
    ionpr
    ocesst
    hroughsol
    vi
    ngsoci
    etal
    pr
    obl
    ems,
    soci
    ali
    zi
    ngandr
    e-soci
    ali
    zi
    ngi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    s.
    i
    ii
    .TheNeedf
    orRel
    evantKnowl
    edge,
    Ski
    ll
    sandPosi
    ti
    veAt
    ti
    tudes:
     Rel
    evantknowl
    edgei
    sat
    ypeofknowl
    edgewhi
    chi
    susef
    uli
    ndeal
    i
    ngwi
    thapar
    ti
    cul
    arpr
    obl
    em ata

    MORALANDCI
    VICSEDUCATI
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    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    per
    iodoft
    ime.
     However
    ,knowl
    edgewoul
    dremai
    niner
    tknowl
    edgeunl
    essi
    tisf
    unct
    ionalorputi
    ntopr
    act
    icet
    o
    achi
    eveacer
    tai
    ngoal
    .
     St
    il
    lknowl
    edgewoul
    dremai
    ninf
    ir
    mift
    heper
    soni
    snotequi
    ppedwi
    thr
    ightat
    ti
    tudesandr
    equi
    sit
    e
    ski
    l
    lst
    oper
    for
    m hi
    s/herr
    oleasacr
    edi
    blememberofasoci
    ety
    .
     Ri
    ghtat
    ti
    tudesar
    ever
    yessent
    iali
    ngr
    edi
    ent
    sneededt
    oensur
    ehar
    monyandpeacef
    ulco-
    exi
    stence
    amongpeopl
    e.
    I
    tisr
    easonabl
    etocl
    aimt
    hatski
    l
    lfulmanpoweri
    sapr
    e-r
    equi
    sit
    eforev
    erynat
    iont
    hatwi
    shest
    o
    dev
    elop.
     Butski
    l
    lfulmanpowerwi
    thoutposi
    ti
    veat
    ti
    tudesi
    sresul
    tincount
    erpr
    oduct
    ionbecausev
    icesl
    i
    ke
    cor
    rupt
    ion,
    lat
    enessandabsent
    eei
    sm wi
    l
    lpopt
    hei
    rugl
    yheads.
     Fort
    hisr
    eason,ci
    vi
    csandet
    hicsi
    sacknowl
    edgedasanessent
    ialsubj
    ectasusef
    ulcur
    efort
    he
    ‘
    soci
    ali
    l
    ls’
    oft
    enassoci
    atedwi
    thy
    oungpeopl
    e.
     Att
    hel
    ocalcommuni
    tyl
    evel
    ,iti
    sassumedt
    hatsoci
    alandenv
    ironment
    alpr
    obl
    emscanbestbe
    r
    esol
    vedt
    hroughanunder
    standi
    ngofwhati
    tmeanst
    obeaci
    ti
    zen.
    i
    v.Thei
    ssueoff
    ost
    eri
    ngi
    nter
    cul
    tur
    alsoci
    eti
    es:
     Ther
    ecogni
    ti
    onofcul
    tur
    aldi
    ver
    sit
    yiscer
    tai
    nlymer
    it
    ori
    ous,butci
    vi
    csandet
    hicseducat
    ioncoul
    d
    mov
    east
    epf
    orwar
    dbyappeal
    i
    ngt
    othenot
    ionofi
    nter
    -cul
    tur
    ali
    sm.
     Beyonddi
    ff
    erencesofsemant
    ics,ci
    vi
    csi
    sausef
    uli
    nst
    rumentt
    owar
    dst
    oler
    ati
    ngeachot
    herand
    nur
    tur
    ingdy
    nami
    cexchangesbasedonopennessandef
    fect
    ivesol
    i
    dar
    it
    y.
     Thei
    ssueofi
    ncl
    usi
    veness:Ci
    vi
    csi
    sthoughtt
    onur
    tur
    eincl
    usi
    ver
    elat
    ionsandpr
    act
    icesi
    nbot
    h
    publ
    i
    candpr
    ivat
    espaceswhi
    l
    eensur
    ingi
    ncl
    usi
    venessandequi
    ty.
    I
    tshoul
    dal
    sogobey
    ondt
    hei
    deaofquot
    asf
    orwomeni
    nfor
    malpol
    i
    tics,
    orst
    rat
    egi
    est
    oempower
    woment
    opl
    aymal
    epol
    i
    tics.
     Hence,pr
    omot
    ingdemocr
    acyandi
    ncl
    usi
    venessi
    npubl
    i
    cspacesaswel
    lasi
    nfami
    l
    ies,
    wor
    kpl
    aces,
    uni
    ons,
    andot
    heri
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsbecomet
    hear
    eaoff
    ocusofci
    vi
    csandet
    hics.
    v
    .Thei
    ssueofpeace-
    bui
    ldi
    ng:
    I
    nanenv
    ironmentwi
    thhi
    ghmi
    l
    itar
    izat
    ion,t
    err
    ori
    sm,ci
    vi
    lwar
    sandgenoci
    dalact
    s,ci
    ti
    zenshi
    p
    educati
    onhastoadv ancest
    rat
    egi
    est
    opr
    omot
    ecooper
    ati
    on,di
    alogue,andasust
    ainabl
    epeace
    thati
    sbasedonjust
    ice.
    I
    tisobv
    ioust
    hatci
    vi
    csandet
    hicsal
    onecannotbr
    ingpeacet
    oourpl
    anet
    ,yeti
    tcanmakea
    v
    aluabl
    econt
    ri
    but
    iont
    ocr
    eat
    esubj
    ect
    ivecondi
    ti
    onsf
    ormor
    epeacef
    ulsi
    tuat
    ions.
     Thi
    sincl
    udest
    hedev
    elopmentofcompet
    enci
    esf
    orpeacemaki
    ng,conf
    li
    ctr
    esol
    uti
    on,heal
    i
    ng,
    r
    econci
    l
    iat
    ionandr
    econst
    ruct
    ion.
     Apeace-
    ori
    ent
    edci
    ti
    zenshi
    peducat
    ioncanf
    ost
    ert
    hedev
    elopmentofv
    alues,at
    ti
    tudesandski
    l
    ls
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    VICSEDUCATI
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    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    t
    onur
    tur
    epeacewi
    thi
    nour
    sel
    vesandi
    nourper
    sonal
    rel
    ati
    onshi
    ps.
     Theai
    m ofmor
    al/
    ethi
    calandci
    vi
    ceducat
    ioni
    stopr
    ovi
    depeopl
    etomakedeci
    sionsbyt
    hei
    rfr
    ee
    wi
    l
    ls.
     Ther
    efor
    e,t
    eachi
    nget
    hicshasani
    mpor
    tantandnecessar
    ypl
    acei
    neducat
    ion.
     St
    udent
    swhogr
    aduat
    edf
    rom uni
    ver
    sit
    iesmaybewel
    leducat
    edper
    sonsi
    nthei
    rpr
    ofessi
    onsbuti
    t
    i
    snotenough.
     Ar
    ist
    otl
    eal
    sosay
    s,“
    Educat
    ingt
    hemi
    ndwi
    thouteducat
    ingt
    hehear
    tisnoeducat
    ionatal
    l
    .”

    MoralandCivi
    csEducationisbasedonandseekst
    opr
    omot
    einst
    udent
    scor
    emor
    al,et
    hical
    ,
    democrat
    ic,
    andeducat
    ionalv
    alues,
    suchas:
    o Respectf
    orl
    i
    fe
    o Respectf
    orr
    easoni
    ng
    o Fai
    rness
    o Concer
    nfort
    hewel
    far
    eofot
    her
    s
    o Respectf
    ordi
    ver
    sit
    y
    o Peacef
    ulr
    esol
    uti
    onofconf
    li
    ct
    Insum,thegoaloft
    eachi
    ngci
    vi
    csandet
    hicsi
    stopr
    oducecompet
    ent
    ,hi
    ghmor
    alst
    andar
    dsoci
    ety
    andresponsi
    bleci
    ti
    zens.
    Democr
    acydoesn’
    tdeser
    vei
    tsnamewi
    thoutci
    ti
    zens’
    par
    ti
    cipat
    ion.Ci
    ti
    zens’
    inv
    olv
    ement
    Chapt
    erSummar
    y
     Ci
    vi
    ceducat
    ioni
    saneducat
    iont
    hatst
    udi
    esaboutt
    her
    ight
    sandr
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tiesofci
    ti
    zensofa
    pol
    i
    tical
    l
    yor
    gani
    zedgr
    oupofpeopl
    e.
     Et
    hicsi
    sabr
    anchofphi
    l
    osophyt
    hatdeal
    swi
    tht
    her
    ight
    nessandwr
    ongnessofhumanact
    ions.I
    n
    t
    hisr
    egar
    d,Et
    hicsi
    sthest
    udyofmor
    ali
    ty.
     Mor
    ali
    tyi
    sasetofper
    sonalandsoci
    alv
    alues,r
    ules,bel
    i
    efs,l
    aws,emot
    ions,andi
    deol
    ogi
    es
    col
    l
    ect
    ivel
    ygov
    erni
    ngt
    her
    ight
    nessandwr
    ongnessofhumanact
    ions.
    I
    n hi
    gheri
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons ofEt
    hiopi
    a,ci
    vi
    cs i
    s gi
    ven wi
    tht
    he ai
    m ofeducat
    ing st
    udent
    s about
    democr
    ati
    ccul
    tur
    e,et
    hical
    val
    ues,
    rul
    eofl
    aw,
    right
    sanddut
    iesofci
    ti
    zens.
     Themaj
    orgoalofci
    vi
    csandet
    hicsi
    spr
    oduci
    nggoodci
    ti
    zens,ci
    ti
    zenswhoobeyt
    hel
    aw;r
    espect
    t
    heaut
    hor
    it
    y;cont
    ri
    but
    etosoci
    ety
    ;lov
    ethei
    rcount
    ryandt
    hel
    i
    ke.
    I
    tisal
    soai
    medatcr
    eat
    ingagener
    ati
    onwhohast
    hecapabi
    l
    ityt
    oshoul
    derf
    ami
    l
    yandnat
    ional
    r
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    ty.
    ENDOFCHAPTERONE!

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    VICSEDUCATI
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    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)

    CHAPTERTWO:APPROACHESTOETHI
    CS
    Ther
    ear
    etwomaj
    orappr
    oachesofet
    hicsnamel
    y:nor
    mat
    iveandnon-
    nor
    mat
    iveet
    hics.

    2.
    1.Nor
    mat
    iveEt
    hics
    I
    tsul
    ti
    mat
    econcer
    nist
    ogui
    deusi
    nthemaki
    ngofdeci
    sionsandj
    udgment
    saboutact
    ionsi
    n
    par
    ti
    cul
    arsi
    tuat
    ions.
    I
    tist
    oguideusi nourcapaci
    tyasagent
    stodeci
    dewhatweshoul
    ddoi nsomecase.
    I
    toffer
    st heor
    iesoraccount softhebestwayt oli
    ve.Thesetheori
    eseval
    uateact
    ionsi
    na
    sy
    stemat
    icway
    .
    I
    tincl
    udes et
    hicalt
    heor
    ies orappr
    oaches such as ut
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm,deont
    ology
    ,vi
    rt
    ue et
    hics,
    pr
    inci
    pal
    i
    sm,
    andf
    emi
    nistet
    hics.
    2.
    1.1. Tel
    eol
    ogi
    calEt
    hics(
    Consequent
    ial
    ist
    )
     I
    tisref
    erredas“ t
    heendj ust
    if
    iesthemeans”
    .Itbel
    ievesi
    npurpose,endsorgoal
    sofanact
    ion.
    Theconsequencesofact
    iondeterminei
    tsmor
    ali
    tyorimmoral
    i
    ty.
     Onemayhavethebestint
    enti
    onorfol
    l
    owt hehi
    ghestmor
    alpri
    nci
    plesbuti
    fther
    esul
    t,mor
    alacti
    s
    har
    mful
    ,orbaditmustbejudgedasmoral
    l
    yorethi
    call
    ywrongact
    .
     At
    eleol
    ogi
    calt
    heor
    ysay sthatthebasi
    corul
    ti
    matecr
    it
    eri
    onorst
    andar
    dofwhati
    smor
    all
    yri
    ghtor
    wr
    ong,i
    sthecomparat
    ivebalanceofgoodov
    erev
    ilpr
    oduced.
     Thus, sr
    anacti ighti
    fandonlyifi
    twil
    lprobabl oduceagr
    ypr eatbal
    anceofgoodov
    erev
    ilandan
    swr
    acti ongi
    fandonlyi
    fitdoesnotdoso.
     Foratel
    eologi
    st,
    thequali
    tyorv
    alueofacti
    ons,
    persons,
    ort
    rai
    tsofchar
    act
    er,
    isdependentont
    he
    comparat
    ivenonmoralval
    ueofwhattheybri
    ngabout.
     Inordert
    oknow whet
    hersomet
    hingi
    sri
    ght
    ,onemustf
    ir
    stknow whati
    sgoodi
    nthenonmor
    al
    sense.
     Therei
    soneandonl yonebasi
    corult
    imateri
    ght
    -maki
    ngchar
    act
    eri
    sti
    c,namel
    y,t
    hecompar
    ati
    ve
    val
    ue(nonmor
    al)ofwhati
    s,t
    obebroughti
    ntobei
    ng.
     Hence,aper
    sonshal
    lmadecostbenef
    itanal
    ysi
    sbefor
    edoingagi
    venact
    ion.Howev
    er,t
    her
    ear
    e
    f
    urthert
    heor
    iesi
    nrel
    ati
    ont
    othegoodforwhom byt
    heacti
    on.
    2.
    1.1.
    1. Egoi
    sm:(
    Ethi
    calandPsy
    chol
    ogi
    cal
    Egoi
    sm)
    i
    .Et
    hicalEgoi
    sm
     Ast sm,humansar
    oegoi enotbui
    l
    ttol
    ookoutf
    orot
    herpeopl
    e’
    sint
    erest
    s.Besi
    des,pr
    opermor
    al

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    VICSEDUCATI
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    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    conductconsi
    st l
    sof“ooki
    ngoutf
    ornumberone”
    .
     Thetheoryimpl
    i
    est
    hatweoughtt
    obesel
    fi
    sh.Or
    ,toputi
    tmor
    egent
    ly,weoughtt
    obesel
    f-
    i
    nter
    ested.
     Cal
    l
    ingt
    het heor
    y“ et
    hical
    ”doesnotsuggestthatther
    emi ghtbeadecentwayt
    obesel
    fi
    sh;i
    t
    meanst
    hatethi
    calegoism i
    satheor
    ythatadv
    ocatesegoism asamor
    alr
    ule.
     
     Youshoul
    dlookaf
    tery
    our
    sel
    f
     I
    fyoudon’
    ttakeadv ant
    ageofasit
    uati
    on,youarefool
    ish.Thecl
    aimi
    sthati
    tmakesgoodsenset
    o
    l
    ookaft
    eryoursel
    f,andmoral
    it
    yisaresul
    tofthatsel
    f–inter
    est
    .
     IfImist
    reatother
    s,theymistr
    eatme,soIresol
    vetobehavemysel
    f.I
    tist
    wist
    edbecausewe
    shoul
    dtreatot
    herssi
    nceitgi
    vesusagoodchanceofr
    ecei
    vi
    ngsuchtr
    eat
    ment
    .
     I
    fyoumi
    ghtadv
    anceyourowni
    nter
    est
    sbyhel
    pingot
    her
    s,t
    henbyal
    lmeanshel
    pot
    her
    sbutonl
    yif
    y
    ouaret
    hemainbenef
    ici
    ary
    .
     I
    tisfi
    netohelpyourchi
    l
    drengetaheadi
    nschool
    ,becausey
    oul
    ovet
    hem andt
    hisl
    ovei
    sa
    r
    ati
    onal
    efory
    ou.
     Oneshoul
    ddowhatwi
    l
    lbeofl
    ongt
    erm benef
    itt
    oonesel
    f,suchasexer
    cisi
    ng,
    eat
    ingheal
    thyf
    ood,
     Someoft
    hemet
    hodst
    oappl
    ythepr
    inci
    plesofet
    hicalegoi
    sm ar
    e:
     Li
    stt
    hepossi
    bleact
    s
     Foreachact
    ,seehowmuchnetgoodi
    twoul
    ddof
    ory
    ou.
     I
    dent
    if
    ytheactt
    hatdoest
    hemostnetgoodf
    ory
    ou
    Somei
    mpor
    tantt
    hingst
    onot
    iceaboutet
    hical
    egoi
    sm:
     I
    tjustsayt
    hatf
    rom t
    hemoralpointofvi
    ew,onlyone’
    sownwel
    far
    ecount
    s,andot
    her
    s’does
    not,
    whenoneismakingamoraldeci
    sionabouthowtoact
    .
     Et
    hical
    egoi
    sm doesnotf
    orbi
    donet
    ohel
    pot
    her
    s,orr
    equi
    reonet
    ohar
    m ot
    her
    s.
     I
    tdoesnotsayoneoughtal
    way
    stodowhati
    smostpl
    easur
    abl
    e,orenj
    oyabl
    e.
    i
    i. Psy
    chol
    ogi
    calEgoi
    sm
    I
    tissai
    d;thatoneal
    waysseeksone'
    sownadv
    ant
    ageoral
    way
    sdoeswhathet
    hinkswi
    l
    lgi
    vehi
    m
    t
    hegreat
    estgoodoverev
    il
    .
    I
    nBut
    ler
    'st
    erms,
    thi
    smeanst
    hat"
    sel
    f-
    lov
    e"i
    stheonl
    ybasi
    c"pr
    inci
    ple"i
    nhumannat
    ure.
    I
    tmeanst hat"
    ego-
    sati
    sfacti
    on"ist
    hef
    inalai
    m ofal
    lact
    ivi
    tyort
    hat"
    thepl
    easur
    epr
    inci
    ple"i
    sthe
    basi
    c"dr
    ive"i
    never
    yindi
    v i
    dual.
    I
    fthisisso,thear gumentcont
    inues,wemustr ecogni
    zethi
    sfacti
    nourmoralt
    heor
    yandinfert
    hat
    ourbasicethicalpri
    nci
    plemustbet hatofsel
    f-
    love,al
    bei
    tcoolsel
    f-
    lov
    e.Tohol
    danyt
    hingel
    seisto
    fl
    yinthefaceoft hefacts.
    Onecannotl
    ogi
    cal
    l
    yinf
    eranet
    hical
    concl
    usi
    onf
    rom apsy
    chol
    ogi
    cal
    premi
    sei
    nthi
    sway
    .
    I
    tissi
    mplyunreal
    ist
    icandev
    enunr
    easonabl
    etopr
    oposet
    hatweoughtdoany
    thi
    ngbutwhati
    sfor
    ourowngreat
    estgood.

    MORALANDCI
    VICSEDUCATI
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    Page11
    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    Wecannotdoanyt
    hingexceptbymist
    ake,and,asaf amousdi
    ctum hasi
    t.“
    Ought
    ”impl
    i
    es“
    can”
    .
    Thus,
    thear
    gumentforet
    hical
    egoi
    sm i
    satleastreasonabl
    e.

    2.
    1.1.
    2. Ut
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm:Pr
    oduci
    ngt
    heBestConsequences
    Accor
    dingtout
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm,
    anact
    ioni
    sbest
    ,whi
    chpr
    ocur
    est
    hegr
    eat
    esthappi
    nessf
    ort
    hegr
    eat
    est
    numbers.

    Activi
    ty :
    Supposey ouar eatJi gji
    gawi thady ingmi ll
    i
    onaire.Wi t
    hhi sf inalwor ds,hebegsy ouf oronef inal
    favor:“I’
    v ededi catedmywhol el i
    fetofoot ballandforfift
    yy earshav egot tenendlesspl easurerooting
    fortheEt hiopianCof f
    eeCl ub.Now t hatIam dy i
    ng,Iwantt ogi veal lmyasset s,$2mi l
    li
    on,t othe
    EthiopianCof feeCl ub.”Poi ntingtoaboxcont ai
    ningmoneyi nl argebi l
    ls,hecont inues:“Woul dy ou
    taket hismoneybackt oAddi sAbabaandgi veittotheEt hi
    opi anCof feeCl ub’ownersot hattheycan
    buybet terpl ayers? ”Youagr eet ocar r
    youthi swi sh,atwhi chpoi ntahugesmi l
    eofr el
    iefand
    gratit
    udebr eaksoutonhi sf aceasheex pir
    esi nyourar ms.Af tert ravelingt oAddi sAbaba, youseea
    newspaperadv erti
    sementpl acedbyy ourf avori
    techar i
    ty,theEt hiopi anRedCr ossSoci ety(ERCS)
    (whosei ntegrityyoudonotdoubt ),
    pleadingf or$2mi l
    li
    ontobeusedt osav e100,000peopl edy ingof
    starvation.Notonl ywillthe$2mi l
    li
    onsav et hei
    rlives,buti twi llalsopur chaseequi pmentandt he
    kindsoff erti
    l
    izer snecessar yt obuildasust ai
    nableeconomy .Youdeci det oreconsidery ourpr omi se
    tothedy ingEt hiopianCof feeCl ubfan,inl i
    ghtofthisadv ert
    isement .
    Whati sther i
    ghtt hingtodoi nt hi
    scase?
    Youcanconsi
    dersomet
    radi
    ti
    onal
    mor
    alpr
    inci
    plesi
    ftheyhel
    pust
    oadeci
    sion.
     “
    Lety
    ourconsci
    encebey
    ourgui
    de.
    ”
     “
    Dowhat
    everi
    smostl
    ovi
    ng”
    ;
     Gol
    denRul
    e:“
    Dot
    oot
    her
    sasy
    ouwoul
    dhav
    ethem dot
    oyou.
    ”
     “
    Alway
    skeepy
    ourpr
    omi
    se.
    ”
    Unl
    ikeegoi
    sm,uti
    l
    itar
    ianism i
    samaximi
    zati
    onofgoodnesswi
    tht
    hegr
    eat
    estgoodnessf
    orgr
    eat
    est
    numberandnotmerel
    yt hegoodoft
    heagent
    .
    1.Cl
    assi
    cUt
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm
     I
    tdevel
    opedbyGreekphi
    losopherEpi
    curus(342–270BC),whostatedthat“
    pleasur
    eist
    hegoal
    nat
    ureor
    dai
    nedf
    orus;i
    tisstandardbywhichwejudgeev
    erythi
    nggood.”
     Accor
    ding t
    ot hi
    sv i
    ew,r
    ight
    ness and wr
    ongness ar
    e det
    ermi
    ned bypl
    easur
    e orpai
    nthat
    somethi
    ngproduces.
     Epi
    cur
    us’stheoryf
    ocusedlar
    gelyontheindi
    vidual
    ’sper
    sonalexper
    ienceofpl
    easur
    eandpai
    n,and
    tot
    hatextentheadvocat
    edav er
    sionofethi
    calegoism.
     Nev er
    thel
    ess,Epicurus i
    nspi
    red the notion of gener
    al happi
    ness—that i
    s,t
    he pl
    easi
    ng
    consequencesofacti
    onsthati
    mpactothersandnotj
    usttheindi
    vi
    dual.
     Classi
    caluti
    li
    tar
    iani
    sm appearint
    hewr it
    ingsoftwoEnglishphil
    osopher
    sandsoci
    alr
    efor
    mers
    MORALANDCI
    VICSEDUCATI
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    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    Jer
    emyBent
    ham (
    1748–1832)andJohnSt
    uar
    tMi
    l
    l(1806–1873)
    .
     Theywer
    esecularhumani
    sts,
    opt
    imi
    sti
    cabouthumannat
    ureandourabi
    l
    ityt
    osol
    veourpr
    obl
    ems
    wit
    houtr
    ecour
    setoGod.
     Theyst
    ruggl
    edforlegalaswel
    lasmor
    alr
    efor
    m,whi
    chl
    edGr
    eatBr
    it
    aint
    omaket
    hel
    aw ser
    ve
    humanneedsandinter
    ests.
    2.Jer
    emyBent
    ham:Quant
    it
    yov
    erQual
    it
    y
    Ther
    ear
    etwomai
    nfeat
    uresofut
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm,
    bot
    hofwhi
    chBent
    ham ar
    ti
    cul
    ated:
     The consequent
    ial
    istpri
    ncipl
    e( oritsteleol
    ogicalaspect
    ):stated t
    hatt he r
    ight
    ness or
    wrongnessofanactisdeter
    minedbyt hegoodnessorbadnessoftheresul
    ts.Iti
    stheend,not
    themeansthatcounts;
    theendjusti
    fi
    esthemeans.and
     Theut
    il
    it
    yprinci
    ple(
    orit
    shedonicaspect
    ):st
    atesthattheonlyt
    hingthati
    sgoodi
    nit
    sel
    fis
    somespeci
    fi
    ctypeofst
    ate(
    forexampl
    e,pl
    easure,
    happiness,
    welf
    are)
    .
    Hedoni sti
    cuti
    li
    tari
    ani
    sm viewspleasureast hesolegoodandpai nastheonlyevil.Anactisri
    ghtifit
    ei
    t herbr i
    ngsaboutmor epl easurethanpai norpr eventspain.Bentham i
    nvent edaschemef or
    measur ingpleasureandpai nthathecalledt hehedoni ccalcul
    us:Thequanti
    t ativ
    escor ef
    orany
    pleasureorpai nexper
    ienceisobt ai
    nedbysummi ngt hesevenaspectsofapl easur abl
    eorpainful
    experience:i
    tsint
    ensit
    y,durati
    on,cer
    tai
    nty
    , nearness,f
    ruit
    ful
    ness,pur
    it
    y ,
    andextent .
    Addi
    nguptheamountsofpl
    easur
    eandpainforeachpossi
    bleactandt
    hencompar
    ingt
    hescor
    es
    woul
    denabl
    eustodeci
    dewhi
    chacttoper
    for
    m.
    Therei
    ssomethi
    ngappeal
    ingaboutBent
    ham’sutil
    i
    tari
    ani
    sm.I
    tissi
    mpl
    eint
    hatt
    her
    eisonl
    yone
    pri
    nci
    plet
    oappl
    y:Maxi
    mizepl
    easur
    eandmi ni
    mizesuff
    eri
    ng.
    I
    tissci
    ent
    ifi
    c:Simplymakequant
    it
    ati
    vemeasurement
    sandapplyimpart
    ial
    ly,gi
    vi
    ngnospeci al
    t
    reat
    mentt
    oourselv
    esort
    oanyoneel
    sebecauseofr
    ace,
    gender
    ,per
    sonal
    rel
    ati
    onshi
    p,orr
    eli
    gion.
    3.JohnSt
    uar
    tMi
    ll
    :Qual
    it
    yov
    erQuant
    it
    y
     Bent
    ham’ssuccessor,John St
    uar
    tMi l
    l
    ,soughtto di
    sti
    nguish happi
    nessf
    rom mer
    e sensual
    pl
    easur
    e.Hi
    stheoryiseudai
    monist
    icut
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm (
    inGreek:
    happiness”
    ).
     Hedefi
    neshappinessintermsofcert
    ainty
    pesofhi
    gher-
    orderpl
    easur
    essuchasi
    ntel
    l
    ect
    ual
    ,
    aest
    het
    ic,
    andsocialenj
    oyment
    s,aswel
    lasmini
    mal
    suf
    fer
    ing.
     Therearet wotypesofpl
    easures.Thelower,orel
    ementary,includeeat
    ing,dri
    nki
    ng,sexual
    i
    ty,
    rest
    ing,andsensuoust
    it
    il
    lat
    ion.Higheri
    ncl
    udehighcul
    ture,scienti
    fi
    cknowledge,i
    ntel
    l
    ectual
    i
    ty,
    andcreati
    vi
    ty.
     Al
    thoughlowerpleasur
    esaremoregrati
    fyi
    ng,theyl
    eadtopai
    nwhenov
    eri
    ndul
    gedi
    n.Thehi
    gher
    pl
    easurestendt
    obemor el
    ongt
    erm,conti
    nuous,andgr
    adual
    .
     Mil
    larguedthatthehigher
    ,ormor
    eref
    ined,
    pleasuresar
    esuper
    iort
    othel “
    owerones:Iti
    sbet
    tert
    o
    beahumanbei ngdissati
    sfi
    edt
    hanapigsatisf
    ied;bet
    tert
    obeSocrat
    esdi
    ssati
    sfi
    edthanafool
    sat
    isf
    ied.”
     Humanswantt
    obet
    rul
    yhappy
    .Theywantl
    owerpl
    easur
    es,butal
    sodeepf
    ri
    endshi
    p,i
    ntel
    l
    ect
    ual
    MORALANDCI
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    TY-CI
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    ESDEPARTMENT(
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    2014)
    abi
    l
    ity
    ,&cul
    tur
    e,t
    ocr
    eat
    e&appr
    eci
    atear
    t,knowl
    edge,
    &wi
    sdom.
     Hence,thequali
    tyofhigherpleasuresi
    sbet
    ter
    .Butwhati
    sbet
    terpl
    easur
    e?Thef
    ormul
    acomesi
    s:
    Happiness…[is]notl
    i
    feofr apture;
    butmomentsmadebypai
    ns&pleasur
    es.
     Milli
    scl
    earl
    ypushingtheboundariesoft
    heconceptof“pl
    easur
    e”byemphasi
    zi
    nghi
    gherqual
    i
    ties
    suchasknowledge,i
    ntel
    l
    igence,
    freedom,f
    ri
    endshi
    p,l
    ove,andheal
    th.
     Inf
    act
    ,onemi
    ghtsayt
    hathisli
    tmust
    estforhappi
    nessreal
    lyhasl
    i
    ttl
    etodowi
    thact
    ualpl
    easur
    e
    andmoret
    odowit
    hanon-hedoni
    ccul
    ti
    vat
    edstateofmind.
    4.Act
    -andRul
    e-Ut
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm
     Ther
    ear
    etwot
    ypesofut
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm:act
    -andr
    ule-
    uti
    l
    itar
    iani
    sm.I
    nappl
    yi
    ngt
    hepr
    inci
    pleofact
    -
    ut
    il
    it
    ari
    ans,
    Bent
    ham,
    sayweoughtt
    oappl
    ythepr
    inci
    plet
    oal
    lal
    ter
    nat
    ives.
     Act
    -ut
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm ar
    guest
    hatanacti
    sri
    ghti
    fandonl
    yifi
    tresul
    tsi
    nasmuchgoodasany
    av
    ail
    abl
    eal
    ter
    nat
    ive.
     Onepr
    obl
    em ofact
    -ut
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm i
    sthatwecannotdonecessar
    ycal
    cul
    ati
    onst
    odet
    ermi
    newhi
    ch
    acti
    sthecor
    rectonei
    neachcase,
    forof
    tenwemustactandqui
    ckl
    y.
     So,r
    ulesoft
    humbar
    epr
    act
    ical
    exampl
    e,“
    don’
    tli
    e,
    ”and“
    keepy
    ourpr
    omi
    ses.
    ”Howev
    er,
    rightacti
    s
    st
    il
    lthatal
    ter
    nat
    ivewhi
    chr
    esul
    tsi
    nmostut
    il
    it
    y.
     A secondpr
    obl
    em wi
    thact
    -ut
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm i
    sthati
    tseemst
    ofl
    yint
    hef
    aceoff
    undament
    al
    i
    ntui
    ti
    onsaboutmi
    nimal
    lycor
    rectbehavi
    or.
     Rul
    e-ut
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm:
    Anacti
    sri
    ghti
    fandonl
    yifi
    tisr
    equi
    redbyar
    ulewhoseaccept
    ancewoul
    dlead
    t
    ogr
    eat
    erut
    il
    it
    yforsoci
    etyt
    hananyav
    ail
    abl
    eal
    ter
    nat
    ive.
     Humanbei
    ngsar
    erul
    e-f
    oll
    owi
    ngcr
    eat
    ures.Wel
    ear
    nbyadher
    ingt
    other
    ulesofagi
    vensubj
    ect
    ,
    whet
    heri
    tisspeaki
    ngal
    anguage,
    dri
    vi
    ngacar
    ,danci
    ng,
    etc.
     Wewantt
    ohav
    easetofact
    iongui
    dingr
    ulesbywhi
    cht
    oli
    ve.Theact
    -ut
    il
    it
    ari
    anr
    ule,
    todot
    heact
    t
    hatmaxi
    mizesut
    il
    it
    y,i
    stoogener
    alf
    ormostpur
    poses.
     Of
    ten,
    weneedspeci
    fi
    crul
    epr
    escr
    ibi
    ngtr
    uthf
    ulnesst
    hatpassest
    het
    estofr
    ati
    onal
    scr
    uti
    ny.
    TheSt r
    engthsofUt i
    lit
    ari
    anism
     Ut
    ili
    tari
    ani
    sm hasthreeveryposi
    ti
    vefeatur
    es.Thefir
    stat
    tracti
    onorstrengt
    hist
    hati
    tisasi
    ngl
    e
    pr
    incipl
    e,anabsol
    utesystem wi
    thapotenti
    alanswerf
    oreverysi
    tuat
    ion:
     I
    t’
    sgoodtohaveasimple,act
    ion-
    gui
    dingpri
    nci
    plet
    hati
    sappl
    i
    cabl
    etoev
    eryoccasi
    on—ev
    eni
    fit
    maybedi
    ff
    icul
    ttoappl
    y(l
    if
    e’snotsi
    mple).
     I
    tssecondstr
    engthi
    sthatuti
    li
    tari
    ani
    sm seemst ogettosubst
    anceofmor
    ali
    ty.I
    tisnotmer
    ely
    f
    ormalsyst
    em t
    hatsi
    mplyset
    sbr oadgui
    del
    inesbutoff
    ersnopri
    nci
    ples.
     Assuch,
    uti
    l
    itar
    iani
    sm seemscommonsensi
    cal
    .
     Athi
    rdstrengthi
    sthati
    tispart
    icul
    arl
    ywellsui
    tedtoaddr
    esst
    hepr
    obl
    em ofpost
    eri
    ty—namel
    y,
    pr
    eser
    vingresour
    cescar
    cit
    yfort
    hebetter
    mentoffut
    ure.

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    VICSEDUCATI
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    HAWASSAUNI
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    TY-CI
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    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
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    2014)
    TheCr
    it
    ici
    smsofUt
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm
    Uti
    li
    tari
    ani
    sm hasbeenaroundf
    orsever
    alcentur
    ies,butsotoohavebeenit
    scr
    it
    ics,andweneedto
    addressaseri
    esofstandar
    dobj
    ect
    ionstouti
    li
    tar
    ianism bef
    orewecangiv
    eita“
    philosophi
    cal
    l
    ycl
    ean
    bi
    llofheal
    th.
    ”
     Pr
    obl
    emswi
    thFor
    mul
    ati
    ngUt
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm
     Thef
    ir
    stsetofpr
    obl
    emsoccur
    sint
    hev
    eryf
    ormul
    ati
    onofut
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm:“
    Thegr
    eat
    esthappi
    ness
    f
    ort
    hegr
    eat
    estnumber
    .”
     Not
    icet
    hatwehav
    etwo“
    great
    est
    ”thi
    ngsi
    nthi
    sfor
    mul
    a:“
    happi
    ness”and“
    number
    .”
     Wheneverwehavet
    wov
    ari
    abl
    es,
    wei
    nvi
    tepr
    obl
    emsofdet
    ermi
    ningwhi
    choft
    hev
    ari
    abl
    est
    orank
    f
    ir
    stwhent
    heyseem t
    oconf
    li
    ct.
    DearSt
    udent
    s;
    SupposethatIam of
    feri
    nga$1,000pr izetothepersonwhorunsthelongestdist
    anceintheshor
    test
    amountoft i
    me.Threepeoplepart
    icipate:Abeberuns5km in31mi nut
    es,Kelbesaruns7km in50
    minutes,
    andObangr uns1km in6mi nutes.Whoshoul dgett
    heprize?Abebehasf ul
    fi
    ll
    edonepartof
    therequi
    rement(r
    unt helongestdistance),butObanghasf ul
    fi
    ll
    edt heotherrequi
    rement(r
    unt he
    short
    estamountoftime).
    Hence,we mi
    ghtconcern oursel
    ves wi
    th spr
    eadi
    ng happi
    ness t
    o gr
    eat
    estnumberand al
    so
    concer
    nedt
    ogr
    eatesthappi
    nessinsoci
    ety
    .
     Compar
    ati
    veConsequencesObj
    ect
    ion
     Anothercruci
    alpr
    oblem i
    sthati
    tseemst or
    equi
    reasuper
    humanabi
    l
    ityt
    olooki
    ntot
    hef
    utur
    eand
    sur
    veyarrayofconsequencesofact
    ions.
     Ofcourse,
    wenor
    mallydonotknowthelong-
    term consequencesofouract
    ionsbecausel
    i
    fei
    stoo
    complexandt
    heconsequencesgooni
    ntotheindefi
    nit
    efuture.
     Consi
    stencyObj
    ect
    iont
    oRul
    e-Ut
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm
     Whenpushedtoit
    slogi
    call
    i
    mit
    s,i
    tmustei
    therbecomeadeont
    ologi
    calsy
    stem ort
    ransf
    ormi
    tsel
    f
    i
    ntoact
    -ut
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm.
     Assuch,iti
    sani
    nconsi
    stentt
    heor
    ythatof
    fer
    snot
    rul
    yindependentst
    andar
    dformaki
    ngmor
    al
    j
    udgments.
     Itwoul
    dseem t
    hatwecoul
    dalwaysimprov
    eonanyv
    ersi
    onofr
    ule-
    uti
    l
    itar
    iani
    sm bybr
    eaki
    ngt
    he
    setofr
    ulesi
    fwecoul
    dbr
    ingmoreuti
    l
    ity
    .
     TheNo-
    RestObj
    ect
    ion
    Accor
    dingtouti
    li
    tar
    iani
    sm,oneshoul
    dalwaysdoanactthatpr
    omotesthemostut
    il
    it
    y.Butt
    her
    eis
    usual
    l
    yinfi
    nit
    esetofpossi
    bleact
    stochoosef
    rom ev
    eni
    fIcanbeexcused.

     ThePubl
    ici
    tyObj
    ect
    ion

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    HAWASSAUNI
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    TY-CI
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    ESDEPARTMENT(
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     I
    tisusuallyt
    houghtt
    hatmor
    alpr
    inci
    plesmustbeknownt
    oal
    lsot
    hatal
    lmayf
    reel
    yobeyt
    he
    pr
    inci
    ples.
     Bututi
    li
    tari
    anshesi
    tat
    etorecommendthatever
    yoneactasaut i
    li
    tar
    ian,
    especi
    all
    yanact
    -ut
    il
    it
    ari
    an,
    becauseittakesgr
    eatdeal
    toworkoutt
    helikel
    yconsequencesofacti
    on.
     Itwouldbebet t
    erifmostpeopleactedsi
    mpl
    yasdeont
    ologi
    sts.Thus,ut
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm seemst
    o
    cont
    radictourr
    equi
    rementofpubl
    ici
    ty.
     Rel
    ati
    vi
    sm Obj
    ect
    ion
     Someti
    mespeopleaccuser ule-
    uti
    l
    itar
    iani
    sm ofbei
    ngr
    elat
    ivi
    sti
    cbecausei
    tseemst
    oendor
    se
    di
    ff
    erentr
    ulesi
    ndi
    ff
    erentsocieti
    es.
     I
    nonesoci
    ety
    ,itmayuphol
    dpol
    ygamy
    ,wher
    easi
    noursoci
    etyi
    tdef
    endsmonogamy
    .
     I
    nadesertsoci
    ety,i
    tupholdsar
    ule“
    Don’
    twast
    ewat
    er,
    ”wher
    easi
    nacommuni
    tywher
    ewat
    eri
    s
    pl
    ent
    if
    ulnosuchruleexi
    sts.
     Butthi
    sisnotreal
    l
    yconvent
    ionalr
    elat
    ivi
    sm becauset
    her
    ulei
    snotmadev
    ali
    dbyt
    hecommuni
    ty’
    s
    choosi
    ngitbutbytheact
    ual
    situat
    ion.
     Cr
    it
    ici
    sm oft
    heEndsJust
    if
    yingI
    mmor
    alMeans
     Chi
    efamongcr
    it
    ici
    smsofut
    il
    itar
    iani
    sm i
    sthatut
    il
    it
    ari
    anendsmightjust
    if
    yimmor
    almeans.Ther
    e
    ar
    emanythi
    ngswecandointhenameofmaxi mi
    zinggener
    alhappi
    ness.
     Asl
    ongasthelargerpopul
    acebenef
    it
    s,t
    heseact
    ionsmi
    ghtbej
    ust
    if
    ied.Thegener
    alpr
    obl
    em can
    bel
    aidouti
    nthi
    sar gument
    :
     I
    famor alt
    heoryj
    usti
    fi
    esacti
    onsthatweuniversal
    lydeem i
    mper
    missi
    ble,t
    hent
    hatmor
    alt
    heor
    y
    mustberej
    ect
    ed.Ther
    efor
    e,uti
    l
    itar
    iani
    sm mustbereject
    ed.
     TheLyi
    ngObj
    ect
    ion
    Will
    i
    am D.Rosshasar
    guedt
    hatuti
    l
    itar
    iani
    sm i
    stoberej
    ect
    edbecausei
    tleadst
    othecount
    eri
    ntui
    ti
    ve
    endorsementofl
    yi
    ngwheni
    tser
    vesthegreat
    ergood.
    Butwher
    elyingwil
    lcl
    ear
    lypr
    omot
    eut
    il
    it
    ywi
    thoutunder
    mini
    ngt
    hegener
    aladher
    encet
    other
    ule,we
    si
    mplyoughttol
    ie.
    Thr
    ee-
    StepAct
    ionFor
    mul
    a:
    Ut
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm mi
    ghtbeconst
    ruedasof
    fer
    ingat
    hree-
    stepact
    ionf
    ormul
    aforact
    ion:
    1.Ont
    hebasisofwhatIknow,Imustproj
    ectt
    heconsequencesofeachal
    ter
    nat
    iveopt
    ionopent
    o
    me(
    e.g.
    ,taki
    ngdi
    ff
    erentki
    ndsofacti
    onsortaki
    ngnoacti
    on).
    2.Cal
    cul
    atehow muchhappiness,orbalanceofhappinessoverunhappi
    ness,i
    sli
    kel
    ytobe
    pr
    oducedbyant
    ici
    pat
    edconsequencesofeachact
    ionornone.
    3.Selectthatacti
    onwhich,onbal
    ance,wi
    l
    lpr
    oducet
    hegr
    eat
    estamountofhappi
    nessf
    ort
    he
    greatestnumberofpeopl
    eaff
    ect
    ed
     Gener
    ally
    ,uti
    li
    tar
    iani
    sm i
    samoraltheor
    ywhi
    cht
    akesi
    ntoaccounthow t
    heconsequencesofan
    actwi
    llaff
    ectall
    thepar
    ti
    esi
    nvol
    ved.

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    HAWASSAUNI
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    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
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    2014)
     Moralr
    ight
    nessdependsont heconsequencesforallaf
    fectedpeopl
    eorsent
    ientbei
    ngs.The
    f
    undamentalpr
    inci
    pleofut
    il
    it
    ariani
    sm i
    sthepri
    nci
    pleofuti
    l
    ity
    :
     Theprinci
    pleofutil
    it
    y
     Themor all
    yri
    ghtactionistheonethatpr
    oducest
    hebestoveral
    lconsequenceswi
    thregardto
    theutil
    i
    tyorwelfareofallt
    heaff
    ectedpar
    ti
    es.
     Jer emyBent ham’s slogan:The ri
    ghtactorpoli
    cyist he one t
    hatcauses ‘t
    he great
    est
    happinessofthegreatestnumber’
    .
    5.Al
    tr
    uism
    I
    nal
    tr
    uism,anact
    ioni
    sri
    ghti
    ftheconsequencesoft
    hatact
    ionar
    efav
    orabl
    etoal
    lexceptt
    he
    act
    or.
     Ast
    oBut
    ler
    ,wehav
    eani
    nher
    entpsy
    chol
    ogi
    calcapaci
    tyt
    oshowbenev
    olencet
    oot
    her
    swhi
    chi
    s
    cal
    l psy
    edas“ chol
    ogi
    calal
    tr
    uism"
    .
    Itmai nt
    ainsthatatl
    eastsomeofouract
    ionsar
    emot i
    vat
    edbyinsti
    ncti
    vebenev
    olence.
     Psychol
    ogicalaltr
    uism hol
    ds t
    hatallhuman act
    ion i
    s necessar
    il
    yothercentered and ot
    her
    mot
    ivat
    ed.I
    tresul
    tsi
    nopposi
    ngconcl
    usi
    onst
    opsy
    chol
    ogi
    cal
    egoi
    sm.
     Al
    tr
    uist
    sar
    epeopl
    ewhoactsot
    oincr
    easeot
    herpeopl
    e’
    spl
    easur
    e.Theywi
    l
    lactf
    ort
    hesakeof
    someoneel
    seev
    eni
    fitdecr
    easest
    hei
    rownpl
    easur
    eandcausest
    hemsel
    vespai
    n.
     Hence,one’
    sdesi
    r segoi
    ei sti
    cifi
    tconcer
    nst
    hebenef
    itofonesel
    fandnotany
    oneel
    seandi
    f
    al
    tr
    uist
    ic,
    itconcer
    nst
    hebenef
    itofatl
    eastsomeoneot
    hert
    hanonesel
    f.
     Al
    tr
    uist
    srej
    ectt
    het
    heor
    yofpsy
    chol
    ogi
    calegoi
    sm andar
    guei
    nst
    eadt
    hathumansar
    einst
    inct
    ivel
    y
    benev
    olent
    .
     Thus,i
    nst
    inct
    ivebenev
    olence,
    ist
    hef
    eat
    ureofourhumannat
    urewhi
    chi
    sthebasi
    sofoural
    tr
    uist
    ic
    mor
    alobl
    i
    gat
    ions
    2.
    1.2. Deont
    ologi
    calEt
    hics(
    Non-Consequent
    ial
    ist
    )
    Deont
    ology
    :Whatdut
    yasksofus?
     Whatmakesa‘r
    ight
    ’actr
    ight
    ?Theuti
    l
    itar
    ianorconsequent
    ial
    i
    stanswert
    othi
    squest
    ioni
    sthati
    t
    i
    sthegoodout
    comeofanactwhichmakesitri
    ght.
     Moralr
    ight
    ness orwrongness i
    s cal
    culat
    ed bydet er
    mining t
    he ext
    entt
    o whi
    ch t
    he act
    ion
    pr
    omotesval
    uessuchaspleasur
    e,well
    -bei
    ng,happi
    ness,et
    c.
     Tothi
    sextent,t
    heendj ust
    if
    iesthemeans.I
    nmanyr
    espect
    s,deont
    ologi
    calmor
    alt
    heor
    yis
    di
    ametr
    ical
    l
    ytheopposi
    teofuti
    li
    tar
    iani
    sm.
     I
    tisr
    efer
    redas“
    themeansj
    ust
    if
    iest
    heend”
    .Iti
    scoi
    nedas“
    deont
    ics”
    .
     Ther i
    ght
    nessorwr ongnessofmor alactioni
    sdet er
    minedwi
    thr
    efer
    encet
    ofor
    malr
    ulesof
    conductr
    athert
    hanconsequencesorresul
    tofanact
    ion.
     I
    tisanemphasi
    sontheintenti
    ons,mot
    ives,mor
    alpr
    inci
    plesorper
    for
    manceofdut
    yrat
    hert
    han
    r
    esul
    ts,
    ast
    hesignofr
    ightacti
    on.
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    VICSEDUCATI
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    2014)
     I
    tisadutybasedandaccordi
    ngtothi
    stheory
    ,theconsequencesorr
    esul
    tsofouract
    ionhav
    e
    not
    hingt
    odowitht
    hei
    rri
    ghtnessorwr
    ongness.
    2.
    1.2.
    1. SamuelPuf
    endor
    f-Per
    for
    manceofOne’
    sownDut
    y
     The17 cent
    t
    h
    uryGer
    manphi
    l
    osopherSamuelPuf
    endor
    f,whocl
    assi
    fi
    eddozensofdut
    iesunder
    t
    hreeheadi
    ngs:dut
    iest
    oGod,
    dut
    iest
    oonesel
    fanddut
    iest
    oot
    her
    s!
     Concer
    ningourdut
    iest
    owar
    dsGod,hear
    guedt
    hatt
    her
    ear
    etwoki
    nds:(
    1)at
    heor
    eti
    caldut
    yto
    know t
    heexi
    stenceandnat
    ureofGod,and(
    2)apr
    act
    icaldut
    ytobot
    hinwar
    dlyandout
    war
    dly
    worshi
    pGod.
     Concer
    ningourdut
    iest
    owar
    dsonesel
    f;t
    hesear
    eal
    sooft
    wosor
    ts:(
    1)dut
    iesoft
    hesoul
    ,whi
    ch
    i
    nvolvedev
    elopi
    ngone'sski
    l
    lsandt al
    ents,and(2)dut
    iesofthebody,whi
    chi
    nvol
    venothar
    ming
    ourbodi
    es,t
    hroughgl
    utt
    onyordrunkenness,andnotki
    l
    lingonesel
    f.
     Concer
    ningourdut
    iest
    owar
    dsot
    her
    s;Puf
    endor
    fdi
    vi
    dest
    hesebet
    weenabsol
    utedut
    ies,whi
    ch
    areuni
    ver
    sal
    l
    ybi
    ndi
    ngonpeopl
    e,andcondi
    ti
    onaldut
    ies,
    whi
    char
    ether
    esul
    tofcont
    ract
    sbet
    ween
    peopl
    e.
    Absol
    uteduti
    esareofthr
    eesor
    ts:(
    1)av oi
    dwrongi
    ngother
    s;(
    2)tr
    eatpeopl
    easequal
    s,and(3)
    pr
    omot ethegoodofot s.Condi
    her t
    ionaldut
    iesinv
    olvevar
    ioustypesofagr
    eements,the
    pr
    inci
    paloneofwhichi
    sthedut
    yistokeepone'spr
    omises.
    2.
    1.2.
    2. TheDi
    vi
    neCommandTheor
    y
    Accordi
    ngt
    oDCT, et
    hicalpri
    nci
    plesar
    esi
    mplyt
    hecommandsofGod.Theyder
    ivet
    hei
    rval
    i
    dit
    yfr
    om
    God’scommandi
    ngthem, andtheymean“
    commandedbyGod.
    ”
    Wit
    houtGod,
    ther
    ewoul
    dbenouni
    ver
    sal
    l
    yval
    i
    dmor
    ali
    ty.Wecananal
    yzet
    heDCTi
    ntot
    hreesepar
    ate
    t
    heses:
    1.Mor
    ali
    ty(
    thati
    s,r
    ight
    nessandwr
    ongness)or
    igi
    nat
    eswi
    thGod.
    2.Moralr
    ight
    nesssi
    mpl
    ymeans“
    wil
    l
    edbyGod,
    ”andmor
    alwr
    ongnessmeans“
    bei
    ngagai
    nstt
    he
    wi
    ll
    ofGod.”
    3.Becausemoral
    it
    yessential
    lyisbasedondivi
    newil
    l,notoni
    ndependent
    lyexi
    sti
    ngr
    easonsf
    or
    act
    ion,nof
    urt
    herreasonsforact
    ionar
    enecessar
    y.
    Wecansummari
    zetheDCTthisway:Mor
    ali
    tynotonlyori
    ginateswit
    hGod,butmor
    alr
    ight
    ness
    means“
    wil
    l
    edbyGod”&wr
    ongnessmeans“
    bei
    ngagainstt
    hewi l
    lofGod”.
    Sowemayask,“I
    fGoddoesn’
    texist
    ,ev
    eryt
    hingisper
    missi
    ble?
    ”Ifso,not
    hingisfor
    biddenorr
    equir
    ed.
    Wit
    houtGod,wehavemoralni
    hil
    i
    sm.IfthereisnoGod,thennothi
    ngiset hi
    cal
    l
    ywr ong,r
    equi
    red,or
    per
    mitt
    ed.
    Pr
    obl
    emswi
    tht
    heDi
    vi
    neCommandTheor
    y
    Ther
    ear
    etwopr
    obl
    emswi
    tht
    heDCTt
    hatneedt
    obef
    acedbyt
    hosewhohol
    dit
    .
    1.DCTwouldseem t
    omaket heat
    tri
    but
    ionof“goodness”t
    oGodredundant
    .Thest
    atement“
    God
    commandsustodowhati
    sgood”merelyi
    sthelogi
    cal
    lyempt
    yst
    atement.
    2.DCTseemst
    omakemor
    ali
    tyi
    ntosome-
    thi
    ngar
    bit
    rar
    y.I
    fGod’
    sdecr
    eei
    sthesol
    ear
    bit
    erofr
    ight

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    VICSANDETHI
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    2014)
    andwrong,i
    twouldseem t
    obelogi
    cal
    l
    ypossi
    bleforsuchheinousact
    sasr
    ape,ki
    l
    li
    nginnocent,
    andgr
    atui
    touscr
    uelt
    ytobecomegoodi
    fGodsuddenl
    ydecidedtocommandustodotheset
    hings.
    2.
    1.2.
    3. Ri
    ght
    sTheor
    y
     Mostgener
    all
    y,"
    ri
    ght
    "isaj
    ust
    if
    iedcl
    aim agai
    nstanot
    herper
    son'
    sbehav
    ior-suchasmyr
    ightt
    o
    notbehar
    medbyy
    ou.
     Ri
    ght
    sanddut
    iesar
    erel
    atedi
    nsuchawayt
    hatt
    her
    ight
    sofoneper
    soni
    mpl
    ythedut
    iesof
    anot
    herper
    son.
     Forexampl
    e,i
    fIhav
    ear
    ightt
    opay
    mentof$10bySmi
    th,t
    henSmi
    thhasadut
    ytopayme$10.
    Thi
    siscal
    l
    edt
    hecor
    rel
    ati
    vi
    tyofr
    ight
    sanddut
    ies.
     Br
    it
    ishphi
    l
    osopherJohnLocke,ar
    guedt
    hatt
    hel
    awsofnat
    uremandat
    ethatweshoul
    dnothar
    m
    any
    one'
    sli
    fe,
    heal
    th,
    li
    ber
    tyorpossessi
    ons.ForLocke,
    thesear
    enat
    ural
    right
    s.
     Fol
    l
    owi
    ngLocke,
    theDecl
    arat
    ionofI
    ndependenceaut
    hor
    edbyThomasJef
    fer
    sonr
    ecogni
    zest
    hree
    f
    oundat
    ional
    right
    s:l
    i
    fe,
    li
    ber
    ty,
    andt
    hepur
    sui
    tofhappi
    ness.
     Jef
    fer
    sonandot
    her
    sri
    ght
    stheor
    ist
    smai
    ntai
    nedt
    hatwededuceot
    hermor
    especi
    fi
    cri
    ght
    sfr
    om
    t
    hese,
    incl
    udi
    ngt
    her
    ight
    sofpr
    oper
    ty,
    mov
    ement
    ,speech,
    andr
    eli
    giousexpr
    essi
    on.
     Ther
    ear
    efourf
    eat
    urest
    radi
    ti
    onal
    lyassoci
    atedwi
    thmor
    alr
    ight
    s.
     Fi
    rst
    ,ri
    ght enat
    sar uralast
    heyar
    enoti
    nvent
    edorcr
    eat
    edbygov
    ernment
    s.
     Second,
    t euni
    heyar ver
    salast
    heydonotchangef
    rom count
    ryt
    ocount
    ry.
     Thi
    rd,
    t eequal
    heyar ort
    hesamef
    oral
    lpeopl
    e,i
    rr
    espect
    iveofgender
    ,race,
    orhandi
    cap.
     Fourt
    h,t ei
    heyar nal
    i
    enablewhi
    chmeanst
    hatIcannothandov
    ermyr
    ight
    stoanot
    herper
    son,
    suchasbysel
    l
    ingmysel
    fint
    osl
    aver
    y.
    2.
    1.2.
    4. Kant
    ’sCat
    egor
    ical
    Imper
    ati
    ve
     Ger
    manphi
    l
    osopher
    ,ImmanuelKant(
    1724-
    1804)i
    sident
    if
    iedwi
    thmor
    alt
    heor
    yofdeont
    ology
    .
    Kantopposedt
    hatt
    heout
    comeofanact
    iondet
    ermi
    nei
    tsmor
    alwor
    th.
     Fordeont
    ologi
    sts,i
    tisnotconsequenceswhi
    chdet
    ermi
    net
    her
    ight
    nessorwr
    ongnessofanact
    ,
    but
    ,rat
    her
    ,thei
    ntent
    ionoft
    heper
    sonwhocar
    ri
    esoutt
    heact
    .
     Theemphasi
    sisont
    hecor
    rect
    nessoft
    heact
    ion,r
    egar
    dlessoft
    hepossi
    blebenef
    it
    sorhar
    mit
    mi
    ghtpr
    oduce.
     Deont
    ologi
    stsmai
    ntai
    nthatt
    her
    ear
    esomemor
    alobl
    i
    gat
    ionswhi
    char
    eabsol
    utel
    ybi
    ndi
    ng,no
    mat
    terwhatconsequencesar
    epr
    oduced.

    TheCat
    egor
    ical
    Imper
    ati
    ve
     A Kant
    ’sdut
    y-basedt
    heor
    yisemphasi
    zesasi
    ngl
    epr
    inci
    pleofdut
    y.Wehav
    emor
    aldut
    iest
    o
    onesel
    fandot
    her
    s,suchasdev
    elopi
    ngone’
    stal
    ent
    s,andkeepi
    ngourpr
    omi
    ses.
     However
    ,Kantar
    guedt
    hatt
    her
    eisamor
    efoundat
    ionalpr
    inci
    pleofdut
    ythatencompassesour
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    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    par
    ti
    cul
    ardut
    ies.
    I
    tisasi
    ngl
    e,sel
    f-
    evi
    dentpr
    inci
    pleofr
    easont
    hathecal
    l
    sthe“
    cat
    egor
    icali
    mper
    ati
    ve.
    ”
     A categori
    calimper at
    ive,hear gued,isdiffer
    entfrom hy
    pothet
    icali
    mperat
    ivesthathingeon
    someper sonaldesirethatwehav e.Forexample,“
    Ifyouwanttogetagoodjob,theny ouought
    togot ocoll
    ege.”Bycont r
    ast,categoricali
    mperati
    vesimplymandatesanact
    ion,i
    rrespect
    iveof
    personaldesi
    res,suchas“ Yououghtt odoX. ”
     Kantbel
    i
    eved:t
    her
    ewasj
    ustonecommandori
    mper
    ati
    vet
    hatwascat
    egor
    ical
    ,thatpr
    esent
    edan
    act
    ionasnecessar
    yofi
    tsel
    f,wi
    thoutr
    egar
    dtoanyot
    herend.
     Hebel
    i
    evedt
    hatf
    rom t
    hisonecat
    egor
    icali
    mper
    ati
    ve,t
    hisuni
    ver
    salcommand,al
    lcommandsof
    dut
    ycoul
    dbeder
    ived.
     Hi
    scat
    egor
    icali
    mper
    ati
    v sbasedont
    ei hei
    deat
    hatt
    her
    ear
    ecer
    tai
    nobj
    ect
    iveet
    hicalr
    ulesi
    nthe
    wor
    ld.
     Kant
    ’sv
    ersi
    oni
    smostwel
    l
    -known,
    &rel
    i
    esonhi
    si hatal
    deat lpeopl
    ear
    efundament
    all
    ycapabl
    eof
    r
    easoni
    ngi
    nthesamemannerandont
    hesamel
    evel
    .
     Hypot
    het
    icali
    mper
    ati
    vest
    el chmeansbestachi
    luswhi eveourends.Theydonot
    ,howev
    er,
    tel
    lus
    whi
    chendsweshoul
    dchoose.
     Thet
    ypi
    caldi
    chot
    omyi
    nchoosi
    ngendsi
    sbet
    weenendst
    hatar
    e"r
    ight
    "(e.
    g.,hel
    pingsomeone)
    andt
    hoset
    hatar
    e"good"(
    e.g.
    ,enr
    ichi
    ngonesel
    f)
    .
     Kantconsi
    der
    edt
    he"
    ri
    ght
    "super
    iort
    othe"
    good"
    .InKant
    'sv
    iew,aper
    soncannotdeci
    dewhet
    her
    conducti
    s"r
    ight
    ,"ormor
    al,
    thr
    oughempi
    ri
    cal
    means.
     Suchj
    udgment eachedapr
    smustber ior
    i,usi
    ngpur
    epr
    act
    icalr
    eason.Reason,candet
    ermi
    net
    he
    pr
    inci
    pleaccor
    dingt
    owhi
    chal
    lendscanbedet
    ermi
    nedasmor
    al.
    Itist
    hisfundament
    alpr
    inci
    pleofmoral
    reasonthati
    sknownast
    hecategor
    ical
    imperat
    ive.
     Kant
    'stheoryi
    shingedonaut onomyandhi sformul
    ati
    onofcat
    egori
    calimper
    ati
    ves.Unlessa
    per
    sonf
    reel
    yandwi
    l
    li
    ngl
    ymakesachoi
    ce,
    thei
    ract
    ionhasnomeani
    ng.
     Aut
    onomyi
    sone’
    sownbel
    i
    efs,i
    ndependence,andgov
    ernment
    :act
    ingwi
    thoutr
    egar
    dforany
    one
    el
    se.Conv
    ersel
    y,het
    eronomyi
    sact
    ingundert
    hei
    nfl
    uenceofot
    her
    s.
     Kantbel
    i
    evedt
    hateachi
    ndi
    vi
    duali
    srat
    ionalandcapabl
    eofmaki
    ngf
    reechoi
    ces;
    ther
    ebyr
    eli
    eson
    aut
    onomoust
    hinki
    ng.
     Kantconcl
    udest
    hatat
    ruemor
    alpr
    oposi
    ti
    onmustbenott
    iedt
    o anypar
    ti
    cul
    arcondi
    ti
    ons,
    i
    ncl
    udi
    ngt
    hei
    dent
    it
    yofper
    sonmaki
    ngmor
    aldel
    i
    ber
    ati
    on.
     ThePr
    inci
    pleofUni
    ver
    sal
    it
    y
    The fi
    rstmaxi m stat
    es thatwe shoul
    d choose our' codes ofconduct'onl
    yift hey serve
    per
    fect/
    imperf
    ectdutyandaregoodf .Per
    oral
    l f
    ectduti
    esar eblameworthyi
    fnotmetEx:avoidance
    ofsui de.I
    ci mperfectdut
    ies donotachi
    eveblame,rathert heyrecei
    veprai
    seifcompleted;Ex:
    cul
    ti
    vati
    ngtal
    ent.

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    ESDEPARTMENT(
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     ThePr
    inci
    pleofHumani
    tyasanEnd,
    Nev
    erasMer
    elyaMeans
    Thesecondmaxim st
    atest
    hatweshoul dnotusehumanit
    yofour
    selv
    esorot
    her
    sasameanst
    oan
    end.Ev
    eryr
    ati
    onalact
    ionmustsetnotonlyapri
    nci
    ple,
    butal
    soanend.
     ThePr
    inci
    pleofAut
    onomy
    Thethir
    dmaxim st
    atest
    hatweshouldconsi
    deroursel
    vest
    obemembersint
    heuni
    ver
    salr
    eal
    m of
    ends.Ther
    ef e,ev
    or eryr
    ati
    onalbei
    ngmustsoactasi fhewer
    ethroughhismaxi
    m al
    waysa
    l
    egisl
    ati
    ngmemberintheuni
    ver
    salki
    ngdom ofends.
    2.
    1.2.
    5. Ross’
    sPr
    imaFaci
    eDut
    iesorMor
    alGui
    del
    ines
     Af
    our
    th andmor
    erecentdut
    y-basedt
    heor
    yist
    hatbyBr
    it
    ishphi
    l
    osopherW.
    D.Ross,whi
    ch
    zespr
    emphasi imaf
    aci
    edut
    ies.
     Pr
    imaf
    aci
    edut
    iesar
    edut
    iest
    hatgener
    all
    yobl
    i
    gat
    eus;t
    hati
    s,t
    heyor
    dinar
    il
    yimposeamor
    al
    obl
    i
    gat
    ionbutmaynoti
    napar
    ti
    cul
    arcasebecauseofci
    rcumst
    ances.
     Anact
    ualdut
    yist
    heact
    iont
    hatoneoughtt
    oper
    for
    m af
    terconsi
    der
    ingandwei
    ghi
    ngal
    lthepr
    ima
    f
    aci
    edut
    iesi
    nvol
    ved.
     Accor
    dingt
    oW.D.Ross(
    1877-
    1971)
    ,ther
    ear
    esev
    eralpr
    imaf
    aci
    edut
    iest
    hatwecanuset
    o
    det
    er newhat
    mi ,concr
    etel
    y,weoughtt
    odo.
     Thet
    erm"
    dut
    y"i
    n"pr
    imaf
    aci
    edut
    y"i
    ssl
    i
    ght
    lymi
    sleadi
    ng.Thepr
    imaf
    aci
    edut
    iesar
    eunder
    stood
    asgui
    del
    ines,
    notr
    uleswi
    thoutexcept
    ion.
    I
    fanact
    iondoesnotcor
    respondt
    oaspeci
    fi
    cgui
    del
    i
    ne,
    onei
    snotnecessar
    il
    yvi
    olat
    ingar
    ulet
    hat
    oneoughtt
    ofol
    l
    ow.
     Rossar
    guest
    hatourdut
    iesar
    e“par
    toft
    hef
    undament
    alnat
    ureoft
    heuni
    ver
    se”andi
    ncl
    udet
    he
    f
    oll
    owi
    ngs:
     DutiesofFi delit
    y:t hedut ytokeeppr omi ses&obl igationnott ol
    ie.Dutiesoffidel
    it
    yar eduties
    tokeepone’ spromi sesandcont ract sandnott oengagei ndecept i
    on.
     DutiesofRepar at i
    on:Thi si sadut yt omakeupf orthei njuriesonehasdonet oothers.Ross
    describest hi
    sdut yas" r
    estingonapr eviouswr ongf ulact".Itisthedut ytocompensat eothers
    whenwehar mt hem.I f
    ,forexampl e,Idamagesomet hingt hatbelongst osomeoneel se,Ihav e
    anobl i
    gationt omaker estitution.
     DutiesofGr ati
    tude:t hedut yt ot hankt hosewhohel pus.Suppose,f orexample,anespeci ally
    goodf r
    iendi ssuddenl yi nneedofassi stance,Iam dut yboundt odoal lIcanhel pt his
    i
    ndividual,whoi nt hepasthadact edsosel f
    lesslytowar dme.
     DutiesofJust i
    ce:Thedut yofj ust icerequirest hatoneacti nsuchawayt hatonedi str
    ibutes
    benef i
    tsandbur densf airly.Thus,t hedut yofj usticei ncludest hedut yt opreventunj ust
    dist
    ributi
    onofbenef i
    tsorbur dens.
     DutiesofBenef icence:t hedut yt oi mpr ovethecondi tionsofot her s.Thedut ytodogoodt o
    others:tofostert heirhealth, secur i
    ty,wisdom, goodness, orhappi ness.
     DutiesofSel f
    -i
    mpr ovement :istoactsoast opr omot eone’ sowngood, i.
    e.,
    one’sownheal th,

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    secur
    it
    y,wi
    sdom,
    mor
    algoodness,
    vir
    tue,
    int
    ell
    i
    genceandhappi
    ness.
     DutiesofNon- mal f
    easance:Thedut yofnon-inj
    ury,nottoharm ot
    hers:toavoidhar
    mingthei
    r
    health,securi
    ty,int
    ell
    igence,character,orhappiness.Wear eobli
    gedt oavoidhurt
    ingot
    hers
    physicall
    y,emotionall
    yandpsy chologicall
    y.
    Insummar y,Rosspr esentssev encat egoriesofpr i
    maf aci
    eduties,al
    thoughtheremaybemor e
    categori
    es.
    Whenf acedconf li
    cti
    ngsi tuati
    on,themor eobl i
    gator
    y ,ouractualduty.Theact ualdut
    yhast he
    greatestamountofpr imaf acieri
    ghtnessov erwrongness.
    2.
    1.3. Vi
    rt
    ueEt
    hics
    Vi
    rt
    ueEt
    hics:Chal
    lengi
    ngt
    headequacyofr
    ule-
    basedt
    heor
    ies
    “
    Vir
    tueet
    hics”i
    sat
    echni
    cal
    ter
    mincont
    empor
    aryWest
    ernanal
    yti
    cal
    mor
    alphi
    l
    osophy
    .
    2.
    1.3.
    1. Ar
    ist
    otl
    e’
    sEt
    hics
     Anci
    entGreekphil
    osopher
    ,Ari
    stot
    le,(384-322B.C.)fi
    rstwrot
    eadet ai
    l
    eddi
    scussi
    onofv
    irt
    ue
    moral
    it
    yintheNi
    chomacheanEthi
    cs.‘Vi
    rtues’heunder
    stoodasstr
    engt
    h.
     But
    ,many y ear
    s afterAr i
    stot
    le’
    s deat
    h,vir
    tue t
    heor
    y came t
    o be ov
    er-
    shadowed by t
    he
    dev
    elopmentofut
    il
    it
    ariani
    sm anddeontol
    ogy
    .
     Int
    hepastfi
    ftyyear
    s,v
    irt
    uet heor
    yhasresurf
    acedasamajormoraltheor
    y.I
    thasbeenr
    est
    ated
    andrei
    nvi
    gor
    atedbyphi
    losophersl
    ikePhi
    l
    ippa,MacI
    nty
    re&El
    izabet
    h.
     Theyarguet
    hathowweoughtt
    oli
    vecouldbemuchmor eadequat
    elyanswer
    edbyav
    irt
    ue-
    based
    theor
    ythani
    nter
    msofcal
    cul
    ati
    ngconsequencesorobey
    ingrul
    es.
     Ari
    stot
    ledi
    sti
    nguishesbetweenhappiness(eudaemonia)andmor
    alv
    irt
    ue:Mor
    alv
    irt
    uei
    snott
    he
    endofli
    fef
    oritcangowi t
    hinact
    ivi
    ty,
    mi ser
    y,andunhappiness
     Happi
    ness,
    theendofl
    i
    fe,
    thatt
    owhi
    chal
    lai
    ms,
    isact
    ivi
    tyi
    naccor
    dancewi
    thr
    eason.
    TheGoodChar
    act
    er
     Peopl
    ehav
    eanat
    uralcapaci
    tyf
    orgoodchar
    act
    er,andi
    tdoesnotcomef
    ir
    str
    atherdev
    eloped
    t
    hroughpr
    act
    ice.
     Ar
    ete 
    i
    sadi
    sposi
    ti
    oncomeoutofacapaci
    tybypr
    operexer
    cise.Habi
    tsar
    edev
    elopedv
    iaact
    ing;
    a
    per
    son'
    schar
    act
    eri
    sthest
    ruct
    ureofhabi
    tsandf
    ormedbywhatwedo.
     Vi
    rt ar
    ue,
      et
    e,orexcel
    l
    encei
    sdef
    inedasameanbet
    weent
    woext
    remesofexcessanddef
    ecti
    n
    r
    egar
    dtoaf
    eel
    i
    ngoract
    ionast
    hepr
    act
    ical
    l
    ywi
    seper
    sonwoul
    ddet
    ermi
    nei
    t.
     Pl
    easur
    eandpai
    narepowerf
    uldet
    ermi
    nantsofouract
    ions.
     Pl
    easur
    e i
    sthenat
    uralev
    entofunimpededactiv
    itywhichisnei
    thergoodnorbad.Ev
    enso,
    pl
    easur
    eissomet
    hingposi
    ti
    veandi
    tsef
    fecti
    stoper
    fectt
    heexer
    ciseofact
    ivi
    ty.
     Fr
    iendshi
    p:aper
    son'
    srel
    ati
    onshi
    ptoaf
    ri
    endi
    sthesameast
    her
    elat
    iont
    oonesel
    f.Thef
    ri
    endcan
    bet
    houghtofasasecondsel
    f.
    I
    nfr
    iendshi
    p,aper
    sonl
    oveshi
    msel
    f(egoi
    sm)notasoneseeksmoneyf
    orhi
    msel
    f,butashegi
    ves

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    hi
    smoneyawayt
    orecei
    vehonor
    .
    2.
    2.Non-
    Nor
    mat
    iveEt
    hics/
    Met
    a-et
    hics
    2.
    2.1. Whati
    sMet
    a-et
    hics?
    I
    nMet
    aet
    hics,
    wear
    econcer
    nedwi
    thquest
    ionsont
    hemeani
    ngsofet
    hicalt
    erms
    Met
    a-et
    hicst
    ri
    est
    oanswerquest
    ion,
    suchas:
    Whatdoes“
    good,
    ”“r
    ight
    ,”or“
    just
    ice”mean?
    Whatmakessomet
    hinggoodorr
    ight
    ?
    I
    smor
    alr
    eal
    i
    sm t
    rue?
    I
    smor
    ali
    tyi
    rr
    educi
    ble,
    cogni
    ti
    ve,
    orov
    err
    idi
    ng?
    Doi
    ntr
    insi
    cval
    uesexi
    st?

    '
    Shoul
    dwegi
    vet
    ofami
    ner
    eli
    ef?
    '
    I
    nnormati
    veethi
    cs,wedonotj
    ustl
    ookf
    orananswert
    othequest
    ionr
    athersomei
    nsi
    ghti
    ntowhy
    t
    heri
    ghtansweri
    sright
    .
    I
    ti si
    nthei
    ranswersto'why
    ?'quest
    iont
    hatt
    hecl
    assi
    ctheor
    iesi
    nnor
    mat
    iveet
    hicsdi
    sagr
    ee.
    Exampl
    esofsucht
    heor
    iesi
    ncl
    ude:
     act-
    uti
    li
    tari
    ani
    sm (
    oneoughtt
    ogiv
    etofaminerel
    iefbecausethatpar
    ti
    cul
    aract
    ion,oft
    hose
    possi
    ble,cont
    ri
    but
    esmosttot
    hegr
    eat
    erhappi
    nessofthegreat
    estnumber)
    ;
     rul
    e-ut
    ili
    tar
    iani
    sm (oneoughtto giv
    etof ami
    nereli
    efbecausegivi
    ng tofaminerel
    iefi
    s
    prescr
    ibedbyar ul
    ewhichcont
    ri
    butesmosttot
    hegreat
    erhappi
    nessofthegr
    eatestnumber
    );
    and
     Kanti
    ani
    sm (oneoughttogi
    vetofaminerel
    iefbecauseuni
    ver
    salr
    efusalt
    ogi
    vet
    ofami
    ne
    rel
    i
    efwouldgener
    atesomeki
    ndofi
    nconsi
    stency)
    .
    [Metaet
    hics]isnotaboutwhatpeopl
    eoughtt
    odo.Iti
    saboutwhatt
    heyaredoi
    ngwhentheyt
    alk
    aboutwhattheyoughtt
    odo.
    Someexampl esofmet aet
    hicalt
    heor
    iesar
    emoralr
    eal
    i
    sm,non-
    cogni
    ti
    vi
    sm,er
    ror
    -t
    heor
    yandmoral
    anti
    -r
    eal
    ism.
    i
    .Cogni
    ti
    vi
    sm andNon-
    Cogni
    ti
    vi
    sm
     Inconsi
    der
    ingapart
    icul
    armor
    alj
    udgment
    ,suchasmur
    deri
    swr
    ong.Whatsor
    tofpsy
    chol
    ogi
    cal
    stat
    edoesthi
    sexpr
    ess?
     Somephi
    l
    osopher
    s,cal
    l
    edcogni
    ti
    vi
    sts,
    thi
    nkt
    hatamor
    alj
    udgmentsuchast
    hisexpr
    essesabel
    i
    ef.
     Bel
    i
    efscanbet r
    ueorfal
    se:t
    heyaret
    ruth-
    apt
    ,oraptt
    obeassessedint
    ermsoft
    rut
    handf
    alsi
    ty.
    Sotheyt
    hinkt
    hatmoralj
    udgment
    sarecapabl
    eofbei
    ngtr
    ueorfal
    se.
     Ontheotherhand,non-
    cogni
    ti
    vi
    stst
    hinkt
    hatmor
    alj
    udgment
    sexpr
    essnon-
    cogni
    ti
    vest
    atessuch
    asemoti
    onsordesires.
     Desi
    resandemot
    ionsar
    enott
    rut
    h-apt
    .So,
    mor
    alj
    udgment
    sar
    enotcapabl
    eofbei
    ngt
    rueorf
    alse.
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    Non-
    cogni
    ti
    vi
    stsdenyt
    hatmor
    alj
    udgment
    sar
    eev
    enaptt
    obet
    rueorf
    alse.
     Supposethatmoralj
    udgment
    scanexpressbel
    iefs,ast
    hecogni
    ti
    vi
    stclai
    ms.Beingmoti
    vatedt
    o
    dosomethingort
    opursueacour
    seofacti
    onisalwaysamatt
    erofhav
    ingabeli
    efandadesir
    e.
     Forexampl
    e,Iam moti
    vat
    edt
    oreachf
    ort
    hef
    ri
    dgebecauseIbel
    i
    evet
    hati
    tcont
    ainswat
    erandI
    haveadesi
    reforwat
    er.
     Buti
    tisanint
    ernalandnecessar
    yfactaboutanagentt
    hat
    ,ifshesi
    ncer
    elyj
    udgest
    hatXi
    sgood,
    shei
    smotiv
    atedtopursuethecourseofact
    ionX.
     Soifamor alj
    udgmentexpressedabeli
    ef,
    itwoul
    dhav
    etobeabel
    i
    efwhi
    chsust
    ainedani
    nter
    nal
    andnecessaryconnect
    iont
    oadesire.
     I
    twoul dhav
    etobeanecessar
    ytr
    utht
    hatanagentwhopossessedt
    hebel
    i di
    efwoul nt
    eral
    i
    a
    possesst
    hedesi
    re.
    i
    ii
    . I
    nter
    nal
    ism andExt
    ernal
    ism
     One oft
    he pr
    emi
    sesi
    nthe ar
    gumenti
    sthe cl
    aim t
    hatt
    her
    eisan i
    nter
    naland necessar
    y
    connect
    ionbet
    weenmaki
    ngamor
    alj
    udgmentandbei
    ngmot
    ivat
    edt
    oact
    .
     Thi
    scl
    ai sknownas i
    m i nter
    nal
    ism,becausei
    tsay
    sthatt
    her
    eisan i
    nter
    nalorconcept
    ual
    connect
    ionbet
    weenmor
    alj
    udgmentandmot
    ivat
    ion.
     Some cogni
    ti
    vi
    stphi
    l
    osopher
    srespond t
    othe ar
    gumentf
    rom mor
    alpsy
    chol
    ogybydeny
    ing
    i
    nter
    nal
    i
    sm.
     Theycl
    aimt
    hatt
    heconnect
    i weenj
    onbet udgmentandmot
    ivat
    ioni
    sonl
    yext
    ernalandcont
    ingent
    .
    Suchphi
    l
    osopher eknownasext
    sar ernal
    ist
    s.
     Ot
    hercogni
    ti
    vi
    stsr
    espondbyt
    hecl
    aimt
    hatmot
    ivat
    ional
    way
    sinv
    olv
    est esenceofbot
    hepr h
    bel
    i
    efsanddesi
    res.Thi
    spr
    emi
    sei heHumant
    sknownast heor
    yofmot
    ivat
    ion.
     Lat
    er,ant
    i-
    Humant
    heor
    yofmot
    ivat
    iondev
    elopedwi
    tht
    hecl
    aim ofbel
    i
    efst
    hemsel
    vescanbe
    i
    ntr
    insi
    cal
    l
    ymot
    ivat
    ing.
    Gener
    all
    y,Met
    a-et
    hics:
    • Examinesthemeani
    ngofmor
    alt
    ermsandconcept
    sandt
    her
    elat
    ionshi
    psbet
    weent
    hese
    concepts.
    • Expl
    oreswher
    emor
    alv
    alues,
    suchas‘
    per
    sonhood’
    and‘
    aut
    onomy
    ’,comef
    rom.
    • Consi
    der
    sthedi
    ff
    erencebet
    weenmor
    alv
    aluesandot
    herki
    ndsofv
    alues.
    • Exami
    nest
    hewayi
    nwhi
    chmor
    alcl
    aimsar
    ejust
    if
    ied.
    Met
    a-et
    hicsal
    soposesquest
    ionsoft
    hef
    oll
    owi
    ngki
    nd:
     Whatdowemeanbyt
    hecl
    aim,
    ‘l
    if
    eissacr
    ed’
    ?
     Aremoralcl
    aimsamatt
    erofper
    sonalv
    iew,r
    eli
    giousbel
    i
    eforsoci
    alst
    andar
    d,or
    ,ar
    ethey
    obj
    ect
    ivei
    nsomesense?
     I
    ftheyar
    eobj
    ect
    ive,
    whatmaket
    hem so?

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     I
    sther
    eal
    i
    nkbet
    weenhumanpsy
    chol
    ogyandt
    hemor
    alcl
    aimst
    hathumansmake?
    CHAPTERSUMMARY
     Et
    hicsi
    soneoft
    hemosti
    mpor
    tantdi
    sci
    pli
    nest
    hatneedt
    obet
    houghtt
    othest
    udent
    stoadopt
    et
    hicalbehav
    iorwi
    thr
    espectt
    ogoodl
    i
    fe.I
    tpr
    omot
    esheal
    thysoci
    etyandf
    ulf
    il
    li
    ngexper
    iencef
    or
    i
    ndivi
    dual.
    I
    nthegl
    obal
    i
    zeder
    a,wef
    indt
    hat“
    Ethi
    cswi
    l
    lbeoneoft
    heenabl
    ersofcompet
    it
    iveness.
    ”St
    ressi
    ng
    thecentr
    ali
    tyofet
    hicsi
    nthehumanexper
    iencecanbeagr eat
    erfavort
    ohumanki
    ndingener
    al,
    andtooursocietyinpar
    ti
    cul
    ar,t
    obegrowingandprosperbyquali
    ti
    esthatar
    eessent
    ial
    l
    yand
    absol
    utel
    yethi
    cal
    .
     Mor
    ali
    tyConcer
    nedabouthabi
    ts,cust
    oms,way
    sofl
    i
    fe,especi
    all
    ywhent
    hesear
    eassessedas
    goodorbad,
    rightorwrong.Mor
    alval
    ueshel
    ptor
    egul
    atet
    hebehav
    iorasast
    andar
    d.Suchv
    alues
    hel
    ptomaint
    ainthesociet
    yandactuni
    for
    mly
    .
     Theybr
    ingaboutpeaceandst
    abi
    l
    ity
    .Soi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    shav
    eamor
    alr
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tyt
    orespectand
    maintai
    nthev
    alueoft
    hei
    rsoci
    etyandr
    efr
    ainf
    rom commi
    tt
    ingt
    hingst
    hatdi
    stur
    bit
    sst
    abi
    l
    ityand
    peace.
     Whi
    l
    eut
    il
    it
    ari
    ani
    sm,deont
    ology
    ,andv
    irt
    uet
    heor
    yhav
    ebeeni
    npl
    acei
    nthecanonofmor
    al
    phil
    osophyforcentur
    ies,theyhav
    enotr emainedfi
    xedandst
    ati
    cast heories.Vol
    umeshav ebeen
    writ
    tenwhichcri
    ti
    queel ementsofthesetheor
    ies,
    shar
    peni
    ngthem f
    orgr eatercl
    ari
    tyand,
    attuni
    ng
    them moretothefull
    nessofhumanl ivi
    ng.
    I
    naddi
    ti
    on,i
    nsi
    ght
    sint
    omor
    all
    i
    vingcomei
    nfr
    eshf
    orms,br
    eat
    hingnew l
    i
    fei
    ntot
    het
    radi
    ti
    onal
    moralcanon.Thi
    sisthecasewi
    thcont
    empor
    aryet
    hicalt
    heor
    iessuchaspr
    inci
    pal
    i
    sm,nar
    rat
    ive
    et
    hicsandfemini
    stet
    hics.
    I
    nthesewef
    indnew i
    nsi
    ght
    sthatat
    temptanumberoft
    asks:t
    oof
    ferdev
    elopment
    sof
    ,and
    i
    mpr ovementson,essentialfeat
    uresoftradi
    ti
    onal t
    heories,
    tofil
    li
    nt hedimensionsofhumanl i
    vi
    ng
    thatwer eoftenomi t
    tedorunder stat
    edi ntradit
    ionaltheor
    izi
    ngandt oacknowledgethatthe
    chall
    engesofmor aldevelopmentr equi
    rethatwemov efrom ar ealm ofmor alabstr
    acti
    onsto
    concretesi
    tuati
    ons.Thisallowsust oseewhetherorhowmucht her esour
    cesofmor alt
    heoryhel
    p
    toguideourdecisi
    on-maki ngandmor alj
    udgment s.
    ENDOFCHAPTERTWOOFMCED–1011!

    CHAPTERTHREE:ETHI
    CALDECI
    SIONMAKI
    NGANDMORAL
    JUDGMENTS
    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion
    Onehast omakedecisi
    onswithdesi
    retosati
    sfy,t
    ogi v
    euporpost
    pone.How tomakear i
    ghtor
    cor
    rectdeci
    sionandbywhatst
    andardisal
    waysapuzzle.Oneoft
    hefunct
    ionsofmoral
    i
    tyi
    stogive
    gui
    danceindeali
    ngwit
    hthesepuzzl
    es.Ontheotherhand,t
    her
    ear
    ealwaysconfl
    i
    ctsamongpeopl
    e.

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    HAWASSAUNI
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    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
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    OCT-
    2014)
    Anotherfuncti
    onofmor al
    it
    yistopr ov
    idepri
    nci
    plesandr ul
    esthatar
    eaccept
    ablet oevery
    oneand
    encouragepeoplet oli
    vetoget
    herpeaceful
    l
    yandcooper ati
    vel
    y.Manyprobl
    emswillari
    seinpeople’
    s
    l
    ivesandi nsociety.I
    tisbet
    tert
    ogobackt otheet hi
    calt
    heori
    esandseewhatkindofpr i
    nci
    plescan
    beagui deintakingacti
    onorinmakingmoralj
    udgment s.
    3.
    1.HowCanWeMakeEt
    hicalDeci
    sionsandAct
    ions?
     Inr
    ealli
    fecondit
    ions,
    wemaygetdi f
    fi
    cult
    iest
    odot heri
    ghtt
    hing.Whatweconsi
    der
    edasr
    ightand
    cor
    rectmightputusindi
    ff
    icul
    tcondi
    tionandaff
    ectoursoci
    alrel
    ati
    on.
     Weof tencl
    aimt hatwemaker
    ightdeci
    sionandact
    ionsandwer
    egr
    etwhenwemakewr
    ong
    deci
    sionandact
    ion.
     Theethi
    calnat
    ureofouracti
    onanddecisi
    on,
    howev
    er,
    isv
    erymuchdependentuponournot
    ionof
    ``
    Good’and``
    Bad,`
    `Rightand`
    `wrong`
    `.
     Ther
    earethi
    ngswhichweconsidergoodordesi
    rabl
    efort
    hei
    rresul
    t.Ther
    ear
    eal
    sot
    hingswhi
    ch
    weconsi
    dergoodbecauseoft
    heirownint
    ri
    nsi
    cnature.
     Thefir
    stki
    ndofgoodiscal
    l
    edinst
    rumentalgoodbecausethegoodnessoft
    heset
    hingsl
    i
    esi
    n
    thei
    rbei
    ngi
    nst
    rument
    stowardst
    heatt
    ainmentoft
    heothert
    hings.
     Thesecondcat
    egoryofgoodiscall
    edintri
    nsi
    cgoodbecausewev al
    uet
    heset
    hings(
    what
    ever
    theymaytur
    noutt
    obe)notforwhatt
    heyleadtobutf
    orwhattheyar
    e.
     Haveyoueverthi
    nkoftheopposi
    te.Yes,ther
    ear ethi
    ngswhi
    char
    einst
    rument
    all
    ygoodand
    i
    ntr
    insi
    cal
    l
    ybad.Somet
    hingscanf
    ulf
    il
    lbothqual
    it
    ies.
     Inourcountr
    y,thi
    ngssuchasFGM,ear
    lymar
    riage,ki
    dnappi
    ng,abduct
    ion,I
    gnor
    ance,pov
    ert
    y,
    cor
    rupt
    ion,
    mur der
    ,et
    car
    econsi
    der
    edt
    obeunet
    hicalorbadorevi
    l
    .
     Oneofthekeyt
    asksofethi
    calr
    easoni
    ngi st
    ocrit
    ical
    lyconsi
    dert
    hev
    alueswehol
    dandt
    he
    cl
    aimswemakei
    nrelat
    iont
    oobli
    gat
    ionstowar
    dsoneanother
    .
     A secondkeytaskofethi
    csistoev al
    uat
    etheadequacyofreasonswegiveforact
    ions:i
    t
    consi
    ders,
    whet
    herther
    easonsar
    ebasedonsoundev
    idenceandl
    ogi
    calar
    gument
    .
     Thet asksofweighi
    ngethicalv
    aluesandev
    aluat
    ingdi
    ff
    erentet
    hicalar
    gument
    sar
    eunl
    i
    kemany
    otherkindsofhumantasks.
     Ethicalval
    uesar
    enoteasyt ounder
    standasot
    herki
    ndsofv al
    ues,I
    nturn,i
    tiseasi
    ert
    otesta
    person’sbl
    oodpressur
    ethani
    tist
    odetermi
    newhet
    herornott
    heyarevi
    rt
    uous.
     Moreover
    ,et
    hicalprobl
    emsareof t
    ennotcl
    earasot
    herki
    ndsofpr
    obl
    emsandr
    esol
    vi
    nget
    hical
    pr
    oblemsisnotalwayspossi
    ble.
     Theaim ofet
    hicsthen,i
    snottotakethehi
    ghmoralgr
    oundandt
    ellpeopl
    ewhatt
    odo,
    but
    ,rat
    her
    ,
    toof
    fertool
    sforthi
    nkingaboutdi
    ff
    icul
    tpr
    oblems.
     Goodet hi
    calt
    hinki
    ngpurposef
    ull
    yconcer
    nedtoacknowledget
    hedi
    ver
    sit
    yandcompl
    exi
    tyof
    si
    tuat
    ionsandci
    rcumst
    ancesthatari
    sei
    nhumanrel
    ati
    onshi
    ps.

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    HAWASSAUNI
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    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    3.
    2.Et
    hical
    Pri
    nci
    plesandVal
    uesofMor
    alJudgment
    s
     Thebr
    anchofphi
    l
    osophi
    calst
    udyt
    hatf
    ocuseson‘
    ethi
    cs’
    isconcer
    nedwi
    thst
    udy
    ingandbui
    l
    ding
    upacoher
    entsetof‘
    rul
    es’
    orpr
    inci
    plesbywhi
    chpeopl
    eoughtt
    oli
    ve.
     Thet
    heor
    eti
    calst
    udyofet
    hicsi
    snotnor
    mal
    l
    ysomet
    hingt
    hatmanypeopl
    ewoul
    dregar
    dasbei
    ng
    necessar
    yinor
    derf
    ort
    hem t
    oconductt
    hei
    rev
    ery
    dayact
    ivi
    ti
    es.
    I
    npl
    aceofexami
    nedet
    hicalf
    ramewor
    ks,mostpeopl
    einst
    eadcar
    ryar
    oundausef
    ul‘
    rul
    esof
    t
    humb’thati
    nfl
    uenceandgover
    nthei
    rbehavi
    or;
    commonl
    y,t
    hesei
    ncl
    uder
    ulessuchas‘
    i
    tiswr
    ong
    t
    osteal
    ’
    , ‘
    i
    tisr
    ightt
    ohelppeopl
    einneed’
    ,andsoon.
     Butsomet
    imes t
    he v
    ici
    ssi
    tudes and compl
    exi
    ti
    es ofl
    i
    fe mean t
    hatt
    hese si
    mpl
    erul
    es ar
    e
    somet
    imesputt
    othet
    est
    .Consi
    dert
    hei
    deat
    hati
    tiswr
    ongt
    oki
    l
    l.
     Doest
    hismeant
    hatcapi
    talpuni
    shmenti
    swr
    ong?I
    sitwr
    ongt
    oki
    l
    lani
    mal
    s?I
    ski
    l
    li
    ngi
    nsel
    f-
    def
    ensewr
    ong?I
    sthet
    ermi
    nat
    ionofpr
    egnancywr
    ong?I
    seut
    hanasi
    awr
    ong?
    I
    fwet
    ryt
    oappl
    yourev
    ery
    daynot
    ionsofr
    ightandwr
    ongt
    othesequest
    ions,st
    rai
    ght
    for
    war
    d
    answer
    sar
    enotal
    way
    sfor
    thcomi
    ng.
     Weneedt
    oexami
    net
    hesequest
    ionst
    oanal
    yzecompl
    expr
    obl
    emsandf
    indr
    ati
    onal
    ,coher
    ent
    sol
    uti
    onst
    othosepr
    obl
    ems.
     Whi
    l
    stsomepeopl
    eat
    temptt
    odot
    hiswor
    kindi
    vi
    dual
    l
    y,f
    ort
    hemsel
    ves,phi
    l
    osopher
    sat
    temptt
    o
    f
    indgener
    alanswer
    sthatcanbeusedbyev
    ery
    onei
    nsoci
    ety
    .
    3.
    3.Mor
    alI
    ntui
    ti
    onsandCr
    it
    icalReasoni
    ng
     Thest
    udyofet
    hicsi
    nvol
    vesr
    easoni
    ngaboutourf
    eel
    i
    ngs.I
    not
    herwor
    ds,
    iti
    nvol
    vesmaki
    ngsense
    ofandr
    ati
    onal
    i
    zingouri
    ntui
    ti
    onsaboutwhati
    s‘r
    ight
    ’or‘
    good’
    .
     Al
    mostal
    lpeopl
    ear
    ecapabl
    eofexper
    ienci
    ngf
    eel
    i
    ngsofempat
    hyt
    owar
    dsot
    her
    s.Empat
    hy
    provi
    desuswi t
    hasenseofwhatot her
    saref
    eeli
    ng.I
    tgi v
    esusmor
    alsent
    iment
    s;andet
    hical
    reasoni
    ngaboutthesesent
    iment
    sgi
    vesourmor
    alpri
    nci
    ples.
     Thei
    ntegr
    ati
    onoft
    hesemor
    alsent
    iment
    sandpr
    inci
    plesi
    sourconsci
    ence.Ourmor
    alconsci
    ence,
    t
    hen,
    isbasedonemot
    ions,
    butshoul
    dal
    sobesuppor
    tedbyr
    eason.
     Al
    lsoci
    eti
    esar
    echar
    act
    eri
    zedbyt
    hei
    rownet
    hicali
    deasexpr
    essedi
    nter
    msofat
    ti
    tudesand
    bel
    i
    efsandt
    hei
    rowncust
    oms.
     Someoft hoseethicsaref
    ormali
    zedi
    nthel
    awsandregul
    ati
    onsofasoci
    ety
    .
     Phi
    losophicalet
    hics,however
    ,asksustot
    akeastepbackf r
    om t
    heseinf
    luencesandi
    nst
    eadt
    o
    r
    efl
    ectcr
    it
    ical
    l
    yonoursent
    iment
    sandat
    ti
    tudes.
    3.
    3.1. Rat
    ional
    izat
    ion
     St
    udy
    inget
    hics,
    inv
    olv
    esat
    tempt
    ingt
    ofi
    ndv
    ali
    dreasonsf
    ort
    hemor
    alar
    gument
    sthatwemake.I
    t
    r
    equi
    rest
    hinki
    ngaboutmor
    ali
    deas,
    toexpl
    ainr
    easonsandassumpt
    ions.
    I
    nmor
    alphi
    l
    osophy
    ,anar
    gumenti
    snotsi
    mpl
    yaboutourbel
    i
    efsoropi
    nions;i
    nst
    ead,i
    tisabout
    t
    her
    easonsunder
    lyi
    ngt
    hosebel
    i
    efsoropi
    nions.
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    ESDEPARTMENT(
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    2014)
     Thi
    smeanst
    hatt
    her
    ealv
    alueofdi
    scussi
    nganddebat
    inget
    hicalquest
    ionsi
    snott
    o‘wi
    nthe
    ar
    gument
    ’ort
    o‘scor
    epoi
    nts’
    agai
    nstt
    heot
    herper
    son!
    I
    tismor
    eimpor
    tantt
    opr
    ovi
    decar
    eful
    l
    yconsi
    der
    edar
    gument
    stosuppor
    touri
    deas,andt
    oal
    l
    ow
    f
    orr
    ati
    onal
    anddeeperunder
    standi
    ngoft
    her
    easons.
     Cr
    uci
    all
    y,t
    hisr
    equi
    rescar
    efull
    i
    steni
    ngt
    o,anal
    ysi
    sofandl
    ear
    ningf
    rom t
    hear
    gument
    sthatot
    her
    s
    make.
     Onecommonf
    aul
    twi
    thmanyar
    gument
    saboutwhati
    s‘r
    ight
    ’or‘
    wrong’andi
    nvol
    veswhati
    s
    knownasar
    ati
    onal
    i
    zat
    ion.
     Ar
    ati
    onal
    i
    zat
    ionoccur
    swhenweusewhatatf
    ir
    stgl
    anceseem t
    ober
    ati
    onalorcr
    edi
    blemot
    ives
    t
    ocov
    erupourt
    rue(
    andper
    hapsunconsci
    ous)mot
    ives.
     Forexampl
    e,i
    flandownerbui
    l
    ds a pl
    ast
    icr
    ecy
    cli
    ng pl
    antand st
    ated as i
    fto cr
    eat
    ejob
    oppor
    tuni
    ti
    eswher
    east
    hei
    rtr
    uemot
    ivei
    stomakeapr
    ofi
    t,t
    hisi
    sar
    ati
    onal
    izat
    ion.
     Thel
    andowneri
    snotgi
    vi
    ngt
    hei
    rtr
    uer
    easons.I
    f,t
    heyar
    guet
    hatt
    heywantt
    omakeper
    sonalpr
    ofi
    t
    andcr
    eat
    ejobs,
    theni
    tmaybet
    wot
    ruer
    easonsf
    ori
    tsmot
    ives.
    Ty
    pesofReasoni
    ng
    Thr
    eeFor
    msOfCr
    it
    ical
    Reasoni
    ng:
    ‘
    Reasoni ngbyanal ogyexplai
    nsonet hi
    ngbycompar ingittosomet hingel set hatissimilar,
    although
    alsodi f
    ferent.Inagoodanal ogy ,t
    hesi mi l
    arityoutweighst hedissimilar i
    tyandi sclarif
    ying.For
    i
    nstance,ani mals ar
    el i
    ke and unl i
    ke humans,as humans ar e also ani mal s.Ist he similarit
    y
    suffi
    cientlystrongtosupportthear gumentt hatweshoul dascri
    ber ightst ononhumanani mal sas
    wedot ohumans?Deduct i
    ver easoningappl iesapr i
    ncipl
    et oasi t
    uation.Fori nstance,ifev ery
    personhashumanr ight
    s,andy ouar eaper son,theny ouhav ehumanr ightsl i
    keev eryper son.
    Inducti
    ver easoninginvol
    vespr ovidi
    ngev idencet osuppor tahy pothesis.Thegr eat
    ert heev i
    dence
    forahy pothesis,t
    hemor ewemayr elyoni t.’Thef actthattherei smount i
    ngev idencet hatt he
    burningoff ossilf
    uelsishav i
    ngadet r
    imentalef fectongl obalclimat e,f orexampl e,isusedt o
    substantiatetheargumentthatwehav eamor al dut
    yt oreducecarbonemi ssions.
    3.
    3.2. Et
    hicsandRel
    igi
    ousFai
    th
     Ther
    eisanot
    heri
    mpor
    tantar
    gumentt
    hatpeopl
    eusewhenmaki
    nget
    hicalar
    gument
    s:r
    eli
    gious
    f
    ait
    h.Formanypeopl
    e,’
    mor
    ali
    tyandr
    eli
    giousf
    ait
    hgohandi
    nhand’
    .
     Somepeopl
    evi
    ew act
    ionsasr
    ightorwr
    ongwhet
    hert
    heycommandedbyGod.Phi
    l
    osopher
    sdo
    notv
    iewar
    gument
    sbasedonr
    eli
    giousf
    ait
    h.Wecandet
    ermi
    nev
    iar
    ati
    onal
    ref
    lect
    ion.
    I
    fonl
    yGodcommandswhati
    sri
    ght
    ,thi
    smakesdi
    vi
    necommandsunnecessar
    y;wear
    eabl
    eto
    knowwi
    thoutanydi
    vi
    necommandment
    sbyusi
    ngr
    ati
    onal
    ref
    lect
    ion.
     However
    ,fai
    th-
    basedar
    gument
    sar
    erel
    evantt
    omor
    alphi
    l
    osophyf
    orsev
    eralr
    easons.Forast
    art
    ,
    peopl
    edonotal
    way
    sagr
    eeonwhati
    sri
    ghtorwr
    ong.
    I
    tisnott
    her
    efor
    ecl
    eart
    hatwecandet
    ermi
    newhati
    sri
    ghtandwr
    ongsi
    mpl
    ythr
    oughr
    ati
    onal
    r
    efl
    ect
    ion.
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    TY-CI
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    ESDEPARTMENT(
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    2014)
     Addi
    ti
    onal
    l
    y,manypeopl
    elookt
    orel
    i
    gionandweshoul
    dnotunder
    est
    imat
    etheabi
    l
    ityofmor
    al
    t
    eachi
    ngsofr
    eli
    gioni
    nper
    suadi
    ngpubl
    i
    ctoembr
    acehi
    ghermor
    alst
    andar
    d’.
     Whi
    l
    ewemayi
    nsi
    stt
    hatmor
    alpr
    inci
    plesanddeci
    sionsshoul
    dbej
    ust
    if
    iedbyr
    ati
    onalar
    gument
    s,
    andt
    husconsi
    der
    ati
    onofr
    eli
    giousar
    gument
    sshoul
    dnotbeexcl
    uded.
    3.
    3.3. Test
    ingMor
    alAr
    gument
    s
     Cr
    it
    icalr
    easoni
    ngi
    saboutaski
    ngquest
    ionswhenev
    erany
    onegi
    vesusar
    easont
    osuppor
    tan
    ar
    gument
    .Whatki
    ndofr
    easoni
    ngar
    etheyusi
    ng?
    I
    ftheyar
    eusi
    ngapr
    inci
    plet
    osuppor
    tthei
    rar
    gument(
    deduct
    iver
    easoni
    ng)
    ,thenwhatki
    ndof
    pr
    inci
    plei
    sit
    ?Ist
    hepr
    inci
    pler
    ati
    onal
    ?
    I
    ftheyar
    epr
    ovi
    dingev
    idencet
    osuppor
    tthei
    rar
    gument(
    induct
    iver
    easoni
    ng)t
    heni
    stheev
    idence
    r
    eli
    abl
    e?
     Have anymot
    ives t
    hatmi
    ghtbe behi
    nd t
    hei
    rar
    gument
    s been cl
    ari
    fi
    ed (
    ie ar
    etheygi
    vi
    ng
    r
    ati
    onal
    i
    zat
    ions,
    notr
    easons)
    ?
     Al
    loft
    hesequest
    ionsseem of
    f-
    put
    ti
    ng.Wi
    thsuchcr
    it
    eri
    a,somepeopl
    emayf
    eelt
    hatt
    heydon’
    t
    wantt
    omakeanyar
    gument
    ,ast
    heyboundt
    omakemi
    stakesi
    nthei
    rreasoni
    ng!
     However
    ,mostpeopl
    eal
    readyusecr
    it
    icalr
    easoni
    ngwhent
    heymakear
    gument
    sandquest
    ion
    ot
    herpeopl
    e’
    sar
    gument
    s.
    I
    fwhatwet
    hinki
    sri
    ghtbasedonourexper
    ience(
    ouret
    hicalpr
    esumpt
    ions)
    ,andweexpl
    aint
    hose
    i
    deast
    oot
    herpeopl
    ebasedonourf
    eel
    i
    ngs(
    int
    uit
    ions)andr
    easons.
    I
    tisi
    mpor
    tantt
    odev
    elopt
    heabi
    l
    ityt
    otesty
    ourar
    gument
    sandt
    hoseofot
    her
    s,t
    oaddr
    esst
    he
    di
    l
    emmasoccuri
    nyourl
    i
    ves,
    communi
    ti
    es&or
    gani
    zat
    ionswewor
    k.
     Ther
    ear
    ethr
    eemai
    nway
    soft
    est
    ingamor
    alar
    gument
    .Thesear
    eout
    li
    nedi
    nbel
    ow;

    Thr
    eeway
    stot
    estamor
    alar
    gument
    :
    (1)Factualaccuracy.The18t hcent ur
    yphi l
    osopherDav idHume( 1711—1776)ar guedt hatweshoul d
    notderivean‘ ought’from an‘ i
    s’.Thismeanst hatwecannotsayt hatsomet hingiswr ongorright
    simplybasedonhow t hingsar e.Thisisreasonable,butitdoesnotmeant hatet hicaldiscussion
    shouldbedi vorcedf r
    om f act;theaccur acyofthefactualcontentofadi scussioni sver yimport
    ant.
    Considertheexampl e— ofsomeonewhomai ntai
    nst hatgivi
    ngaidt ocharit
    ieswor ki
    ngi nAfri
    cai s
    wrongbecauset heybel ievest hat90% oft hemoneydonat edinf actgoest o pay i
    ngweal thy
    consult
    ant sandNGOwor ker s,andonly10%goest oallevi
    atepovert
    y .I
    fthi
    sper sonwer eshownt hat
    thi
    swasf actual
    lyincorrect,andt hatinfact90%ofal ldonati
    onswer eusedt oal lev
    iatepov er
    ty,t
    hen
    thei
    rmor alargumentwoul dl osei t
    sforce.
    (2)Consi
    stency.Argumentsneedt obeconsi st
    ent.Onecanonlyarguethatitismor all
    ywr ongtoki
    ll
    onepersonandy etmorall
    yacceptabl
    etokillanother
    ,ifonecandemonstratet hatthereisamor al
    l
    y
    rel
    evantdi
    fferencebetweenthet woindiv
    iduals.Forexample,themoralargumentt hatdebtsowed
    bypoorernationst ointer
    nat
    ionallender
    sshoul dbecancel l
    ed.Doesthist hereforemeant hatall
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    poorpeoplewhoowemoneyt obanksshoul
    dalsohavetheirdebtscancel
    led?Ifyoudon’tthi
    nkthat
    al
    lindi
    v i
    dualdebtsshouldbecancel l
    edbutyoudot hinkt hatpoorercountri
    es’debt
    sshoul dbe
    cancel
    led,t
    heny ouhavet oshowthatther
    eisamor aldif
    ferencebetweent hetwo.Otherwiseyour
    argumentsareinconsi
    stent
    .
    (3)Goodwi l
    l
    .Thi
    sonei sthemostdiffi
    cul
    tcrit
    eriontoquanti
    fy.Whil
    eargumentsmaybef actual
    ly
    corr
    ectandconsistent
    ,theyalso needto‘ exempli
    fygoodwi l
    l
    ’.Thisinvol
    vesr esort
    ingt o our
    i
    ntui
    tionsandemoti
    ons,whichar
    enotori
    ouslydiff
    icul
    ttoi
    ntegr
    atewithri
    goroustheoreti
    caldebate.
    3.
    4.Thi
    nki
    ngEt
    hical
    ly
    :Af
    ramewor
    kforMor
    alDeci
    sionMaki
    ng
    o Thef
    ir
    stst
    epi
    nanal
    yzi
    ngmor
    ali
    ssuesi
    sobv
    iousbutnotal
    way
    seasy
    :Gett
    hef
    act
    s.Somemor
    al
    i
    ssuescr
    eat
    econt
    rov
    ersi
    esbecausewedonotbot
    hert
    ocheckf
    act
    s.
    o Thi
    sfi
    rstst
    ep,al
    thoughobv
    iousi
    sal
    soamongt
    hemosti
    mpor
    tantandt
    hemostf
    requent
    ly
    ov
    erl
    ooked.Buthav
    ingt
    hef
    act
    sisnotenough.
    o Fact
    sbyt
    hemsel
    vesonl
    ytel
    luswhati
    s;t
    heydonott
    elluswhatoughtt
    obe.I
    naddi
    ti
    ont
    oget
    ti
    ng
    t
    hef
    act
    s,r
    esol
    vi
    nganet
    hical
    issueal
    sor
    equi
    resanappeal
    tov
    alues.
    o Al
    thoughet
    hicsdeal
    swi
    thr
    ightandwr
    ong,i
    tisnotadi
    sci
    pli
    net
    hatal
    way
    sleadsev
    ery
    onet
    othe
    sameconcl
    usi
    ons.
    o Deci
    dinganet
    hical
    issuecanbeequal
    l
    ydi
    ff
    icul
    tforconser
    vat
    ivesandl
    i
    ber
    als.Ofcour
    se,
    ther
    ear
    e
    si
    tuat
    ionst
    hatar
    ewr
    ongbyanyst
    andar
    d.
    o Togui
    deourr
    efl
    ect
    iononsuchdi
    ff
    icul
    tquest
    ions,phi
    l
    osopher
    s,r
    eli
    gioust
    eacher
    sandot
    her
    t
    hinker
    shav
    eshapedv
    ari
    ousappr
    oachest
    oet
    hical
    deci
    sion-
    maki
    ng.
    o Thef
    ivedi
    ff
    erentappr
    oachest
    oval
    uestodealwi
    thmor
    ali
    ssuesar
    e:
    3.4.
    1. Fai rnessandJust i
    ceApproach
     Fair
    nessorjust
    iceapproachtoethi
    cshasitsroot
    sintheteachi
    ngsofAr
    ist
    otl
    ewhosai
    dthat
    “equal
    sshouldbetr
    eatedequal
    lyandunequal
    ’
    sunequal
    ly”
    .
     Thebasi
    cmor
    alquest
    ioni
    nthi
    sappr
    oachi
    s:
     Howf
    airi
    sanact
    ion?
     Doesi
    ttr
    eatev
    ery
    onei
    nsameway
    ,orshowf
    avor
    it
    ism anddi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ion?
     Favor
    it
    ism gi
    vesbenef
    it
    stosomepeopl
    ewi
    thoutaj
    ust
    if
    iabl
    ereasonf
    orsi
    ngl
    i
    ngt
    hem out
    ;
    di
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ioni
    mposesbur
    densonpeopl
    ewhoar
    enodi
    ff
    erences.
     Bot
    hfav
    ori
    ti
    sm anddi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ionar
    eunj
    ustandwr
    ong.Ar
    ist
    otl
    e;et
    hical
    knowl
    edgei
    snotpr
    eci
    se
    knowl
    edge,
    li
    kemat
    hemat
    ics,
    butgener
    all
    i
    kenut
    ri
    ti
    onandexer
    cise.
     Al
    so,
    asi
    tisapr
    act
    icaldi
    sci
    pli
    ner
    athert
    hanat
    heor
    eti
    calone;
    het
    houghtt
    hati
    nor
    dert
    obecome
    "
    good"
    ,onecoul
    dnotsi
    mpl
    yst
    udyv
    irt
    ue;
    onemustact
    ual
    l
    ybev
    irt
    uous.
     Anal
    ogousl
    y,i
    nor
    dert
    obecomegoodataspor
    tli
    kef
    oot
    bal
    l
    ,onedoesnotsi
    mpl
    yst
    udybutal
    so
    pr
    act
    ices.Ar
    ist
    otl
    efi
    rstest
    abl
    i
    sheswhatwasv
    irt
    uous.

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     Hebeganbydet
    ermi
    ningt
    hatev
    ery
    thi
    ngwasdonewi
    thsomegoali
    nmi
    ndandt
    hatgoali
    s'good.
    '
    Theul
    ti
    mat
    egoal
    hecal
    l
    edt
    heHi
    ghestGood:
    happi
    ness.
     Ar
    ist
    otl
    econt
    endedt
    hathappi
    nesscoul
    dnotbef
    oundonl
    yinpl
    easur
    eoronl
    yinf
    ameandhonor
    .
    Hef
    inal
    l
    yfi
    ndshappi
    ness"
    byascer
    tai
    ningt
    hespeci
    fi
    cfunct
    ionofman"
    .
     Ahuman'
    sfunct
    ioni
    stodowhatmakesi
    thuman,
    tobegoodatwhatset
    sitapar
    tfr
    om ev
    ery
    thi
    ng
    el
    se:t
    heabil
    it
    ytoreasonorlogos.Apersonthatdoest
    hisi
    sthehappi
    estbecausehei
    sful
    fi
    ll
    i
    ng
    hi
    spurposeornat
    ureasfoundinther
    ati
    onalsoul.
     Dependi
    ngonhowwel
    lhedi
    dthi
    s,Ar
    ist
    otl
    esai
    dhumansbel
    ongedt
    ooneoff
    ourcat
    egor
    ies:t
    he
    v
    irt
    uous,
    thecont
    inent
    ,thei
    ncont
    inentandt
    hev
    ici
    ous.
     Gener
    all
    y,t
    hisappr
    oachf
    ocusesonhow f
    air
    lyorunf
    air
    lyouract
    ionsdi
    str
    ibut
    ebenef
    it
    sand
    bur
    densamongt
    hemember
    sofagr
    oup.
     Thi
    sapproachaskswhatisfai
    rforal
    lst
    akehol
    der
    s,orpeoplewhohaveanint
    eresti
    ntheoutcome.”
     Fai
    rnessr
    equir
    esconsi
    stencyinthewaypeopl
    earetr
    eated.Thepr
    inci
    plest
    ates:“
    Treatpeopl
    ethe
    sameunl
    esst
    her
    ear
    emor
    all
    yrel
    evantdi
    ff
    erencesbet
    weent
    hem.
    ”
    3.
    4.2. TheCommonGoodAppr
    oach
    AsGreekphi
    losophers,l
    i
    feincommunit
    yisgoodini
    tsel
    fandouract
    ionsshoul
    dcont
    ri
    but
    etot
    hat
    l
    if
    e.Here,
    int
    erl
    ockingrel
    ati
    onshi
    psofsoci
    etyar
    ethebasi
    sofethi
    cal
    reasoni
    ng.
    I
    tcall
    satt
    enti
    ontothecommonconditi
    onsthatareimportanttothewel
    far
    e.Thi
    smaybesy
    stem
    ofl
    aws,ef
    fect
    ivepol
    ice,
    fir
    edepar
    tment
    s,heal
    thcare,educat
    ion,et
    c.
    Thisappr
    oachassumesasoci
    etycompr
    isi
    ngi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    swhoseowngoodi
    sinext
    ri
    cabl
    yli
    nkedt
    o
    thegoodofthecommuni
    ty.
    Communi
    tymembersar
    eboundbythepur
    suitofcommonv al
    uesandgoal
    s.Thecommongoodi
    s
    anot
    iont
    hator
    igi
    nat
    edi
    nthewri
    ti
    ngsofPl
    ato,Ari
    stot
    le,
    andCicer
    o.
    Morerecentl
    y,cont
    emporar
    yethi
    cistJohnRawlsdef
    inedt
    hecommongoodas"
    cer
    tai
    ngener
    al
    condi
    ti
    onsthatareequal
    l
    ytoev
    eryone'
    sadvant
    age.
    "
    Int
    hisapproach,wefocusonensur
    ingt
    hatthesoci
    alpol
    i
    cies,soci
    alsy
    stems,i
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons,and
    env
    ironmentsonwhichwedependar
    ebenef
    ici
    alt
    oall
    .
    Exampl
    esofgoodscommont oal
    lincl
    udeaf
    for
    dablehealthcar
    e,ef
    fect
    ivepubl
    i
    csaf
    ety
    ,peace
    amongnat
    ions,
    ajustl
    egal
    syst
    em,
    andanunpoll
    utedenv
    ironment.
    Whil
    erespect
    ingthef
    reedom ofindi
    vidual
    stopursuethei
    rowngoals,t
    hecommongoodapproach
    chal
    l
    engesusal sotorecognizeandf urt
    hert
    hosegoal s.I
    tpresent
    sav i
    sionofsoci
    etywhose
    membersarejoi
    nedinpursui
    tofv al
    uesandgoalstheyholdi
    ncommon.
    Thepri
    nci
    pleoft
    hecommongoodappr
    oachst
    ates;“
    Whati
    set
    hicali
    swhatadv
    ancest
    hecommon
    good.
    ”

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    3.
    4.3. TheRi
    ght
    sAppr
    oach:
     I
    troot
    sinthephil
    osophyofthe18th ct
    hinkerI
    mmanuelKantandot
    her
    sli
    kehi
    m whof
    ocusedon
    t
    heindi
    vi
    dual
    ’sr
    ighttochooseforherorhimsel
    f.
     Accordi
    ngt othem,humanbeingsdi
    ff
    erentfrom mer
    et hi
    ngsisbecausepeopl
    ehav
    edi
    gni
    tyt
    o
    choosefreel
    y,&haveafundament
    almoralr
    ightt
    ohavethesechoi
    cesrespect
    ed.
     Peoplear
    enotobject
    stobemani
    pul
    ated;i
    tisav
    iol
    ati
    onofhumandi
    gni
    tyt
    ousepeopl
    einway
    s
    theydonotf
    reel
    ychoose.
     Manydif
    ferentbutrel
    atedr
    ight
    sexi
    stbesi
    desthisbasi
    cone.Theseot
    herr
    ight
    scanbet
    houghtof
    asdi
    ff
    erentaspectsofthebasi
    cri
    ghtt
    obet r
    eatedaswechoose.
     Amongt
    heser
    ight
    sar
    e:
    o TheRighttotheTr
    uth:Wehav ear
    ightt
    obet
    oldt
    het
    rut
    handt
    obei
    nfor
    medaboutmat
    ter
    s
    thatsi
    gni
    fi
    cantl
    yaf
    fectchoi
    ces.
    o TheRightofPr
    ivacy:Wehav
    etherighttodo,beli
    eve,andsaywhat
    everwechoosei
    nour
    per
    sonall
    iv
    essolongaswedonotv
    iolat
    etheri
    ghtsofother
    s.
    o TheRi
    ghtnott obei
    njur
    ed:Wehavet
    heri
    ghtnott
    obehar
    medori
    njur
    edunl
    esswefr
    eel
    yand
    knowi
    nglydosomethingtodeser
    vepuni
    shmentorwefr
    eel
    yandknowi
    ngl
    ychoosetori
    sk
    suchi
    njur
    ies.
    o TheRi
    ghttowhatisagreed:Wehavether
    ightt
    owhathasbeenpr
    omi
    sedt
    hosewi
    thwhom
    wehav
    efreel
    yent
    eredint
    oacontr
    actoragr
    eement.
     I
    ndecidi
    ngwhet
    heranact
    ioni
    smor
    alori
    mmor
    al, doest
    wemustask, heact
    ionr
    espectt
    hemor
    al
    r
    ight
    sofever
    yone?
     Acti
    onsar
    ewr ongtotheextentt
    heyv
    iol
    atet
    her
    ight
    sofi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    s;t
    hemor
    eser
    ioust
    hev
    iol
    ati
    on,
    themorewrongful
    theact
    ion.
     Ri
    ght
    sAppr oachident
    if
    iescert
    aininterestt
    est
    sthatourbehav
    iormustrespect
    ,especi
    all
    ythose
    ar
    easthatareofsuchvaluet
    oust hattheymeri
    tprot
    ect
    ionfr
    om other
    s.
     Eachpersonhasafundamentalr
    ightt
    oberespect
    edandt
    reat
    edasf
    reeandequalr
    ati
    onalper
    son
    capabl
    eofmakinghisorherowndecisi
    ons.
     Thisimpli
    esot
    herr i
    ght
    s(e.
    g.pri
    vacyfreeconsent,f
    reedom ofconsci
    ence,et
    c.)t
    hatmustbe
    prot
    ectedi
    fapersonist
    ohavet
    hefreedom t
    odirecthi
    sorherownlif
    e.
    Gener
    all
    y,i
    nEt
    hical
    Probl
    em Sol
    vi
    ng;
     Oncef
    act
    shav
    ebeenascer
    tai
    ned,
    consi
    derf
    ivequest
    ionswhent
    ryi
    ngt
    oresol
    veamor
    ali
    ssue:
    1)Whatbenef
    it
    sandwhathar mswi l
    leachcour
    seofact
    ionpr
    oduce,andwhi
    chal
    ter
    nat
    ivewi
    l
    l
    l
    eadtothebestov
    eral
    lconsequences?
    2)Whatmoralr
    ight
    sdot
    heaf
    fect
    edpar
    ti
    eshav
    e,andwhi
    chcour
    seofact
    ionbestr
    espect
    s
    t
    hoser
    ight
    s?
    3)Whichcour
    seofact
    iontr
    eatsever
    yonethesame,exceptwher
    ether
    eisamor
    all
    yjust
    if
    iabl
    e
    r
    easonnotto,
    anddoesnotshowfavor
    it
    ism ordi
    scr
    imi
    nati
    on?
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    4)Whi
    chcour
    seofact
    ionadv
    ancest
    hecommongood?
    5)Whi
    chcour
    seofact
    iondev
    elopsmor
    alv
    irt
    ues?
    3.
    5.ToWhom orWhatDoesMor
    ali
    tyAppl
    y?
    Indi
    scussi
    ngtheappli
    cat
    ionofmoral
    it
    y,f
    ouraspect
    smaybeconsi
    der
    ed:r
    eli
    giousmor
    ali
    ty,
    mor
    ali
    ty
    andnatur
    e,i
    ndiv
    idual
    morali
    ty,
    andsoci
    almoral
    it
    y.
    3.5.
    1. Rel i
    giousMor al
    it
    y
    o Rel
    igi
    ousmor
    alit
    y-r
    efer
    stoahumanbei
    ngi
    nrel
    ati
    onshi
    ptoasuper
    nat
    uralbei
    ngorbei
    ngs.The
    f
    ir
    stt
    hreeoft
    heTenCommandment
    sper
    tai
    ntot
    hiski
    ndofmor
    ali
    ty.
    o Thesecommandment
    sdealwi
    thaper
    son’
    srel
    ati
    onshi
    pwi
    thGod,notwi
    thanyot
    herhuman
    bei
    ngs.
    o Byvi
    olat
    inganyoft
    heset
    hreecommandment
    s,aper
    soncoul
    d,accor
    dingt
    othi
    spar
    ti
    cul
    arcode
    ofet
    hics,
    acti
    mmor
    all
    ytowar
    dGodwi
    thoutact
    ingi
    mmor
    all
    ytowar
    dany
    oneel
    se.
    TheTenCommandment
    s
    1.Iam t
    heLor
    d,YourGod;
    donotwor
    shi
    pfal
    segods.
    2.Donott
    aket
    henameofGodi
    nvai
    n.
    3.Keephol
    ytheSabbat
    hDay
    .
    4.Honory
    ourf
    atherandy
    ourmot
    her
    .
    5.Donotki
    l
    l.
    6.Donotcommi
    tadul
    ter
    y.
    7.Donotst
    eal
    .
    8.Donotbearf
    alsewi
    tnessagai
    nsty
    ournei
    ghbor
    .
    9.Donotcov
    ety
    ournei
    ghbor
    ’sspouse.
    10.Donotcov
    ety
    ournei
    ghbor
    ’sbel
    ongi
    ngs.
    (
    Exod.20:
    1–17)
    3.
    5.2. Mor
    ali
    tyandNat
    ure
    “
    Mor
    ali
    tyandnat
    ure”-r
    efer
    stoahumanbei
    ngi
    nrel
    ati
    onshi
    ptonat
    ure.Nat
    uralmor
    ali
    tyhasbeen
    prev
    alenti
    nal
    lpr
    imi
    ti
    vecul
    tur
    es,suchast
    hatoft
    heNat
    iveAmer
    ican,andi
    ncul
    tur
    esoft
    heFar
    East.
     Mor
    erecent
    ly,t
    heWest
    ernt
    radi
    ti
    onhasal
    sobecomeawar
    eoft
    hesi
    gni
    fi
    canceofdeal
    i
    ngwi
    th
    nat
    urei
    namor
    almanner
    .
     Someseenat
    ureasbei
    ngv
    aluabl
    eonl
    yfort
    hegoodofhumani
    ty,butmanyot
    her
    shav
    ecomet
    o
    seei
    tasagoodi
    nit
    sel
    f,wor
    thyofmor
    alconsi
    der
    ati
    on.
     Wi
    tht
    hisv
    iewpoi
    ntt
    her
    eisnoquest
    ionaboutwhet
    heraRobi
    nsonCr
    usoewoul
    dbecapabl
    eof
    mor
    alori
    mmor
    alact
    ionsonadeser
    tisl
    andbyhi
    msel
    f.
    I
    nthemor
    ali
    tyandnat
    ureaspect
    ,hecoul
    dbeconsi
    der
    edei
    thermor
    alori
    mmor
    al,
    dependi
    ngupon

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    hi
    sact
    ionst
    owar
    dthenat
    ural
    thi
    ngsar
    oundhi
    m.
    3.
    5.3. I
    ndi
    vi
    dualMor
    ali
    ty
     I
    ndi
    vi
    dualmoral
    it
    y-ref
    erstoindi
    vi
    dualsinrel
    ati
    ontothemselvesandt
    oani
    ndi
    vi
    dualcodeof
    mor
    ali
    tyt
    hatmayormaynotbesanct
    ionedbyanysoci
    etyorr
    eli
    gion.
     I
    tal
    lowsfora“hi
    ghermoral
    it
    y,
    ”whichcanbef
    oundwi
    thi
    nthei
    ndi
    vi
    dualr
    athert
    hanbey
    ondt
    his
    wor
    ldinsomesuper
    nat
    uralr
    ealm.
     Aper
    sonmayormaynotper form someact,notbecausesoci
    ety,l
    aw,orrel
    igi
    onsay
    shemayor
    maynot
    ,butbecausehehi
    mselft
    hinksi
    tisr
    ightorwrongfr
    om hisconsci
    ence.
    3.5.4. Soci alMor al
    ity
     Socialmor
    ali
    ty-concer
    nsahumanbei
    ngi
    nrel
    ati
    ont
    oot
    herhumanbei
    ngs.I
    tispr
    obabl
    ythemost
    i
    mpor t
    antaspectofmoral
    it
    y,int
    hati
    tcut
    sacr
    ossal
    loft
    heot
    heraspect
    sandi
    sfoundi
    nmor
    e
    et
    hicalsy
    stemsthananyoftheot
    her
    s.
     Ret
    urni
    ng br
    ief
    lyt
    othedeser
    t-
    isl
    and exampl
    e,mostet
    hici
    stsst
    atet
    hatRobi
    nsonCr
    usoei
    s
    i
    ncapabl
    eofanyr
    eal
    l
    ymor
    alori
    mmor
    alact
    ionexceptt
    owar
    dhi
    msel
    fandnat
    ure.
     Suchact
    ionwoul
    dbemi
    nimali
    fcompar
    edwi
    tht
    hepot
    ent
    ialf
    ormor
    ali
    tyori
    mmor
    ali
    tyi
    fther
    e
    wer
    eni
    neot
    herpeopl
    eont
    hei
    slandwhom hecoul
    dsubj
    ugat
    e,t
    ort
    ure,
    ordest
    roy
    .
     Manyet
    hicalsy
    stemswoul
    dal
    l
    ow t
    hatwhathewoul
    ddot
    ohi
    msel
    fisst
    ri
    ctl
    yhi
    sbusi
    ness,“
    as
    l
    ongasi
    tdoesn’
    thar
    m any
    oneel
    se.
    ”
    3.
    6.Whoi
    sMor
    all
    y/Et
    hical
    lyResponsi
    ble?
     Mor
    ali
    typer
    tai
    nstohumanbeingsandonlytohumanbei
    ngs;allel
    sei
    sspecul
    ati
    on.I
    fonewant
    s
    t
    oatt
    ri
    butemoral
    i
    tytosuper
    natur
    albei
    ngs,
    onehastodososolelyonf
    ait
    h.
     I
    fonewant
    stoholdanimal
    sorplant
    smoral
    lyresponsi
    blef
    ordest
    ruct
    iveacts,t
    henonehast
    o
    i
    gnor
    emostev
    idencegi
    venoni
    nst
    inct
    ual
    behavi
    orofsuchbei
    ngs&observat
    ions.
     Recentexper
    iment
    ati
    onwi t
    ht eachi
    ngofl anguagetoanimalssuggest
    sthatt
    heyar
    eatl
    east
    mini
    mall
    ycapableofdev
    elopi
    ngsomet houghtprocessessi
    mil
    arwit
    hhumans.
     I
    tisev
    enpossibl
    ethatt
    heymi
    ghtbet
    aughtmoral
    it
    yinthefut
    ure,
    ashumansar
    enow.I
    fthi
    swer
    e
    t
    ooccur,
    thenani
    malscoul
    dbehel
    dmoral
    lyr
    esponsi
    blefort
    hei
    racti
    ons.
     Curr
    entl
    y,evi
    denceseemsani
    malsandplants,shouldbecl
    assi
    fi
    edasei
    thernon-
    mor
    aloramor
    al.
    Ther
    efore,whenweusemoralandet
    hical
    ,i
    nr ef
    erenceonl
    ytohumanbei
    ngs.
     Wedonotholdawolfmor al
    l
    yresponsi
    bleforki
    ll
    ingasheep,oraneagl
    e.Wemayki
    l
    lthewol
    for
    f
    oxforhav
    ingdonebecausewedon‘twantoursheeporchi
    ckenstobeki
    ll
    ed.
     Att
    hispoi
    nt,
    onlyhumanbeingscanbemor alori
    mmoral
    ,andt
    her
    efor
    eonl
    yhumanbei
    ngsshoul
    d
    behel
    dmorall
    yresponsi
    blef
    orthei
    ract
    ionsandbehav
    ior
    .
    3.
    6.1. Mor
    alJudgment
    s
    Moralj
    udgment
    s-ref odeci
    ert di
    ngwhati sr
    ightandwhatiswrongi
    nhumanr
    elat
    ions.I
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    s
    ar
    econti
    nual
    lyj
    udgi
    ngtheirownconductandthatoft
    hei
    rfell
    ows.

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    Theyapprov
    eofsomeact
    sandcal
    lthem r
    ight
    ‖orgood.Theycondemnot
    heract
    sandcal
    lthem
    wrongorevi
    lorbad.
    Moraljudgmentsalwayshav et
    odowi ththeact
    ionsofhumanbei
    ngsand,i
    npar
    ti
    cul
    ar,wi
    th
    vol
    untaryact
    ions-
    thoseact
    ionsf
    reel
    ychosen.
    Invol
    unt
    aryact
    ions-
    thoseov erwhi
    chpeopl
    ehavenocontr
    olarerar
    elyopent
    omor
    alj
    udgment
    andnothel
    dresponsi
    bleforanacti
    ont
    hatsheorhedi
    dnoti
    nit
    iat
    e.
    Moralj
    udgmentsar
    eevaluat
    ivebecauset
    heypl
    acev
    alueont
    hingsorr
    elat
    ionorhumanact
    ions;
    det
    erminewhati
    sri
    ghtorwrong,
    goodorbad.
    Theyar
    ealsonor
    mat i
    vebecauset
    heyev
    aluat
    eorassesst
    hemor
    alwor
    thofsomet
    hingbasedon
    somenormsorstandar
    ds.
    Findi
    ngtheri
    ghtcourseofact
    ion,
    choosi
    ngt
    herightal
    ter
    nati
    ve,i
    snotalwayssi
    mple.Wecanhave
    noalgor
    ithm f
    orjudgment,si
    nceever
    yappl
    i
    cat
    ionofar ulewouldi
    tsel
    fneedsupplement
    ingwi
    th
    furt
    herr
    ules.
    Onor
    aO’Neil
    larguesthatmoralpri
    nci
    plesdonotpr
    ovi
    deuswithanaut o-
    pil
    otforl
    i
    fe‖andt
    hat
    j
    udgmenti
    salwaysneededinusingorf
    ollowi
    ngandi
    nfl
    out
    ingr
    ulesorpr
    inci
    ples.
    When conf
    li
    cts ofinter
    estari
    se,the sol
    uti
    on may r
    equi
    re great
    estsensi
    ti
    vi
    ty,exper
    ience,
    di
    scer
    nment,i
    ntel
    li
    genceandgoodwi
    l
    l,andevenwemaydoubtactedri
    ght
    ly.
    However
    ,injudgingconductoract
    ionwehav
    etoconsi
    dermot
    ives,means,andconsequences
    andsometi
    mest hesit
    uati
    on.
    1. Mot i
    ves:Mot i
    v es,
    asJesus, Kant,andot hershav epoi ntedout , ar
    ebasi cf oradeterminationof
    mor ality.Themot i
    v er ef
    erst ot heintentionorwhyanact ioni sdone.Agoodmot i
    veisa
    prerequi sitetoconductt hatweappr ovewi thoutqual if
    ication.Ifagoodmot ivei
    spr esentwhen
    anact ,throughsomeunf oreseenf actor,l
    eadst ohar mf uleffects,wet endt odi
    sappr oveless
    sev erelyandt osay ,any way ,hemeantwel l
    .Kant ,forexampl e,def i
    nedt hegoodast hegood
    will
    .Not hingcanpossi blybeconcei v
    edi nthewor l
    d, orev enoutofi t
    , whichcanbecal l
    edgood
    withoutqual if
    icati
    on, exceptagoodwi ll
    .ForKant , arationalbei ngstr i
    vest odowhatheorshe
    oughtt odoandt hisi stobedi st
    inguishedf r
    om anactt hataper sondoesf r
    om ei t
    her
    i
    ncl i
    nat i
    onorsel f-
    interest.I
    not herwor ds,aper sonmustactoutofdut ytot hemor allaw-that
    i
    s, oughtwhatonet odo.Thet rulymor alact, f
    orKant ,notonl yagr eeswi ththemor al l
    aw,butis
    donef ort hesakeoft hemor allaw -notonl yasdut yr equiresbutbecausedut yr equir
    es.In
    Kant i
    ant hinki
    ng,thesetofmor alwor t
    hi st hei ndivi
    dual ’swill,andt hegoodwi l
    lact soutofa
    senseofdut y.
    2. Means:Justast her
    emaybemanymot i
    v esfordesiri
    ngsomet hi
    ng,ther
    emaybemanymeans
    forachievi
    ngit
    .Thet m meanscanbedef
    er inedasanagency ,i
    nstr
    ument ,ormet hodusedto
    att
    ainanend.Thoughweexpectpeopl et ouset hebestav ail
    ablemeanst ocar r
    youttheir
    purposes,wecondemnt hem i
    fthei
    rchoiceofmeansi mpressesusasunj ust,
    cruel,ori
    mmor al
    .
    Onr areoccasi
    onswemayappr oveofanactwhenmeansar eusedt hatunderot hercondi
    ti
    ons
    woul dbecondemned.Howev er,t
    hereisadangeri nproposingt hatanymeansmaybeused,
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    provi
    dedt
    heendisgood,orthat―theendj
    ust
    if
    iest
    hemeans.Oncechosen,t
    hemeans
    becomepar
    toft
    hegener
    alef
    fectofanact
    .
    3. Consequences:Consequencesar et heeffect
    sorresul tsofamor aldeci
    sionbasedonav al
    ue.
    Weex pectt heconsequencesofanactt hatwecall―r ight‖tobegood.Or dinaril
    y,whenpeople
    ask,―whati sr
    ight
    ?t heyarethinkingabouttheconsequencesoft heact i
    on.Thi sdependson
    whatethicalpri
    ncipleisinoperation.Kantagreestot hegoodmot i
    ve,uti
    li
    tar i
    anstotheresul
    t.
    Ingeneral,soci
    etyjudgesconduct―r i
    ght‖ifitpr
    oceedsf rom agoodmot i
    v e,thr
    oughtheuse
    ofthebestav ail
    ablemeans,t oconsequencest hatar egood.I fthesecondi ti
    onsarenot
    ful
    fi
    ll
    ed,wecondemnt heactionorappr ov eitwi
    thr eservati
    ons.Wer arelyappr oveanacti
    on
    whenther esult
    sar eevil
    orwrong.
    4. TheMor alSituaton:Amor
    i alsi
    tuat i
    oni nvolvesmoralagents-humanbei ngswhoact ,are
    empoweredt omakechoi ces,andconsci ouslymakedeci si
    ons.Asmoralagents,
    demandsar e
    madeonusandpl aceusunderobl igati
    ons:wehav ebothdut i
    esandr
    ight
    s.Wear efacedwith
    mor al
    al ternati
    ves,andwecanbet terweight hoseal
    ternati
    veswhenwehav eanunderst
    anding
    oft
    heingredientsofthemor alsi
    tuat i
    on.
    3.
    6.2. WhatMakesanAct
    ionMor
    al?
     Someti
    meswet hi
    nkofmor
    almeansmorall
    ygood.But
    ,phi
    losophi
    cal
    l
    y,i
    tref
    erst
    oanact
    ionwhi
    ch
    comeswit
    hint
    hescopeofmor
    ali
    ty,
    oract
    ionmorall
    ysi
    gnif
    icant
    .
     Notallact
    ionshaveamor alsense&actionssuchasput t
    ingonrai
    ncoat
    ,shar
    peni
    ngpenci
    l
    ,or
    count
    ingapples,
    standi
    ngonyourhead,
    arenotinthemsel
    vesgoodorbad.
     Suchact
    ionsaremor
    all
    yneutr
    alornon-
    moral.Bycontrast
    ,steal
    i
    ngf
    rom y
    ourl
    i
    brar
    ies,punchi
    ng
    peopl
    eorhel
    pingt
    hedi
    sadvant
    agearemoral
    l
    ysi gni
    fi
    cantacti
    ons.
     But,whatmakesanactent
    erthemoralar
    enaorj
    udget
    obegoodorbad,r
    ightorwr
    ong?The
    fol
    l
    owingaref
    eatur
    est
    hatmakeanact
    ionmoral
    :
    i
    .A moralactinvol
    vesanagent
    :Ifsomethi
    ngisanat ur
    aleventoranactionper
    formedby
    ani
    mals,theniti
    smorall
    yneut
    ral-i
    tdoesnotappearonourmor alr
    adar
    s.Humanscanbe
    moralagents,
    oranycr
    eatur
    est
    hatcanfr
    eel
    yandthought
    ful
    lychoosei
    tsact
    ionswi
    llcountas
    amoralagent.
    i
    i.Amor alacti
    nvolvesint
    ention:Anintenti
    onher eref
    erstoourmot ivesthatareimportantt
    o
    deter
    minet heri
    ghtnessorwr ongnessofanact ion.I
    fanact i
    onisdoneacci dent
    all
    y,itmaybe
    countedasamor all
    yneutralacti
    on.Howev er
    ,someuni ntenti
    onalacts,suchast hosedone
    thr
    oughnegl i
    gence,canbemor al.Neglect
    ingourdut i
    es,evenaccidental
    ly,makeusmor al
    l
    y
    cul
    pable.
    i
    ii
    .Amor alactaff
    ectsot hers:Amor alacti
    onneedsnotonlyanagentandtobedeli
    ber at
    ebut
    alsoneedst oaff
    ectothers( t
    hosewemi ghtcal
    lmoralpati
    ent
    s)i
    nsigni
    fi
    cantways,thatis,
    an
    acti
    on thathashar mf ul(be itphy si
    cal,psychol
    ogi
    cal,emoti
    onal
    ,ordepriv
    ing othersof
    happiness)orbenef
    ici
    al consequencesforothers.
     Thecl
    aimt
    hatmor
    ali
    tyonl
    ygov
    ernsbehav
    iort
    hataf
    fect
    sot
    her
    sissomewhatcont
    rov
    ersi
    al.Some
    cl
    aimedt
    hatmor
    ali
    tygov
    ernsbehav
    iort
    hataf
    fect
    sonl
    ytheagent
    .
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    2014)
     Conf
    usi
    onaboutt
    hecont
    entofmor
    ali
    tyar
    isesbecausemor
    ali
    tyi
    snotal
    way
    sdi
    sti
    ngui
    shedf
    rom
    r
    eli
    gion.
     Regar
    dingsel
    f-
    aff
    ect
    ingbehav
    iorasgov
    ernedbymor
    ali
    tyi
    ssuppor
    tedbyt
    hei
    deat
    hatwear
    e
    cr
    eat
    edbyGodandar
    eobl
    i
    gedt
    oobeyhi
    scommands.
     Thi
    srel
    i
    gious hol
    dov
    ermi
    ghtal
    so af
    fectt
    he cl
    aim t
    hatsome sexualpr
    act
    ices such as
    homosexual
    i
    tyareimmoral
    ;butthose who di
    sti
    ngui
    sh mor
    ali
    tyf
    rom r
    eli
    gion do notr
    egar
    d
    homosexual
    i
    ty,
    perse,
    asamoral
    mat t
    er.
     Gener
    all
    y,amor
    alact
    ioni
    sonewhi
    ch:
     I
    sper
    f medbyagent
    or s,cr
    eat
    urest
    hatar
    ecapabl
    eoff
    reechoi
    ce/f
    reewi
    l
    l
     I
    sther tofi
    esul ntent
    ion;
    theact
    ionwasdoneonpur
    posewi
    thapar
    ti
    cul
    armot
    ive
     Hasasi
    gni
    fi
    cantconsequenceonot
    her
    s(har
    m orbenef
    it
    s)i
    tbr
    ingsabout
    .
    3.
    7.WhyShoul
    dHumanBei
    ngsBeMor
    al?
    Therecanbenosocietywithoutmoralregul
    ati
    on;mani smanonl
    ybecauseheli
    vesi
    nasoci
    ety
    ;
    takeawayf
    rom manallthathasasocialori
    ginandnot
    hingi
    slef
    tbutanani
    malcompar
    ewi
    thot
    her
    animal
    s.
    Weshouldbemoralbecausebei
    ngmorali
    sf ol
    l
    owingtherul
    esdesignedt
    oov er
    rul
    eself
    -i
    nterest
    wheneveri
    tisi
    ntheint
    erestofev
    eryoneal
    ikethatev
    eryoneshoul
    dsetasidehisi
    nter
    est.John
    Hosper
    s
    A.Ar
    gumentf
    rom Enl
    ight
    enedSel
    f-
    Int
    erest
    o Onecancer
    tai
    nlyar
    gueonabasi
    sofenl
    i
    ght
    enedsel
    f-
    int
    erestt
    hati
    tisbet
    tert
    obegoodr
    ather
    t
    hanbadandt
    ocr
    eat
    eawor
    ldandsoci
    etyt
    hati
    sgoodr
    athert
    hanbad.
    o Asamat
    teroff
    act
    ,sel
    f-
    int
    eresti
    sthesol
    ebasi
    sofoneet
    hicalt
    heor
    y,et
    hicalegoi
    sm.Howev
    er,
    it
    i
    snotbei
    ngsuggest
    edt
    hatoneoughtt
    opur
    sueone‘
    sownsel
    f-
    int
    erest
    .
    o Rat
    her
    ,anar
    gumenti
    sbei
    ngpr
    esent
    edt
    hati
    fev
    ery
    onet
    ri
    edt
    odoandbegoodandt
    ri
    edt
    oav
    oid
    andpr
    eventbad,
    itwoul
    dbei
    nev
    ery
    one‘
    ssel
    f-
    int
    erest
    .
    o Forexampl
    e,i
    fwi
    thi
    nagr
    oupofpeopl
    enooneki
    l
    led,
    stol
    e,l
    i
    ed,
    orcheat
    ed,
    theneachmemberof
    thegroupwouldbenefi
    t.Anindiv
    idualmemberofthegr
    oupcouldsay,i
    t‘
    sinmyself
    -i
    nteresttodo
    goodr at
    herthanbadbecauseIst andtobenef
    iti
    fIdoandalsobecauseIcoul
    dbeost raci
    zedor
    puni
    shedi fIdon‘
    t.Theref
    ore,eventhoughiti
    snotair
    ti
    ght
    ,theargumentfr
    om enl
    ightenedself
    -
    i
    nteresti
    scompelli
    ng.
    B.Ar
    gumentf
    rom Tr
    adi
    ti
    onandLaw
     Rel
    atedt
    othef
    oregoi
    ngar
    gumenti
    sthear
    gumentf
    rom t
    radi
    ti
    onandl
    aw.Thi
    sar
    gumentsuggest
    s
    thatbecausetradi
    ti
    onsandlaws,est
    abl
    i
    shedov
    eral
    ongper
    iodoft
    ime,gov
    ernt
    hebehav
    iorof
    humanbei ngs,
    andurgetobemoral.
     Sel
    f-
    int
    eresti
    soner
    eason,butanot
    heri
    srespectf
    ort
    hehumant
    houghtandef
    for
    tthathasgone
    i
    ntoest
    abl
    i
    shi
    ngsuchl
    awsandt
    radi
    ti
    onsandt
    ransf
    err
    ingt
    hem f
    rom onehi
    stor
    icper
    iodandone
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    cul
    tur
    etoanot
    her
    .
     Thi
    scanbeanat
    tract
    ivear
    gument
    ,ev
    ent
    houghi
    ttendst
    osuppr
    essquest
    ioni
    ngoft
    radi
    ti
    onsand
    l
    aws-aki
    ndofquest
    ioni
    ngt
    hati
    satt
    hecor
    eofcr
    eat
    ivemor
    alr
    easoni
    ng.
    I
    tisi
    nter
    est
    ingt
    onot
    ethatmostofuspr
    obabl
    ylear
    nedmor
    ali
    tyt
    hroughbei
    ngconf
    ront
    edwi
    th
    t
    hisar
    gument
    ,ther
    eli
    giousar
    gument
    ,&exper
    iencessur
    roundi
    ngi
    t.
     Don‘
    tweal
    lrememberbei
    ngt
    oldweshoul
    dorshoul
    dnotdosomet
    hingbecausei
    twasorwasnot
    i
    nourownself
    -i
    nter
    est
    ,becauseGodsaiditwasri
    ghtorwr
    ong,
    orbecausei
    twast
    hewaywewer
    e
    supposedt
    oacti
    nourfamil
    y,school
    ,soci
    ety
    ,andworl
    d?
    C.CommonHumanNeeds
     Arether
    eanyast
    owhyhumanbei ngsshouldbemoral?I
    fweexami
    nehumannat
    ure,
    wedi
    scov
    er
    thatt
    heyhav
    emanyneeds,
    desi
    res,goal
    s,andobj
    ect
    ivesi
    ncommon.
     Forexample,
    peopl
    egeneral
    lyseem t
    oneedfri
    endshi
    p,l
    ove,happi
    ness,
    freedom,
    peace,
    creat
    ivi
    ty,
    andstabi
    l
    ityi
    nthei
    rli
    ves,
    notonlyf
    orthemsel
    vesbutf
    orothers,
    too.
     Inordertosatisfytheseneeds, peoplemustestabl
    ishandfoll
    owmor al
    pri
    nci
    plest
    ocooperat
    eand
    freethem fr
    om f earthattheywi l
    llosethei
    rli
    ves,bemutil
    ated,orbestol
    enfr
    om,li
    edto,cheat
    ed,
    severel
    yrestr
    icted,orimprisoned.
    Moral
    i
    tyi
    snotofcoursei
    denticalwi
    thfol
    l
    owi ngsel
    f-i
    nterest
    .Ifi
    twere,therecouldbenoconfli
    ct
    bet
    weenmor
    ali
    tyandsel
    f-
    int
    erestandnopointinhav
    ingr ul
    esover
    ridi
    ngself-
    int
    erest
    .JohnHosper
    s
     Moral
    i
    tyexist
    s,i
    npart
    ,becauseofhumanneedsandt
    hroughr
    ecogni
    ti
    onoft
    hei
    mpor
    tanceof
    l
    iv
    ingtoget
    heri
    nacooper
    ati
    veandsi
    gni
    fi
    cantway
    .
     I
    tmaynotbethecasethatallhumanbei
    ngscanbeconvi
    ncedthatt
    heyshoul
    dbemor
    al,orev
    en
    t
    hati
    twi
    llal
    waysbeineachindivi
    dual
    ‘
    ssel
    f-
    int
    erestt
    obemoral
    .
     Howev er,
    thequest i
    onwhyshouldhumanbei ngsbemor al
    ?general
    l
    ycanbestbeanswer
    edbythe
    stat
    ementt hatadheringt
    omoralprinci
    plesenableshumanbeingstol
    i
    vethei
    rli
    vesaspeacef
    ull
    y,
    happil
    y,creat
    ivel
    y,andmeani
    ngfull
    yasispossible.
     I
    n general,i
    n a soci
    etywher
    ein morali
    tyisdecli
    ned,crime,deat
    h,looti
    ng,i
    nst
    abi
    l
    ity
    ,soci
    al
    dev
    iance,sui
    cide,
    humanri
    ghtvi
    olat
    ion,cor
    rupt
    ionandothercr
    iseswi
    llpr
    evai
    l.
     Wit
    hhumanself
    -i
    nterest
    ,whatcanmoti
    vat
    eust
    oalwaysf
    oll
    owtherul
    esofmor
    ali
    ty?Askedmor
    e
    si
    mply
    ,“Whybemor al
    ?”Amongt hemor
    ecommonanswer
    saret
    hese:
     Behav
    ingmor
    all
    yisamat
    terofsel
    f-
    respect
    .
     Peopl
    ewon’
    tli
    keusi
    fwebehav
    eimmor
    all
    y.
     Soci
    etypuni
    shesi
    mmor
    albehav
    ior
    .
     Godt
    ell
    sust
    obemor
    al.
     Par
    ent
    sneedt
    obemor
    alr
    olemodel
    sfort
    hei
    rchi
    l
    dren.
     Theseareallgoodanswers,andeachmaybeapower f
    ulmot
    ivat
    ionf
    ortherightperson.With
    rel
    i
    giousbel
    i
    evers,
    forexample,hav
    ingf
    ait
    hinGodanddi
    vi
    nej
    udgmentmightpr
    omptt hem toact

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    pr
    oper
    ly.
     Withpar
    ents,t
    heresponsibi
    l
    ityofr
    aisi
    nganotherhumanbei
    ngmi
    ghtf
    orcet
    hem t
    oadoptahi
    gher
    setofmoralst
    andardsthantheywouldot
    herwise.
     However,manyoft heseanswer
    swon’tapplytoeveryper
    son:nonbel
    i
    ever
    s,nonpar
    ent
    s,peopl
    e
    wi
    thoutsel
    frespect
    ,peopl
    ewhot hi
    nkt
    hattheycanescapepuni
    shment.
     Ther
    ear
    etwodi
    sti
    nctcomponent
    stot
    hequest
    ion“
    Whybemor
    al?
    ”
    1)Whydoessoci
    etyneedmor
    alr
    ules?
    2)Whyshoul
    dIbemor
    al?
     From Hobbes’
    sperspecti
    ve,
    moral
    i
    tyconsi
    stsofasetofr
    ulessucht
    hat,i
    fnear
    lyev
    ery
    onef
    oll
    ows
    them,thennearl
    yev ery
    onewil
    lfl
    ouri
    sh.Theserul
    esrestri
    ctourf
    reedom butpr
    omotegr
    eater
    freedom andwel
    l
    being.
     Mor
    especifi
    cal
    ly
    ,thef
    ivesoci
    albenef
    it
    sofest
    abl
    ishi
    ngandf
    oll
    owi
    ngmor
    alr
    ulesaccompl
    ish
    t
    hefol
    lowi
    ng:
    a)Keepsoci
    etyf
    rom f
    all
    i
    ngapar
    t.
    b)Reducehumansuf
    fer
    ing.
    c)Pr
    omot
    ehumanf
    lour
    ishi
    ng.
    d)Resol
    veconf
    li
    ctsofi
    nter
    esti
    njustandor
    der
    lyway
    s.
    e)Assi
    gnpr
    aiseandbl
    ame,
    rewar
    dandpuni
    shment
    ,andgui
    l
    t.
     Al
    lthesebenef
    it
    shav
    eincommont
    hef
    actt
    hatmor
    ali
    tyi
    sasoci
    alact
    ivi
    ty:I
    thast
    odowi
    th
    soci
    ety
    ,nott
    hei
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    ini
    sol
    ati
    on.
    I
    fonl
    yoneper
    sonexi
    stsonani
    sland,nomor
    ali
    tyexi
    sts;i
    ndeed,somebehav
    iorwoul
    dbebet
    ter
    f
    orthatper
    sonthanothers—suchaseati
    ngcoconut
    srat
    hert
    hansand—butt
    her
    ewoul
    dnotbe
    mor
    alit
    yint
    heful
    lmeaningofthatt
    erm.
     However
    ,assoonasasecondper
    sonappear
    sont
    hati
    sland,mor
    ali
    tyal
    soappear
    s.Mor
    ali
    tyi
    s
    t
    husasetofr
    ulest
    hatenabl
    eust
    oreachourcol
    l
    ect
    ivegoal
    s.
    I
    magi
    newhatsoci
    etywoul
    dbel
    i
    kei
    fwedi
    dwhat
    everwi
    thoutobey
    ingmor
    alr
    ules.
    (“
    Whyshoul
    dI
    bemoral
    ?”).Ul
    ti
    mat
    ely,Ishoul
    dbemor albecause,byoccasi
    onal
    l
    yal
    l
    owi
    ngsomedi
    sadv
    ant
    age
    formy
    sel
    f,Imayobt
    ainanov er
    all
    ,l
    ong-
    ter
    m advantage.
     Evenwheni
    tseemsast
    houghIcanbr
    eakmor
    alr
    uleswi
    thoutget
    ti
    ngcaught
    ,Ist
    il
    lneedt
    o
    consi
    stentl
    yfollow t
    hem because,al
    thoughanindi
    vidualmoralactmaysomet
    imesbeatodds
    wit
    hmysel f-i
    nterest
    ,thecomplet
    emor alfor
    m ofl
    if
    ei nwhichtheacti
    sroot
    edi
    snotagai
    nstmy
    sel
    f-i
    nter
    est.
    Chapt
    erSummar
    y
    Ethicalr
    easoni
    ngabili
    tyisconsider
    edv it
    all
    yimportantinthesharedconceptsandpri
    nci
    plesthat
    guidecommonet hi
    cali
    ssues.Itoffer
    sar ati
    onal
    et hatprovi
    destheimpetusforel
    abor
    ati
    ngonan
    ethicalr
    easoni
    ngstruct
    ure.Et hi
    caltheor
    iesandprincipl
    esarethefoundati
    onsofethi
    calanal
    ysis
    becauset heyarethev i
    ewpointsfrom whichguidancecanbeobt ai
    nedalongthepathwaytoa
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    ESDEPARTMENT(
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    2014)
    deci
    si
    on.
    Apersonmaki nganethicaldeci
    sionneedsapr oceduretofoll
    owt oinsurethats/hemakesher/
    his
    deci
    sionwithrati
    onal
    it
    yandr espect-
    -adeci
    sionprocedur
    et hatcaninsurethats/hehasconsi
    dered
    al
    ltherel
    evantfact
    orsandhav etakenint
    oaccounttheint
    erestsofothersaswellasher/
    him.
    Thus,onehast odev el
    opahabi tofpursuingjust
    iceoradi sposi
    ti
    ont obej ustifonewant stobea
    j
    ustper son.WhatAr i
    stot
    lemeansbysay i
    ngthisisthatmor alpr
    acti
    ceisav er
    yimportantfact
    orin
    bei
    ngamor alperson.Onecannothav eamor alcharact
    erorbecomeamor alpersonifonedoesnot
    constantl
    ypr act
    icet obemoral,eventhoughonemi ghthavecorrectmor alideas.Thi
    si sj
    ustli
    kea
    pi
    anistwhowoul dnotbeagoodpi ani
    stifshedidnotpract
    iceregular
    lyevent houghsheknowsi nher
    mindhowt oplayt hepi
    ano.
    Oneoftenhast ogiveupsomebenef i
    tsformoral
    ityandonewoul dnotdosooratl
    eastwouldnotbe
    wil
    l
    ingtodosoi fonedidnotknowwhyoneshoul dbemor alorwhyi ti
    sgoodtobemor al
    .Thi
    sisli
    ke
    t
    akingmedicine.Nobodyi swill
    ingtot akemedici
    nenotknowi ngwhatisgoodabouti
    t.Butonewould
    i
    foneknew t hati twouldpromot eheal t
    h.WhatAr i
    stot
    lewi shestobr i
    ngouti
    stheimpor t
    anceof
    moraltheor
    yt hatshowst hesignif
    icanceorthegoodofmor ali
    ty.Thefocusi
    sonwhyoneshoul dbe
    moralandwhatt hemor alpri
    ncipl
    est hatoneshouldobser
    vear e.
    ENDOFCHAPTERTHREEFOR(
    MCED-1011)
    .

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    CHAPTERFOUR:STATE,
    GOVERNMENTANDCI
    TIZENSHI
    P
    4.
    1.Under
    standi
    ngSt
    ate
    4.
    1.1. Def
    ini
    ngSt
    ate
    Theter
    m‘ st
    ate’hasbeenusedtor ef
    erwiderthi
    ngssuchassetofi
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons,t
    err
    it
    ori
    aluni
    t,
    phi
    l
    osophi
    cali
    dea,ani
    nstr
    umentofcoer
    cionoroppr
    essi
    on,
    andsoon.
    Besides,statehasbeenunderstood i
    nf ourqui
    tedi
    ff
    erentper
    spect
    ives;(
    ideal
    ist
    ,funct
    ional
    ist
    ,
    organizat
    ionalandi
    nter
    nat
    ional
    perspect
    ive)
    .
    i
    .I deali
    stViews-Hegeli dent
    if
    iedthr
    eemoment sofsoci alexi
    stence:t
    hef ami
    l
    y(al
    trui
    sm)
    ,ci
    vi
    l
    society(
    universalegoi
    sm)andt hestate(uni
    ver
    salalt
    ruism).Thedr awbackofi
    deal
    i
    sm ist
    hati
    t
    fail
    stodisti
    nguishinst
    it
    uti
    onsunderstat
    eandoutsidestate.
    i
    i
    .Functional
    istvi
    ews-itfocusonther
    oleorpur
    poseofstat
    einsti
    tuti
    ons.Thecentr
    alfuncti
    onof
    thestat
    eismai nt
    enanceofsoci
    alor
    der.Thestat
    eissetofinsti
    tuti
    onsthatupholdorderand
    del
    iv
    ersocialst
    abi
    li
    ty.
    i
    i
    i.Organi
    zati
    onalv
    iew -def
    inesthestateassetofi
    nsti
    tut
    ionsthatare‘
    publ
    i
    c’,andr
    esponsi
    blef
    or
    col
    lect
    iveor
    gani
    zat
    ionofsocialexi
    stence&f
    undedatpubli
    cexpense.
    i
    v.I
    nter
    nat
    ionalview-stat
    evi
    ewedpr
    imar
    il
    yasanact
    oront
    hewor
    ldst
    age&ast
    hebasi
    c‘uni
    t’of
    i
    nter
    nat
    ionalpoli
    ti
    cs.
     Cl
    assicdef
    ini
    ti
    onofst at
    ei ni
    nter
    nat
    ionallaw i
    sfoundinMontevi
    deoConv
    ent
    iononRi
    ght
    sand
    Dut
    iesofSt
    ate(1933)
    .Ast oar
    ti
    cle1,
    thestatehasfourf
    eat
    ures:
    1.Populat
    ion:Sincestat
    eisahumanassoci
    ati
    on,t
    hefir
    stessenti
    alelementt
    hatconsti
    tut
    esiti
    s
    thepeople.Noexactnumbercanbegiv
    enandmixtur
    eofitspeoplehadnoeffect
    s.I
    nshort,
    iti
    s
    tobenotedt hatwi
    thoutpopul
    ati
    ont
    her
    ecanbenostate.
    2.Terr
    it
    ory:Theter
    ri
    toryofastatei
    ncl
    udesland,water,ai
    rspace,mari
    ti
    mej ur
    isdi
    cti
    on and
    embassi
    es.Aspopulat
    ion,t
    hesi
    zeofastat
    e’ster
    ri
    tor
    ycannotbef i
    xed.Iti
    scertai
    nthatthe
    boundar
    yli
    nesofastat
    emustbewel
    lmarkedout
    .
    3.Government:Gover
    nmenti ssai dtobet hesouloft hest at
    e.Itimplement
    st hewi
    llofthe
    community.Ifst
    ateisr egardedasci v
    il
    ized,iti
    sduet ot heexist
    enceofgov er
    nment.The
    gover
    nmenti smachinerythatterminat
    est hecondit
    ionofanar chy.Theform ofgov
    ernment
    maybemonar chi
    cal
    ,arist
    ocrati
    c,democrati
    c,ordi
    ctat
    or i
    al.
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    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
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    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
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    2014)
    4.Sovereignty
    :Itisthehighestpowerofthestatethatdi
    sti
    nguishesitfr
    om allotherassoci
    ati
    ons
    ofhumanbei ngs.Ithast woaspects-InternalandExternal
    .Inter
    nalSov er
    eigntyimpli
    esthe
    stateisthef i
    nalsourceofal ll
    awsinter
    nall
    y.Ont heotherhand,Externalsoverei
    gntyimpli
    es
    thatthestateshouldbef r
    eefrom f
    orei
    gncont r
    ol.
    I
    naddi
    ti
    on,
    theor
    ist
    sandt
    heUNconsi
    der
    edr
    ecogni
    ti
    onasf
    if
    thessent
    ial
    att
    ri
    but
    e.
    4.
    2.Ri
    valTheor
    iesofSt
    ate
     Andr
    ew Hey
    wood(
    2013)cl
    assi
    fi
    edt
    her
    ivalt
    heor
    iesofst
    atei
    ntof
    our
    :thepl
    ural
    i
    stst
    ate,t
    he
    capi
    tal
    i
    stst
    ate,
    thel
    evi
    athanst
    ateandt
    hepat
    ri
    archal
    stat
    e.
    4.
    2.1. ThePl
    ural
    istSt
    ate
     I
    tstemsfrom thebel
    ieft
    hatthest
    ateactsasan‘ umpi
    re’or‘r
    efer
    ee’i
    nsoci
    ety
    .Nev
    ert
    hel
    ess,i
    t
    basedonunacknowl
    edgedassumpt
    ionsaboutst
    ateneut
    rali
    ty.
     Thest
    atecanbeignor
    edonlybecausei
    tisseenasani
    mpar
    ti
    alar
    bit
    erorr
    efer
    eet
    hatcanbebent
    tot
    hewil
    lofthegover
    nmentoftheday.
     I
    ttr
    acedbackt
    osoci
    al-
    cont
    ractt
    hinker
    ssuchasThomasHobbesandJohnLocke.
     Theyarguedt
    hatthest
    atehadarisenoutofav olunt
    aryagreement
    ,orsoci
    alcont
    ract
    ,madeby
    i
    ndiv
    idual
    stosaf
    eguar
    dfrom i
    nsecuri
    ty,
    disor
    derandbrutal
    i
    ty.
     Wit
    houtastate,
    indi
    vi
    dual
    sabuse,expl
    oitandensl
    aveoneanot
    her
    ;wi
    thast
    ate,
    orderandci
    vi
    li
    zed
    exi
    stencear
    eguarant
    eedandl
    iber
    tyisprotect
    ed.
     AsLockeputit
    ,wherether
    eisnol aw t
    hereisnofreedom.Here,st
    atei
    saneut
    ralar
    bit
    er;i
    tis
    ‘
    umpir
    e’or‘
    ref
    eree’
    capabl
    eofpr
    otecti
    ngcit
    izenf
    rom encr
    oachments.
     I
    nHobbes’v i
    ew,ordercoul
    dbesecuredonl
    yviaestabli
    shmentofstatewit
    hpowert
    hatcoul
    dnot
    bequest
    ioned.Ci
    ti
    zensareunderst
    arkchoi
    ceofabsoluti
    sm andanarchy
    .
     However,
    Lockedevelopedli
    ber
    aldefenseoftheli
    mitedst
    ate.I
    nhisv
    iew,
    thepur
    poseoft
    hest
    ate
    i
    sveryspeci
    fi
    c:i
    tisrestr
    ict
    edtodefend‘nat
    ural
    ’i
    ndiv
    idual
    right
    s.
     Theseideasdevel
    opedin20th ci
    ntothepl
    urali
    sttheor
    y.Pl
    ural
    ism hol
    dsthatt
    hest
    atei
    sneut
    ral
    ,
    i
    nsofarasiti
    ssuscept
    ibl
    etotheinfl
    uenceofvari
    ousgroupsandint
    erest
    s.
    4.
    2.2. TheCapi
    tal
    istSt
    ate
    I
    tisMar
    xistnot
    ionwhi
    char
    guedt
    hatst
    atecannotbeunder
    stoodsepar
    atel
    yfr
    om t
    heeconomi
    c
    st
    ruct
    ureofsoci
    ety
    .St
    atei
    sani
    nst
    rumentofcl
    assoppr
    essi
    on:
     TheCommuni
    stMani
    fest
    o(1848)
    :moder
    nst
    atei
    sacommi
    tt
    eef
    ormanagi
    ngt
    hecommonaf
    fai
    rs
    oft
    hewhol
    ebour
    geoi
    sie’
    .
     St
    atei
    sent
    ir
    elydependentoneconomi
    cal
    l
    ydomi
    nantcl
    ass,whi
    chi
    sthebour
    geoi
    sie.Leni
    n
    descr
    ibedst
    atei
    sani
    nst
    rumentf
    ort
    heoppr
    essi
    onoft
    heexpl
    oit
    edcl
    ass.
    I
    fthest
    atedi
    dar
    ti
    cul
    atet
    hei
    nter
    est
    sofanycl
    ass,
    itwasnott
    hoseoft
    hebour
    geoi
    sie,
    butt
    hoseof
    t
    hemostpopul
    ouscl
    assi
    nFr
    enchsoci
    ety
    ,thesmal
    l
    hol
    dingpeasant
    ry.
     Theover
    thr
    owofcapi
    tal
    i
    sm woul
    dseet
    hedest
    ruct
    ionoft
    hebour
    geoi
    sst
    ateandt
    hecr
    eat
    ionof
    MORALANDCI
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    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
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    2014)
    anal
    ter
    nat
    ive,
    prol
    etar
    ianone.
    4.
    2.3. TheLev
    iat
    hanSt
    ate
    o Thei
    mageoft
    hest
    ateasa‘
    l
    evi
    athan’(
    inef
    fect
    ,asel
    f-
    ser
    vingmonst
    eri
    ntentonexpansi
    onand
    aggr
    andi
    zement
    )isoneassoci
    atedi
    nmoder
    npol
    i
    ticswi
    tht
    heNewRi
    ght
    .
    o Suchavi
    ew t
    hest
    ateaspar
    asi
    ti
    cgr
    owt
    hthatt
    hreat
    ensbot
    hindi
    vi
    duall
    i
    ber
    tyandeconomi
    c
    secur
    it
    y.
    o Thecentral
    feat
    ureist
    hatthestat
    epursuesint
    erest
    sthataresepar
    atef
    rom soci
    ety.
    o New Rightthi
    nkersarguethatstat
    einterv
    enti
    onr ef
    lect
    ednotbypopul arpressur
    erat
    her
    ,the
    i
    nter
    nal
    dynami
    csoft
    hest
    ate.
    4.
    2.4. ThePat
    ri
    archalSt
    ate
     Moder
    nthi
    nki
    ngofst
    atet
    akeaccountoft
    hei
    mpl
    i
    cat
    ionsoff
    emi
    nistt
    heor
    y.Mor
    eov
    er,f
    emi
    nist
    s
    concent
    rat
    ethedeeperst
    ruct
    ureofmal
    epowercent
    ered.
     Theybel
    i
    evedt
    hatgenderequal
    i
    tybr
    oughtaboutt
    hroughi
    ncr
    ement
    alr
    efor
    m.I
    fwomenar
    edeni
    ed
    equal
    i
    ty,
    thest
    atei
    sbi
    asedi
    nfav
    orofmen.
     However
    ,st
    ate’
    sbasi
    cneut
    ral
    i
    tyi
    sref
    lect
    edi
    nthebel
    i
    eft
    hatanysuchbi
    ascan,andwi
    l
    l,be
    ov
    ercomebyapr
    ocessofr
    efor
    m.
    I
    nthi
    ssense,l
    i
    ber
    alf
    emi
    nist
    sbel
    i
    evet
    hatal
    lgr
    oups(
    incl
    udi
    ngwomen)hav
    epot
    ent
    ial
    l
    yequal
    accesst
    ost
    atepowert
    opr
    omot
    ejust
    iceandt
    hecommongood.
    4.
    3.TheRol
    eoft
    heSt
    ate
    Ther
    ear
    econt
    rast
    ingi
    nter
    pret
    ati
    onsont
    hedesi
    rabl
    erol
    esoft
    hest
    ate:
    4.
    3.1. Mi
    nimalSt
    ates
     Mi
    nimal
    stat
    eisast
    ateai
    medt
    oensur
    eindi
    vi
    dual
    senj
    oywi
    destr
    eal
    m off
    reedom.
     Astothem,theval
    ueofthest
    ateist
    hatithasthecapaci
    tytoconst
    rai
    nhumanbehav
    ior&t
    o
    pr
    eventi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    sencr
    oachi
    ngonther
    ight
    sandli
    bert
    iesofot
    hers.
     Thestat
    eismer
    elyapr
    otect
    ivebody
    ,it
    scor
    efunct
    ionbei
    ngt
    opr
    ovi
    deaf
    ramewor
    kofpeaceand
    soci
    alor
    der.
     Lock,
    stat
    eact
    sasni
    ghtwat
    chman,
    whoseser
    vicescal
    l
    edwhenor
    dert
    hreat
    ened.
     I
    tleav
    est
    he‘
    mini
    mal
    ’or‘
    ni
    ghtwat
    chman’
    stat
    ewi
    tht
    hreecor
    efunct
    ions.
     Fi
    rst
    ,stat
    eexi
    stst o mai
    ntai
    ndomesti
    corder.Second,i
    tensurescontr
    act
    sbet
    weenpr
    ivat
    e
    ci
    ti
    zensar
    eenf
    orced,andt
    hirdi
    tpr
    ovi
    despr
    otect
    ionagai
    nstext
    ernal
    att
    ack.
     I
    tsi
    nst
    it
    uti
    onal
    abi
    l
    ityi
    sli
    mit
    edt
    opol
    i
    cef
    orce,
    cour
    tsy
    stem &mi
    l
    itar
    yofsomeki
    nd.
     Besi
    de,
    stat
    eint
    erv
    ent
    ioni
    sseenas‘
    deadhand’
    thatr
    educescompet
    it
    ion&pr
    oduct
    ivi
    ty.
     Hence,stat
    e’seconomicr
    oleshoul
    dbeconfi
    nedtot
    wof unct
    ions:mai
    ntenanceofst
    abl
    emeans
    ofexchangeor‘soundmoney’
    &promot
    ionofcompet
    it
    ion.

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    HAWASSAUNI
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    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    4.
    3.2. Dev
    elopment
    alSt
    ates
     Thebesthi
    stor
    icalexampl
    esofmi
    nimalst
    ateswer
    ethosei
    ncount
    ri
    essuchast
    heUKandt
    he
    USAdur
    ingt
    heper
    iodofear
    lyi
    ndust
    ri
    ali
    zat
    i n19thc.
    oni
    I
    nlat
    eri
    ndust
    ri
    ali
    zecount
    ry;t
    hemor
    eext
    ensi
    vewi
    l
    lbei
    tsst
    ate’
    seconomi
    crol
    e.I
    nJapanand
    Ger
    many
    ,st
    ateassumedamor
    eact
    ive‘
    dev
    elopment
    al’
    rol
    efr
    om t
    heout
    set
    .
     Devel
    opment
    alst
    atei
    sonet
    hati
    nter
    venesi
    neconomi
    cli
    fewi
    tht
    hespeci
    fi
    cpur
    poseofpr
    omot
    ing
    i
    ndust
    ri
    algr
    owt
    handeconomi
    cdev
    elopment
    .
     Thecl
    assi
    cexampl
    eofdev
    elopment
    alst
    atesobser
    vedi
    nJapan,Fr
    ance,Aust
    ri
    a,Ger
    manyandi
    n
    EastAsi
    a.
    4.
    3.3. Soci
    alDemocr
    ati
    c(Wel
    far
    e)St
    ates
     Soci
    al-
    democr
    ati
    c st
    ates i
    nter
    vene t
    o br
    ingi
    ng aboutbr
    oadersoci
    alr
    est
    ruct
    uri
    ng,usual
    l
    yin
    accor
    dancewi
    thpr
    inci
    plessuchasf
    air
    ness,
    equal
    i
    tyandsoci
    alj
    ust
    ice.
    I
    n count
    ri
    es such as Aust
    ri
    a and Sweden,st
    atei
    nter
    vent
    ion has been gui
    ded by bot
    h
    dev
    elopment
    alandsoci
    aldemocr
    ati
    cpr
    ior
    it
    ies.
     Thekeyt
    ounder
    standi
    ngsoci
    al-
    democr
    ati
    cst
    atei
    sseenasameansofenl
    argi
    ngl
    iber
    tyand
    pr
    omot
    ingj
    ust
    ice.
    I
    tfocusesl
    essupont
    hegener
    ati
    onofweal
    thandmor
    eonequi
    tabl
    eorj
    ustdi
    str
    ibut
    ionofweal
    th.
    I
    npr
    act
    ice,
    itat
    temptt
    oer
    adi
    cat
    epov
    ert
    yandr
    educesoci
    ali
    nequal
    i
    ty.
     Theadopt
    ionofwel
    far
    epol
    i
    cieshasl
    edt
    otheemer
    genceofsocal
    l
    ed‘
    wel
    far
    est
    ates’
    ,whose
    r
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tieshav
    eext
    endedt
    opr
    omot
    esoci
    alwel
    l
    -bei
    ngamongstt
    hei
    rci
    ti
    zens.
    I
    nthi
    ssense,t
    hesoci
    al-
    democr
    ati
    cst
    atei
    san‘
    enabl
    i
    ngst
    ate’
    ,dedi
    cat
    edt
    othepr
    inci
    pleof
    i
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    empower
    ment
    .
    4.
    3.4. Col
    lect
    ivi
    zedSt
    ates
     Col
    l
    ect
    ivi
    zedst
    atesbr
    ingt
    heent
    ir
    etyofeconomi
    cli
    feunderst
    atecont
    rol
    .Thebestexampl
    esof
    suchst
    ateswer
    eUSSR.
     Thesesoughtt
    oabol
    i
    shpr
    ivat
    eent
    erpr
    iseal
    toget
    her
    ,andsetupcent
    ral
    l
    ypl
    annedeconomi
    es
    admi
    nist
    eredbyanet
    wor
    kofeconomi
    cmi
    nist
    ri
    esandpl
    anni
    ngcommi
    tt
    ees.
     Command economi
    es’wer
    ether
    efor
    eest
    abl
    i
    shed t
    hatwer
    e or
    gani
    zed t
    hrough a sy
    stem of
    ‘
    di
    rect
    ive’
    planni
    ngcont
    rol
    l
    edbycommuni
    stpar
    ty.
     However
    ,theuseoft
    hest
    atet
    oat
    tai
    nthi
    sgoalsuggest
    samor
    eposi
    ti
    veat
    ti
    tudet
    ost
    atepower
    t
    hant
    hatout
    li
    nedi
    nthecl
    assi
    cal
    wri
    ti
    ngsofMar
    xandEngel
    s(1820–95)
    .
     Mar
    xandEngel
    srecogni
    zedt
    hatst
    atecont
    rolwoul
    dbeext
    endedt
    oincl
    udef
    act
    ori
    es,t
    hebanks,
    t
    ranspor
    tat
    ionandsoon.
    4.
    3.5. Tot
    ali
    tar
    ianSt
    ates
    o Themostext
    remeandext
    ensi
    vef
    orm ofi
    nter
    vent
    ioni
    sm i
    stot
    ali
    tar
    iani
    sm.I
    tist
    heconst
    ruct
    ion
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    ofal
    l-
    embr
    aci
    ngst
    ate,
    whi
    chpenet
    rat
    esi
    nev
    eryaspectofhuman.
    o Thest
    atebr
    ingsnotonl
    ytheeconomy
    ,butal
    soeducat
    ion,cul
    tur
    e,r
    eli
    gion,f
    ami
    l
    yli
    feandsoon
    underdi
    rectst
    atecont
    rol
    .
    o Bestexampl
    esoft
    otal
    i
    tar
    ianst
    atesar
    eHi
    tl
    er’
    sGer
    manyandSt
    ali
    n’
    sUSSR,al
    thoughmoder
    n
    r
    egi
    messuchasSaddam Hussei
    n’
    sIr
    aqar
    guabl
    yhav
    esi
    mil
    archar
    act
    eri
    sti
    cs.
    o Thecent
    ralpi
    l
    lar
    sofsuchr
    egi
    mesar
    eacompr
    ehensi
    vepr
    ocessofsur
    vei
    l
    lanceandt
    err
    ori
    sti
    c
    pol
    i
    cing,
    andaper
    vasi
    vesy
    stem ofi
    deol
    ogi
    cal
    mani
    pul
    ati
    onandcont
    rol
    .
    4.
    3.6. Rel
    igi
    ousSt
    ates
     Ont
    hef
    aceofi
    t,ar
    eli
    giousst
    atei
    stheocr
    ati
    cwi
    thst
    rongbondofst
    ateandr
    eli
    gion.
     However,t
    he moder
    n stat
    e emerged by t
    ri
    umph ofci
    vi
    laut
    hor
    it
    y ov
    err
    eli
    gious aut
    hor
    it
    y,
    separ
    ati
    onbet
    weenchur
    chandstat
    e.
     Theperi
    odsi ncethe1980shaswit
    nessedtheri
    seoftherel
    igi
    ousstate,dr
    ivenbyt
    het
    endency
    wit
    hinr
    eli
    giousfundamental
    i
    sm t
    oviewrel
    i
    gionasthebasi
    sofpoli
    ti
    cs.
     Thi
    swasev
    identi
    nthepr
    ocessof‘
    I
    slami
    zat
    ion’
    inPaki
    stan,
    Iranand,
    Sri
    Lanka.
     Farfr
    om regar
    dingpol
    it
    icalr
    eal
    m asinher
    ent
    lycor
    rupt
    ,fundamental
    istl
    ookedt
    osei
    zecont
    rolof
    thest
    ateandtouseitasaninst
    rumentofmor
    alandspi
    rit
    ualregener
    ati
    on.
     St
    rict
    lyspeaki
    ng,rel
    i
    giousst
    atesarefoundedont hebasi
    sofrel
    igiouspr
    inci
    ples,andr
    eli
    giousl
    y-
    or
    ientat
    edgovernmentsoper
    ateinacontextofconst
    it
    uti
    onal
    seculari
    sm.
    4.
    4.Under
    standi
    ngGov
    ernment
    4.
    4.1. Whati
    sGov
    ernment
    ?
    I
    nit
    sbr
    oadestsense,t
    ogov
    ernmeanst
    orul
    eorcont
    rolot
    her
    s.Gov
    ernmentcant
    her
    efor
    ebe
    t
    akent
    oincl
    udeanymechani
    sm t
    hroughwhi
    chor
    der
    edr
    ulei
    smai
    ntai
    ned.
    I
    tisabodyoror
    gant
    hatadmi
    nist
    ersaf
    fai
    rsoft
    hewhol
    ecount
    ry.Thus,
    gov
    ernmenti
    soneoft
    he
    mostessent
    ial
    component
    sandal
    soanadmi
    nist
    rat
    ivewi
    ngoft
    hest
    ate.
    I
    not
    herwor
    ds,gov
    ernmentr
    efer
    stopol
    i
    ticalor
    gani
    zat
    ioncompr
    isi
    ngi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    sandi
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons
    aut
    hor
    izedt
    ofor
    mul
    atepol
    i
    ciesandconductaf
    fai
    rsofst
    ate.
    4.
    4.2. Pur
    posesandFunct
    ionsofGov
    ernment
    Accor
    dingl
    y,t
    hemaj
    orpur
    posesandf
    unct
    ionsofgov
    ernmenti
    ncl
    ude:
     Sel
    f-
    Preserv
    ation:gover
    nment
    sar
    eresponsi
    blet
    oensur
    eor
    der
    ,pr
    edi
    ctabi
    l
    ity
    ,int
    ernalsecur
    it
    y,
    andext
    ernaldefense.
     Distr
    ibut
    ionandRegul
    ati
    onofResour
    ces:Allgover
    nment
    sdet
    ermi
    newhet
    herr
    esour
    cesar
    e
    goingtobecont
    rol
    l
    edbythepubl
    i
    corpr
    ivat
    esector
    .
     ManagementofConf
    li
    cts:Gov
    ernment
    susuall
    ydev
    elopandconsol
    i
    dat
    einst
    it
    uti
    ons(
    organs)and
    pr
    ocedur
    esfort
    hemanagementofconfl
    ict
    s.
     Ful
    fi
    ll
    mentofSoci
    alorGr
    oupAspi
    rat
    ions:gov
    ernment
    sal
    sost
    ri
    vet
    oful
    fi
    llt
    hei
    nter
    est
    sli
    ke

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    humanr
    ight
    s,commongoodandi
    nter
    nat
    ional
    peaceofsoci
    ety
    .
     Prot
    ecti
    ngRightsofCi t
    izens:Const
    it
    uti
    onalanddemocr
    ati
    cgov
    ernment
    sar
    ecr
    eat
    edt
    oser
    ve
    andprot
    ectever
    ycit
    izen’
    sr i
    ghts,
    nottodominat
    ethem.
     Pr
    otecti
    onofPr oper
    ty:gover
    nmentspr
    ovi
    demeanssuchaspol
    i
    ceandcour
    tsy
    stemst
    hat
    pr
    otectpri
    vat
    eandpubli
    cproper
    ty.
     Implementat
    ions ofMor alCondi
    ti
    ons:Some gov
    ernment
    s’at
    tempt
    stoi
    mpr
    ovet
    he mor
    al
    condit
    ionsofthei
    rci
    ti
    zens.
     Provi
    sionofGoodsandServices:commongoodsandservi
    cespr
    ovi
    dedi
    ncl
    ude,heal
    thcar
    e,
    educat
    ion,
    publ
    i
    cworks,
    food,
    shelter
    ,cl
    othi
    ngf
    ort
    hepubl
    i
    c,et
    c.
    4.
    5.Under
    standi
    ngCi
    ti
    zenshi
    p
    1.Def
    ini
    ngCi
    ti
    zenshi
    p
     I
    nsi
    mpl
    estt
    erms,
    cit
    izenr
    efer
    stot
    heper
    sonwhoi
    sal
    egal
    memberofapar
    ti
    cul
    arst
    ate.
     Themeans,
    bywhi
    chwedet
    ermi
    neaper
    sonasl
    egal
    memberofst
    ate,
    is‘
    ci
    ti
    zenshi
    p’.
     Att
    hef
    ormal
    lev
    el,
    cit
    izenshi
    pist
    henet
    wor
    kofr
    elat
    ionshi
    psbet
    weenSt
    ate&ci
    ti
    zen.
     General
    l
    y ,
    theconceptofci
    ti
    zenshi
    pvar
    iesf
    rom soci
    etyt
    osoci
    ety
    ,dependi
    ngonpl
    ace,
    hist
    oryand
    pol
    it
    icalorgani
    zat
    ion.
    4.
    5.2. Theor
    izi
    ngCi
    ti
    zenshi
    p
    Theref
    ore,t
    oreali
    zet
    henot
    ionofci
    ti
    zenshi
    p,under
    standi
    ngi
    tst
    heor
    eti
    calexpl
    anat
    ionscomeoutt
    o
    bethecruci
    alone.
    4.
    5.2.1.Ci t
    izenshi
    pi nLiber
    alThought
     Li
    beralt
    heoryofci
    ti
    zenshi
    pbegi
    nswi
    ththei
    ndi
    vi
    dualper
    son(
    thesel
    f)
    .Thesel
    fexi
    stsast
    het
    rue
    sy
    mbol
    ofl
    i
    ber
    alt
    heor
    y.
     Accor
    dingl
    y,i
    tgi
    vesast
    rongemphasi
    stot
    hei
    ndi
    vi
    duall
    i
    ber
    tyoft
    heci
    ti
    zen.I
    nli
    ber
    ali
    sm,t
    he
    i
    nit
    ial
    focusofal
    lfundament
    alpol
    i
    tical
    inqui
    ryi
    sthei
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    per
    son.
     Li
    ber
    alsi
    nsi
    stt
    hati
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    sshoul
    dbef
    reet
    odeci
    deont
    hei
    rownconcept
    ionofgoodl
    i
    fe.
    I
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    cit
    izensactr
    ati
    onal
    l
    ycor
    respondi
    ngt
    othel
    awsofSt
    ate.
     JohnLocke(
    1960)
    ,thei
    ndi
    vi
    duali
    smor
    all
    ypr
    iort
    othecommuni
    ty:t
    hecommuni
    tymat
    ter
    sonl
    y
    becausei
    tcont
    ri
    but
    est
    othewel
    l
    -bei
    ngoft
    hei
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    s.
    I
    findi
    vi
    dual
    smai
    ntai
    nexi
    sti
    ngcul
    tur
    alpr
    act
    ices,t
    hecommuni
    tyhasnoi
    ndependenti
    nter
    estand
    nor
    ightt
    opr
    eventi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    sfr
    om modi
    fyi
    ngorr
    eject
    ingt
    hem.
     Undert
    hist
    hought
    ,ther
    oleoft
    heSt
    atei
    stopr
    otectandcr
    eat
    econv
    eni
    entenv
    ironmentt
    ohel
    p
    ci
    ti
    zensenj
    oyandexer
    ciseoft
    hei
    rri
    ght
    s;t
    heSt
    atehasani
    nst
    rument
    alf
    unct
    ion.
     Accor
    dingt
    oMi
    l
    l,i
    ndi
    vi
    duall
    i
    ber
    tyandSt
    ateact
    iont
    endt
    obeopposedt
    oeachot
    her
    .Thus,
    i
    ncr
    easi
    ngt
    hepoweroft
    heSt
    atemeansr
    educi
    ngi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    li
    ber
    ty.
     Ther
    ear
    ethr
    eef
    undament
    alpr
    inci
    pleswhi
    chal
    i
    ber
    algov
    ernmentmustpr
    ovi
    de:(
    1)equal
    it
    y,(
    to
    t
    reati
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    sinsameway
    );(
    2)duepr
    ocess,
    (toexer
    cisespowerf
    air
    ly)
    ;and(
    3)mut
    ualconsent
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    ESDEPARTMENT(
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    2014)
    (
    member
    shi
    pinconsensual
    rel
    ati
    onshi
    p).
     Ci
    ti
    zenshi
    pcannotdef
    inebasedonshar
    edi
    dent
    it
    y;t
    hei
    ndi
    vi
    dualchooseshi
    sownaf
    fect
    ions,&
    anyi
    dent
    if
    icat
    ionwi
    thot
    her
    sisapr
    oductoft
    hei
    rlegalst
    atusasci
    ti
    zens.
     Equalr
    ight
    sbi
    ndci
    ti
    zenst
    oget
    heri
    ncommuni
    ty.Thi
    sdoesnoti
    mpl
    ythecompl
    eter
    eject
    ionof
    cul
    tur
    eandi
    dent
    it
    ybutt enotapr
    heyar ior
    ifoundat
    ionsf
    orci
    ti
    zenshi
    p.
    Cr
    it
    icsofLi
    ber
    alTheor
    yofCi
    ti
    zenshi
    p
     Fi
    rst
    ,Themostcommonpr
    obl
    emsr
    elat
    edwi
    thadv
    ocat
    ingi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    i
    sm ar
    efr
    ee-
    rai
    der
    spr
    obl
    em
    andt
    het
    ragedyoft
    hecommons.
     Second,l
    iberal
    ist
    saff
    irmati
    velyval
    orizethepri
    vat
    izat
    ionofper sonal
    i
    ty,commi tment,
    andact
    ivi
    ty.
     Thir
    d,i
    tleaveslessti
    mef orpubli
    cact i
    vit
    iesanddimini
    shest hesocialprest
    ige.
     Fourt
    h,li
    berali
    sm mayactual
    lyincr
    easeeconomi candot herkindsofinequali
    ties.
    4.
    5.2.2.Ci ti
    zenshi pinCommuni tarianThought
     Communi t
    ari
    ani
    sm emer
    gedi
    n1980’
    sthatemphasi
    zesont
    hei
    mpor
    tanceofsoci
    etyi
    nar
    ti
    cul
    ati
    ng
    thegood.I
    tisal
    soknownast
    henati
    onal
    ist
    )model.
     Theident
    it
    yofcit
    izenscannotbeunderst
    oodout
    sidet
    hei
    rter
    ri
    tor
    y,cul
    tur
    eandt
    radi
    ti
    ons.The
    basi
    sofit
    srul
    es,
    procedur
    esandpoli
    cyisshar
    edcommongood.
     Thus,r
    atherthanvi
    ewi
    nggr ouppract
    icesast heproductofi
    ndi
    vi
    dualchoi
    ces,communi
    tar
    ians
    vi
    ewindivi
    dualsast
    heproductofsoci
    alpract
    ices.
     Moreov
    er,communit
    ari
    ansdenythatthei
    nter
    estsofcommunit
    iescanber
    educedt
    oindi
    vi
    dual
    i
    nter
    est
    s.Pri
    vi
    legi
    ngi
    ndivi
    dual
    isseenasdest
    ruct
    iveofcommuni
    ti
    es.
     A heal
    thycommunit
    ymaintai
    ns a bal
    ance bet
    ween indi
    vi
    dualchoi
    ce and pr
    otect
    ion oft
    he
    communalwayofl
    i
    feandseekstol
    imitt
    heextentofonecanerodet
    helat
    ter
    .
     Asar esul
    t,t
    hegoodoft hecommunityi
    smuchabov ei
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    right
    sandci
    ti
    zenshi
    pcomesf
    rom
    thecommuni t
    yident
    it
    y,enabl
    ingpeopl
    etopar
    ti
    cipat
    e.
     Forl
    iberal
    ist
    s,cit
    izenshi
    prest
    soni ndi
    vi
    dualwhodeter
    minesit
    saspect
    s,butf
    orCommuni
    tar
    ian,
    ci
    ti
    zenshipisroot
    edandl i
    eswitht
    hepeoplewhosurr
    oundindi
    vi
    dual
    .
     Communi
    tar
    iani
    sm cl
    aimst
    hatanindi
    vidual
    ’
    ssenseofi
    dent
    it
    yispr
    oducedonl
    ythr
    oughr
    elat
    ions
    wit
    hot
    her
    sinthecommunit
    ythatnour
    ishhim/her
    .
     Al
    linal
    l,
    thet
    wodef
    ini
    ngf
    eat
    uresofcommuni
    tar
    iansar
    e:
    i
    .Fi
    rst
    ,noi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    isent
    ir
    elysel
    f-
    creat
    ed;
    inst
    eaddeepl
    yconst
    ruct
    edbyt
    hesoci
    ety
    .
    i
    i. Second,byassi mi
    lat
    ion,meaningf
    ulbondoccurbetweenindi
    vi
    dual& communi
    ty.Asan
    i
    ndivi
    dualunder
    standswhatisgoodforthecommuni
    tyi
    sgoodforhi
    m aswel
    l.
     Communi
    tar
    iant
    houghthasbeencr
    it
    ici
    zedf
    orv
    ari
    ousr
    easons.
     Communi
    tar
    iani
    sm i
    shost
    il
    etowar
    dsi
    ndi
    vi
    dualr
    ight
    sandaut
    onomy
     Ot
    hercr
    it
    icsar
    guet
    hatcommuni
    ti
    esar
    edomi
    nat
    edbypowerel
    it
    es

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     Communi
    tar
    ianemphasi
    zescommunalconst
    ruct
    ionofsoci
    ali
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    s.Apr
    obl
    em i
    sthatt
    hese
    const
    ruct
    ivepr
    ocessest
    hemsel
    vesneedt
    obeanal
    yzedi
    nter
    msofpower
    .
    4.
    5.2.
    3.Ci
    ti
    zenshi
    pinRepubl
    icanThought
     Republi
    canci
    ti
    zenshi
    pt heor
    yputemphasi
    sonbothindi
    vi
    dualandgroupr
    ight
    s.
     Li
    kecommuni tar
    ian,
    itemphasi
    zesonwhatbindci
    ti
    zenstoget
    heri
    ntoacommunity.
    Itr equi
    resci
    ti
    zenst o bri
    ngtoget
    herthei
    rindi
    vi
    dualli
    vestof i
    ndunityindiv
    ersi
    ty.Howev
    er,
    r
    epubl
    i
    cansdon’
    tpr
    essur
    izei
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    stosur
    rendert
    hei
    rident
    it
    ies.
    Instead,i
    tencouragespeoplet
    olookfort
    hecommongr ounddespi
    tet
    heirdi
    ff
    erences.
     Justli
    keliber
    al,republ
    icanadvocat
    eself-
    gov
    ernmentbutdonotagr eewithallrest
    rai
    ntst
    hat
    depr
    ivepeopl
    e’
    sfr
    eedom.
    Incontrasttol
    iber
    ali
    sm, i
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    smustsetasi
    detheirpr
    ivat
    eint
    erests.
     Ther
    ear etwoessenti
    alel
    ementsofr
    epubl
    icanv
    iew:publi
    cit
    yandsel f
    -gov
    ernment
    .
     Publ
    ici
    tybasical
    lyrefer
    st othecondi
    ti
    onofbeingopent opublic.Thepubli
    cisnotamer
    e
    col
    l
    ect
    ionofpeopl
    ebutpeopl
    ejoi
    nedbycommonconcer
    ns.
     Theci
    ti
    zensandgov
    ernment
    sinar
    epubl
    i
    canSt
    ateshal
    lnotactar
    bit
    rar
    y,i
    mpul
    siv
    ely
    ,orr
    eckl
    essl
    y
    butaccor
    dingt
    othel
    awsoft
    heSt
    ate.
     However,withoutacti
    vecit
    izenstot
    akepartingov
    ernment,
    republ
    i
    cStatecan’
    tsurviv
    e.
     Republ
    icanci t
    izenshi
    phasbeencr i
    ti
    cizedby:
     Thef i
    rstisthattherepubli
    canconcept
    ionofci
    ti
    zenshi
    pisnolongerreal
    ist
    ic.Tobeaci
    ti
    zen
    i
    stoputt
    hecommoni
    nter
    estaheadoft
    hei
    rown–t
    oactast
    rueci
    ti
    zens.
     Thesecondi
    sthr
    eatt
    oanopen,egal
    it
    ari
    an,andpl
    ural
    ist
    icsoci
    ety
    .Inpr
    act
    ice,r
    epubl
    i
    cans
    enf
    orcedhomogenei
    ty.
     Thet
    hir
    dpoi
    ntconcer
    nst
    hatci
    ti
    zenshi
    pinv
    olv
    esaf
    alsei
    dealofi
    mpar
    ti
    ali
    ty.
    4.
    5.2.
    4.Mul
    ti
    cul
    tur
    alCi
    ti
    zenshi
    p
     Factorsli
    ker
    iseofethni
    cmov ement
    s;st
    ructuralexcl
    usi
    onofraci
    al,gender
    ,et
    hni
    c,andl
    anguage
    groups;andi
    ncreasi
    ngimmi
    grati
    onmadeSt atesmulti
    nat
    ional
    .
     Theyrai
    secomplexanddi
    vi
    siv
    equest
    ionsabouthowSt
    atescandealef
    fect
    ivel
    ywi
    tht
    hepr
    obl
    em
    ofconst
    ruct
    ingci
    vi
    ccommuniti
    es
     Consequent
    ly,t
    heconcepti
    onofci
    ti
    zenshi
    pinamodernStat
    eshoul
    dbeexpandedt
    oincl
    ude
    cul
    tur
    alri
    ghtsandgr
    oupright
    swi
    thi
    nademocrat
    icf
    ramewor
    k.
     Ther
    eisaneedt omov etowar
    dsanew t y
    peofmul t
    icul
    tur
    alci
    ti
    zenshi
    pappr
    opr
    iat
    etohi
    ghl
    y
    di
    ver
    sesoci
    eti
    esandcontempor
    aryeconomi
    ctr
    ends.
     Recogni
    ti
    onofgroupdi
    ff
    erencei
    mpliesseei
    ngi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    sashav
    ingequal
    right
    sasi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    sand
    di
    ffer
    entneedsasmembersofgroups.
     Mul
    ti
    cul
    tur
    alci
    ti
    zenshi
    pdi
    scussesf
    ourpr
    inci
    ples:
    MORALANDCI
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    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    i
    )Taki ng equal ityofci ti
    zenshi pr ights as a st arti
    ng poi nt
    .Justl i
    ke the l
    i
    ber alperspecti
    ve,
    mul t
    icult
    uralci t
    izenshipconcer nswi t htheuniv ersalri
    ghtsofmember s.
    i
    i)Recogni zingt hatFor malequal it
    yofr i
    ghtsdoesnotnecessar il
    yleadtoequali
    ty.Formalequality
    canmaskandl egi t
    imizedisadv antageanddi scr iminat
    ion.Itisnecessarytoconsciouslyrecogni
    ze
    groupdi f
    ferenceandt ounder standi tscauses.
    i
    ii
    )Est ablishingmechani smsf orgr oupr epresent ati
    onandpar ti
    cipat
    ion.Despi
    tef ormalequali
    ty,
    disadvantagedgr oupsar eof ten.I ti
    snecessar ytomakear r
    angement stoensurethepartici
    pati
    onof
    peopledi r
    ectlyaf fected,wher everdeci si
    onsar emade.
    i
    v)Di ffer
    ent i
    alt reatmentf orpeopl ewi thdifferentchar acteri
    sti
    cs,needsandwant s.Multi
    cult
    ural
    ci
    t i
    zenshipal lowsf ormar ginalizedv oicestobehear d.Iti sneededt ohelpmar ginal
    izedgroups
    attai
    nci v
    icequal i
    tyandr ecogni tion.
     Cr
    it
    icsofdi
    ff
    erent
    iat
    edci
    ti
    zenshi
    p:i
    fgr
    oupsar
    eencour
    agedt
    ofocusont
    hei
    r'di
    ff
    erence'
    ,t
    hehope
    ofal
    argerf
    rat
    erni
    tyofal
    lwi
    l
    lhav
    etobeabandoned.
     Di
    ff
    erent
    iat
    ed ci
    ti
    zenshi
    p cr
    eat
    ea"
    pol
    it
    ics ofgr
    iev
    ance.
    "Ifonl
    y oppr
    essed ar
    e ent
    it
    led t
    o
    di
    ff
    erent
    iat
    edci
    ti
    zenshi
    p,l
    eader
    sest
    abl
    i
    shper
    cept
    ionofdi
    sadv
    ant
    aget
    hanwor
    king.
    4.
    5.3. Modes/
    Way sofAcqui
    ri
    ngandLoosi
    ngCi
    ti
    zenshi
    p
    4.
    5.3.
    1.WaysofAcqui
    ri
    ngCiti
    zenshi
    p
    Sincethegrantofcit
    izenshipremainswit
    hinthediscr
    eti
    onofthestat
    econcer
    ned,t
    hemeansof
    acquir
    ingapart
    icul
    arState’
    scit
    izenshi
    pvar
    yfrom count
    ryt
    ocountr
    y.
    However
    ,thecommonway sofacqui
    ri
    ngcit
    izenshi
    pcanbegr
    oupedi
    ntot
    wo:ci
    ti
    zenshi
    pbybi
    rt
    h
    andci
    ti
    zenshi
    pthr
    oughnat
    ural
    i
    zat
    ion/
    law.
    i
    )Ci t
    izenshipf r
    om birth/
    ofOr i
    gin:i ndivi
    dual scangetci ti
    zenshi
    pst atusbecausehe/ sheisbor nin
    theter r
    it
    oryorbl oodofmot herand/ orf ather.Therear etwopr inciplesofci t
    izenshipf r
    om bi rt
    h
    commonl yknownasJusSol i(l
    aw/ rightoft hesoi )andJusSangui
    l nis( law/ ri
    ghtofbl ood).Howev er,
    j
    ussol icould notappl yto children ofdi plomatsbecause ofext rat erri
    tor
    ial
    ityand i nvi
    olabil
    it
    y
    pri
    nciples.
    i
    i)CitizenshipbyNat ural
    izati
    on/Law:i st hel egalprocessbywhi chf or eignersbecomeci ti
    zensof
    anothercount ry
    .Thecommonsub- principlesofacqui ri
    ngciti
    zenshipt hr oughnat ural
    izat
    ionar ethe
    fol
    lowing.Pol it
    icalcase (secession,mer gerand subj ugati
    on),gr anton appl icati
    on,mar riage,
    l
    egiti
    mat izat
    ion/adopt
    ion,andreintegration/ r
    estorat
    ion.
    1.ModesofAcqui
    ri
    ngEt
    hiopi
    anCi
    ti
    zenshi
    p
    Befor
    e1930,t
    her
    ewasn’tof
    fi
    cial
    l
    yinscr
    ibedlegaldocumentthatdeal
    swi
    thci
    ti
    zenshi
    p.Buti
    n1930
    Ethi
    opi
    aadopt
    edalegal
    documentnamed“ Et
    hiopi
    anNational
    i
    tyLaw”.
    Recentl
    y,t
    hisnat
    ional
    it
    ylaw hasrepl
    acedbyanotherl
    egaldocumentcal
    l Et
    ed“ hi
    opi
    anNat
    ional
    i
    ty
    Procl
    amati
    onNO; 378/
    2003”,
    whichadoptedbyHPR.
    I
    tenactedasperar t
    icl
    e6and33ofFDREconst i
    tut
    ionandaf
    fi
    rmedt
    hataper
    soncanacqui
    re
    Et
    hiopi
    anci
    ti
    zenshi
    peitherbybi
    rt
    hornat
    ural
    i
    zat
    ion.

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    VICSEDUCATI
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    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    1)Acqui sit i
    onbyDescent :t he1930Et hiopi annat ional i
    tyl aw asser tedt hat“ anyper sonbor nin
    Ethi
    opi aorabr oad, whosef atherormot heri sEt hiopi an, i
    sanEt hiopiansubj ect.”I nitsAr t
    icle6( 1),the
    1995FDREconst i
    tutionst at edt hat“ anyper sonshal lbeanEt hiopi annat ionalwher ebot horei t
    her
    parenti sEt hiopi an.”JusSol inof unct ional .
    2)Acqui sitionbyLaw ( Nat ur alizat i
    on) :Ar ticle6( 2)oft he1995FDREconst itutional soav er sthat
    ali
    ens can getEt hiopi an ci tizenshi p.Undernat ur alizat i
    on,t here ar ev arious way s ofacqui ri
    ng
    Ethi
    opi anci ti
    zenshi p.Thesear e:
    a)Gr antonAppl i
    cat i
    on( regi st ration) :happenswhenanal i
    enr equest sahostst atet obegr anted
    cit
    izenshi pst at usoft hecount ryi nquest ion.Thecommononesar eappl icant’sage,l engt hof
    resi
    dence,cr imi nalconv i
    ct ion,i ncomeandmor alchar acter .Butt hecr iter i
    av aryf rom count ryto
    count ry.Accor dingt oAr ticle5Et hiopi annat ional itypr oclamat i
    on,anappl icantshal lgetEt hiopian
    nati
    onal ityif ,
    andonl yi f,he/ she:
    (1)Reacht heageofmaj or ity,18y ears;
    (2)Li v edi nEt hiopi af orat ot al ofatl eastf oury ear s;
    (3)Hassuf fi
    cientandl awf ul sour ceofi ncome( economi callysel f-
    reliant );
    (4)Abl et ocommuni cat ei nanyoft hei ndi genousl anguagesspokeni nEt hiopia;
    (5)Hasagoodchar act er ;
    (6)Hasnotr ecor dedcr i
    mi nal conv icti
    on;
    (7)Hasbeenr eleasedf rom pr ev i
    ousnat i
    onal ityort hepossi bi
    lityofr el ease;
    (8)Takest heoat hofal legi ancei ndicat edi nar t
    icle12oft hepr ocl amat on:“
    i I-
    ---
    -,sol emnl y
    aff i
    rmt hatiwi llbeal oy alnat i
    onaloft hef eder aldemocr at i
    cr epubl icofEt hiopi aandbe
    faithf ultoi t
    sconst itut ion” .
    b)CasesofMar riage:anal ienwhoi smar r
    iedt oanEt hiopianci t
    izenhav et hepossi bil
    ityofacqui ri
    ng
    Ethi
    opi anci ti
    zenshi p.Yet ,ther ear ecer tainpr econdi tionsseti nAr ti
    cl e6.One, t
    hemar riageshal lbein
    accor dancewi tht hel awsofEt hi opia;Second,t hemar ri
    ageshal llapseatl eastf ort woy ear s;Thi rd,
    theal i
    enhav et ol i
    vei nEt hi opi af oratl eastoney earpr ecedi ngt hesubmi ssi onoft heappl ication; and
    Four t
    h,t heal ienhav et or eacht heageofmat urity ,mor all
    ygoodper son,andl astlytaket heoat hof
    all
    egiance.
    c)CasesofAdopt i
    on( Legi timat ing):t hispr ocesswher ebyani llegitimat echi ldgetci tizenshi pst atus
    ofhi s/hercar etaker ’snat ional ity.Ast oar ticle7,t hechi ldcoul dgetEt hiopi anci tizenshi pi fnot
    mat ured;l i
    v esi nEt hiopi at oget herwi thhis/ heradopt ingpar ent;andhasbeenr el
    easedf rom hi s/her
    previousnat i
    onal ity.Howev er ,wher eoneofhi s/ heradopt i
    ngpar ent si saf or eigner ,inwr iting, sucha
    parenthast oexpr esshi s/ heragr eementt hathi s/ heradopt edchi l
    dgai nEt hi opiannat ional i
    ty.
    d)Ci ti
    zenshi pbySpeci alCases:asi tislabel edi nAr ti
    cle8,anal ienwhohasmadeanout standi ng
    contributioni nt hei nter estofEt hiopi amaybeconf er redwi thEt hi opiannat i
    onal itybyl aw wi thout
    under going t hepr e-condi tionsst ated i n Ar ti
    cl e5 ( sub- articles2 and 3)oft he2003 Et hiopian
    nati
    onal itypr ocl amat i
    on.Thati s, he/ shei snotr equi redt oliveinEt hiopiaf orat otaloff oury ear sand
    mayl ackt heabi lit
    yt ocommuni cat einanyoft hel anguagesspokeni nEt hiopi a.
    e)Re- Admi ssi ont oEt hiopi anNat ional it
    y( Rei ntegr ation/ Rest oration) :thi si sapr ocessbywhi cha
    MORALANDCI
    VICSEDUCATI
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    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    personacquir
    eshis/herl
    ostci
    tizenship.AstoArticl
    e22,aper
    sonwhohaslostEthi
    opianci
    ti
    zenshi
    p
    statusmaygetbackEt hi
    opiannat i
    onali
    ty.I
    nt hi
    scase,t
    hepersoncoul
    dber eadmi
    ttedtoEthi
    opi
    an
    nati
    onali
    tyifhe/sheappliesforre-admission.Inaddi
    ti
    on,he/shehastoreturnanddomicil
    edin
    Ethi
    opiaandrenounceshisfor
    eignnationali
    ty.
     Exami
    ningandDeci
    dingonAppl
    icat
    ion
    Anappli
    cat
    iontoobtai
    nEthi
    opi
    annati
    onal
    i
    tybyl
    awshallbeaccompaniedwit
    hrel
    evantdocument
    s
    andshal
    lbesubmit
    tedtoSecur
    it
    y&Immigr
    ati
    onAf
    fai
    rsAuthor
    it
    y(Ar
    ti
    cle10)
    .
    Then,theappli
    cati
    onexaminedbyNati
    onal
    ityAff
    air
    sCommi t
    teethatcompr
    isesf
    ivemember
    sfr
    om
    (I
    mmi grat
    ionAff
    air
    s;For
    eignAff
    air
    s;Mi
    nist
    ryofJusti
    ce&Federal
    Poli
    ce).
    TheCommi t
    teehastosubmititsrecommendati
    ont otheSecur
    it
    yandRef ugeeAf
    fai
    rsAut
    hor
    it
    y.I
    f
    recommendati
    ongotappr
    oval
    ,theappli
    cantshal
    ltaket
    heoathofal
    legi
    ance.
    Last
    ly,
    theappl
    i
    cantconf
    erscer
    ti
    fi
    cat
    eofnat
    ural
    i
    zat
    ion&becomeEt
    hiopi
    annat
    ional
    .
    4.
    5.3.
    3.DualCi
    ti
    zenshi
    p
     Dualci
    ti
    zenshi
    p-i
    sthecondi
    ti
    onofbei
    ngaci
    ti
    zenoft
    wonat
    ions.Ofcour
    se,aper
    sonmay
    acqui
    remor
    ethant
    woSt
    ateswhi
    chi
    scal
    l
    edmul
    ti
    ple-
    cit
    izenshi
    p.
     Dual
    i
    ty/
    mul
    ti
    pli
    ci
    tyar
    isesbecauseoft
    hecl heJusSol
    ashamongt i
    ,JusSangui
    niandnat
    ural
    i
    zat
    ion.
    Forexample,a babybornto a Fr
    ench fami
    lyvisi
    ti
    ng t
    heUnit
    ed St
    ateswoul
    d acqui
    reU.
    S.
    ci
    ti
    z pbyJusSol
    enshi iandFr
    enchcit
    i pbyJusSangui
    zenshi nis.
     Achi
    l
    dbor
    nfr
    om amot
    herandf
    atheroft
    wodi
    ff
    erentcount
    ri
    escoul
    dacqui
    redualci
    ti
    zenshi
    p
    t
    hroughdecent
    .
     Hence,aSt
    atemayal
    l
    ow i
    tsnat
    ural
    i
    zedci
    ti
    zenst
    okeept
    hei
    ror
    igi
    nalci
    ti
    zenshi
    p,orr
    efusei
    ts
    ci
    ti
    zent
    orev
    okehi
    s/herci
    ti
    zenshi
    pforv
    ari
    ousr
    easons.
     Peopl
    ewhodecl
    aredt
    hatt
    heynol
    ongerwer
    eci
    ti
    zensofsuchacount
    ryandbecamenat
    ural
    i
    zedi
    n
    anot
    herst
    il
    lwoul
    dbecl
    aimedasci
    ti
    zensbyt
    heor
    igi
    nal
    nat
    ion.
     MostAf
    ri
    cancount
    ri
    esst
    il
    lpr
    ohi
    bitdualci
    ti
    zenshi
    ponpaperandEt
    hiopi
    aal
    sopr
    ohi
    bit
    sit
    s
    ci
    ti
    zenst
    ohav
    edual
    cit
    izenshi
    p.
     Ast
    oar
    ti
    cle20(
    1),“
    anyEt
    hiopi
    anwhov
    olunt
    ari
    l
    yacqui
    resanot
    hernat
    ional
    i
    tyshal
    lbedeemedt
    o
    hav
    ev ol
    untar
    il
    yrenouncedhi
    sEt
    hiopi
    annat
    ional
    i
    tyexceptunderl
    egalpenal
    tyandondi
    schar
    ging
    nat
    ional
    responsi
    bil
    i
    ty.
    ”
     Ther
    efor
    e,undert
    hiscondi
    ti
    onwhi
    chi
    scal
    l
    edi
    ndel
    ibl
    eal
    legi
    ance,t
    heper
    sonwoul
    dremai
    n
    dual
    /mul
    ti
    pleci
    ti
    zen.
    4.
    5.4. Way
    sofLoosi
    ngCi
    ti
    zenshi
    p
     Ci
    ti
    zenshi
    pcanbel
    ostundercer
    tai
    ncondi
    ti
    ons,orwhenaci
    ti
    zenv
    olunt
    aryr
    enouncesi
    t.The
    pr
    imar
    yrat
    ional
    forl
    ossofci
    ti
    zenshi
    pisabsenceofagenui
    nel
    i
    nkwi
    tht
    hest
    ate.
     Gener
    all
    y,t
    hecommonway
    sofl
    osi
    ngci
    ti
    zenshi
    par
    e:
    i. Depr i
    vat
    ion
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    VICSEDUCATI
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    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
     Depr
    ivat
    ioni
    saninv
    oluntar
    ylossofci
    tizenshi
    pwhichar
    iseswhi
    l
    egov
    ernmentaut
    hor
    it
    iesorcour
    t
    t
    akeadecisi
    ont
    onulli
    fyanindi
    vi
    dual’
    sciti
    zenshi
    p.
     Itmightbeduetouncov er
    ingnationalsecr
    ets,non-
    compl
    i
    anceofduti
    es,l
    ossofgenuinel
    inkwith
    stat
    e,promisi
    ngl oy
    alt
    yorser vingi narmedf orceofot
    hercount
    ry,coup,ser
    iousl
    yprejudi
    cial
    behavior
    ,andbecomingnatural
    i
    zedi nanothercountr
    y.
     But,t
    he1995FDREconst i
    tut
    ionassert
    sthat“
    noEt
    hiopi
    annat
    ionalshal
    lbedepr
    ivedofhi
    sorher
    Ethi
    opiannat
    ional
    i
    tyagai
    nsthisorherwil
    l
    .”
    i
    i. Lapse/
    expi
    rat
    ion
     Lapse/expi
    rat
    ioni
    sanot
    herwayoflosi
    ngcit
    izenshipwhi
    chisnotappl
    ytoEt
    hiopi
    a.
     Lapsei samodewher ebyaper sonloseshi s/
    hercit
    izenshi
    pbecauseofhis/herper
    manent
    r
    esi
    denceorl
    ongt
    ermr
    esi
    denceabr
    oadbey
    ondy
    ear
    sper
    mit
    tedbyl
    aw.
     Forexampl
    e,i
    fanI
    ndi
    anci
    ti
    zenst
    aysout
    sidecont
    inuousl
    yformor
    ethansev
    eny
    ear
    s,he/
    she
    aut
    omat
    ical
    l
    yloseshi
    s/herI
    ndi
    annat
    ional
    i
    tybyt
    hepr
    inci
    pleofl
    apse.
    i
    ii
    . Renunci
    ati
    on
     Renunci
    ati
    onisthevol
    untar
    ywayofl osi
    ngci
    ti
    zenship.TheUDHR(1948)guar
    ant
    eestherightofa
    per
    sontochangehi s/
    hernationali
    ty.Lossofcit
    izenshi
    pisvol
    untaryonlyi
    fiti
    sintendedand
    i
    nit
    iat
    edbytheindi
    vi
    dualconcerned.
     AnEthiopi
    annat
    ionalhastheful
    lri
    ghttorenouncehi
    s/herEt
    hiopi
    annat
    ional
    i
    tyi
    fhe/
    shewi
    shes
    accor
    dingtot
    heconsti
    tut
    ionandnati
    onal
    it
    ypr ocl
    amat
    ions.
     However
    ,thepersonmaynotbeact uall
    yrel
    easedf
    rom thatst
    atusunt
    ilhe/
    shehasdi
    schar
    ged
    one’
    sobl
    igat
    ionsoraccusedofcr
    ime.Thi
    siscall
    edi
    ndel
    i
    bleall
    egi
    ance.
     Art
    icl
    e19(4)ofPr ocl
    amati
    on,anEthi
    opi
    anwho r enouncesEthiopi
    annat
    ional
    i
    tymaynotbe
    rel
    easedunt
    ildi
    schar
    gednat
    ional
    obl
    i
    gati
    onsorser
    vedt hepenal
    ty.
    i
    v. Subst
    it
    uti
    on
     Subst
    it
    uti
    on:ci
    ti
    zenshi
    pmaybel
    ostwhent
    heor
    igi
    nalci
    ti
    zenshi
    pissubst
    it
    utedbyanot
    herst
    ate,
    wher
    eiti
    sacqui
    redt
    hroughnat
    ural
    i
    zat
    ion.
     Ont
    heot
    hersi
    de,
    thi
    smayal
    sot
    akepl
    acewhenapar
    ti
    cul
    art
    err
    it
    oryi
    sannexedbyanot
    herst
    ate;
    thei
    nhabi
    tant
    s’ci
    ti
    zenshi
    pwi
    thi
    ntheannex
    edt
    err
    it
    orywi
    l
    lber
    epl
    acedbyt
    heci
    ti
    zenshi
    poft
    he
    subj
    ugat
    or.
     Gener
    all
    y,an Et
    hiopi
    an ci
    ti
    zen can l
    ose hi
    s/hernat
    ional
    i
    tyt
    hrough r
    enunci
    ati
    on and upon
    acqui
    sit
    ionofot
    hercount
    ry’
    snat
    ional
    i
    tyst
    ipul
    atedi
    nar
    ti
    cle19and20.
    4.
    5.4.
    2. St
    atel
    essness
     St
    atel
    essnessi
    sthecondi
    ti
    onofhav
    ingci
    ti
    zenshi
    pofanycount
    ryandwi
    thnogov
    ernmentf
    rom
    whi
    cht
    oaskpr
    otect
    ion.
     Accor
    dingt
    othei
    nter
    nat
    ional
    law,
    stat
    elessper
    soni
    saper
    sonwhoi
    snotconsi
    der
    edasanat
    ional
    byanyst
    ateundert
    heoper
    ati
    onofi
    tsl
    aw.
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    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
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    2014)
     St
    atel
    essnessr
    esul
    tswhenst
    atef
    ail
    urel
    eadspeopl
    etof
    leeduet
    oinv
    asi
    onandconquestby
    anot
    herst
    ate,
    civ
    ilwar
    ,fami
    ne,
    oranoppr
    essi
    ver
    egi
    me–f
    rom t
    hei
    rhomecount
    ry.
    I
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    s coul
    d al
    so become st
    atel
    ess because ofdepr
    ivat
    ion and when r
    enounci
    ng t
    hei
    r
    ci
    ti
    zenshi
    pwi
    thoutgai
    ningnat
    ional
    i
    tyi
    nanot
    herSt
    ate.
     Toset
    tl
    esuchcondi
    ti
    ons,t
    heUN hasadopt
    edaconv
    ent
    ionont
    hepr
    otect
    ionandr
    educt
    ionof
    st
    atel
    essper
    sons.
    Chapt
    erSummar
    y
    Thechapt ertriest opr esentt hebasi cnoti
    onsofst ate,gov er
    nmentandci t
    izenshi p.Anef f
    orthas
    beenmadet ocl ear l
    yshow t herelati
    onshipoft hem.St ateisani nsti
    tut
    ionscr eatedt oeaset he
    compl exrel
    ationshi psandi nteract
    ionsamongi ndividualsandgr oups.Ther ear ev arioust heor
    iesand
    perspecti
    vesont hest ructureandpur pose/r
    oleoft hest ateincol l
    ecti
    velife.Gov er
    nmenti st he
    administr
    ati
    v ewi ndoft hati nsti
    tuti
    onwhi chisempower edt otakecar eoft hebusi nessoft hestat e.
    Cit
    izenshipreferst other ulesregulati
    ngthelegal/
    formal relati
    onbet weent heSt ateandt heindiv
    idual
    wit
    hr especttot heacqui sitionandl ossofagi v
    encount r
    y ’
    snationali
    ty.Forthisr eason, citi
    zenshipi s
    fr
    equent l
    ydescr ibedasacont estedconceptwhi chhashaddi ff
    erentmeani ngsdependi ngont he
    hi
    storicallegacies,pol i
    ticalor ganizat
    ion oft he St ate,ideologies and soci o-cult
    ur alcontext .
    Cit
    izenshipstatus, howev er,isnotonlyrestr
    ict
    edt oindivi
    dual persons.
    ENDOFCHAPTERFOUR!
    CHAPTERFIVE:CONSTITUTI
    ON,DEMOCRACYANDHUMANRI
    GHTS
    5.1.Const
    it
    uti
    onandConst
    it
    uti
    onal
    ism
    5.
    1.1. Concept
    ual
    izi
    ngConst
    it
    uti
    on
     Const
    it
    uti
    onisthefundament
    all
    awwhichset
    soutt
    hest
    atest
    ruct
    ure,
    right
    sofci
    ti
    zensandl
    i
    mit
    s
    onthepowerexer
    ciseofagover
    nment
    .
     I
    tisabl
    uepri
    ntpl
    acedontopthehier
    archyofl
    awsonconst
    it
    uti
    onalgov
    ernment
    s.Aconst
    it
    uti
    on
    maybesai
    dtobeacoll
    ect
    ionofpr
    inci
    ples.
     I
    notherwords,const
    it
    uti
    onrefer
    stobodyofr ul
    esandlaws(wr
    it
    tenorunwr
    it
    ten)t
    hatdet
    ermi
    ne
    t
    heorgani
    zati
    onofgov er
    nmentandthedi
    str
    ibuti
    onofpower
    s.
     Const
    it
    uti
    onisthemot
    her
    sofal
    llaws;al
    lot
    heror
    dinar
    ylawsar
    eder
    ivedf
    rom andsubj
    ect
    edt
    o
    thi
    sbl
    ueprint
    .
     Hence,
    sinceconst
    it
    uti
    onissupremelawofal
    and,
    anyot
    herl
    awcont
    radi
    ctedwi
    tht
    hepr
    ovi
    sions
    oft
    heconsti
    tut
    ionbecomesvoidori
    nval
    id.
    5.
    1.2. Pecul
    iarFeat
    uresofConst
    it
    uti
    on
    Thef
    oll
    owi
    ngar
    esomeoft
    hedi
    sti
    nct
    ivef
    eat
    uresofaconst
    it
    uti
    on:
    A.Generali
    ty:aconsti
    tut
    ionpr
    ovi
    desthegeneralpr
    incipleofast
    ateandcar
    ryonfoundat
    ionand
    setsoutgeneralf
    rameworkofthelaw andthegov ernment
    .Asotherl
    awsprov
    idethedetai
    ls,
    const
    itut
    ioni
    salwaysthemostgener
    al,
    shor
    tandbrief.

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    B.Per
    manency:unl
    ikeotherlaws,const
    it
    utioni
    smadef orundef
    inedperi
    odoft i
    me.Itispurposel
    y
    madetobestabl
    eandper manent.Ont hecont
    rar
    y,ot
    herlawsaretent
    ati
    ve,occasi
    onalandinthe
    nat
    ureoft
    emporaryexi
    stence.
    C.Supremacy:Constit
    uti
    onsar esupremelaws,taki
    ngpr ecedenceov eral
    lothers,anddefi
    ninghow
    al
    ltheothersshouldbemade.Asamot heroflaw,iti
    sor igi
    nalbecauseitisdirect
    lymadebyt he
    peopleasthedirectexpressi
    onoft hewil
    lofthepeopl e.Allot
    herlawsaresecondar yorderi
    vate
    bei
    ngcommandsofr epresentat
    ivesoft
    hesovereign.
    D.Codif
    ieddocument:Constit
    uti
    onsarewrit
    tendown;oft
    eni nasi
    ngledocumentt
    hatpresentsthe
    const
    itut
    ioninasyst
    emat i
    cmanner.Theconsti
    tut
    ionsarenoti
    ntendedt
    obeperf
    ectisevidenced
    byexpressl
    ystat
    edprocessesforr
    evi
    singoramendingthem.
    E.All
    ocationofpowers:Consti
    tut
    ionsout
    linetheproperr
    elat
    ionsbet
    weeni
    nst
    it
    utionsandoffi
    cesof
    thestate,andbet
    weengov ernmentandciti
    zens.Thisi
    sprobablyt
    hemostcrucialpar
    tbecausei
    t
    speci
    fiespowersandfuncti
    onstogovernment.
    5.
    1.3. Maj
    orPur
    posesandFunct
    ionsofConst
    it
    uti
    on
    Hence,
    thef
    oll
    owi
    ngar
    esomeoft
    hemaj
    orpur
    posesandf
    unct
    ionsofconst
    it
    uti
    on.
    1.Itser
    v esasaframeworkforGovernment
    :iti
    sabr
    iefandagener
    alout
    li
    neofdut
    iesandr
    ight
    sof
    governmentsandalsot
    hatofcit
    izens.
    2.ItLimit
    sthePowersofGovernment:I
    naconsti
    tut
    ional
    lyl
    i
    mitedgover
    nment
    ,of
    fi
    cial
    sar
    eal
    way
    s
    abidedbytheconst
    it
    uti
    on.i
    .ether
    eisnoar
    bit
    ral
    decisi
    onoracti
    on.
    3.Itprotect
    sindi
    vi
    dualand coll
    ecti
    veri
    ghtsofciti
    zens:To pr
    otectri
    ght
    sand f
    reedoms,t
    he
    consti
    tuti
    onl
    aydownther
    elat
    ionshi
    pbetweenst
    ateandthei
    ndiv
    idual
    .
    4.I
    tservesastheSupreme(Hi
    ghest
    )LawofaCountry:thi
    simpl
    iesthatConst
    it
    uti
    oni
    sthesour
    ce
    ofandsupr
    emeov eral
    ll
    awsi
    nacountr
    y.i
    .e.Cont
    radicti
    onisi
    nval
    i
    d.
    5.Itprov
    idesgov er
    nmentl egi
    ti
    macyorstabi
    l
    ity:asitf
    ormali
    zesandr
    egul
    atesr
    elat
    ionshi
    psof
    stat
    eandcit
    izens,i
    tint
    roducesst
    abi
    l
    ity
    ,or
    der,andpr
    edi
    ctabi
    l
    ity
    .
    6.Consti
    tut
    ionBluePr i
    ntsforestabl
    ishingVal
    uesandGoals:Inaconsti
    tut
    ion,t
    her
    eisal
    soan
    i
    deologi
    calaspectofconst
    it
    uti
    onmaki ngwher
    ethepeopl
    etr
    ulyaspi
    redf
    orit
    .
    5.
    1.4. Cl
    assi
    fi
    cat
    ionofConst
    it
    uti
    ons
    Const
    it
    uti
    ons are classi
    fi
    ed based on its for
    m, amendment pr
    ocedur
    e and degr
    ee of
    i
    mplementat
    ion/
    pract
    iceandst
    atestr
    uct
    uresher
    ebelow.
    A.Const
    it
    uti
    onBasedonFor
    m
    1.Wr
    it
    tenConst
    it
    uti
    on
    I
    nsi mpleterms,awr it
    tenconsti
    tuti
    oni sonewhosepr ovi
    sionsarewritteni ndetail
    .Thus,i
    ti sa
    for
    mal documentthatdefi
    nesconsti
    tutional
    pri
    nci
    ples,r
    ulesforpol
    it
    ical
    sy stem andrightsofci
    ti
    zens
    i
    nacodi fi
    edform.Forexampl e,India,Kenya,Ethi
    opi
    a,USA,Ger many ,Br azi
    l,I
    ndonesia,Jordan,
    VenezuelaandNigeri
    ahavewrit
    tenform ofconsti
    tuti
    on.
    Mer
    it
    sofWr
    it
    tenConst
    it
    uti
    on

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     I
    tiseasi
    l
    yaccessi
    blet
    oci
    ti
    zens&pr
    event
    stheemer
    gencyofdi
    ctat
    orshi
    p
     Ci
    ti
    zenscaneasi
    l
    ylear
    naboutt
    hei
    rri
    ght
    sanddut
    ies.
     I
    tisf
    ull
    ofcl
    ari
    tyanddef
    ini
    tenessbecauset
    hepr
    ovi
    sionsar
    ewr
    it
    teni
    ndet
    ail
    .
     I
    thast
    hequal
    i
    tyofst
    abi
    l
    ity&senseofsat
    isf
    act
    ion
    Demer
    it
    sofWr
    it
    tenConst
    it
    uti
    on
     I
    tcr
    eat
    esasi
    tuat
    ionofr
    igi
    dit
    y.I
    tleadst
    othedev
    elopmentofaconser
    vat
    iveat
    ti
    tude.
     I
    tbecomesdi
    ff
    icul
    ttochangei
    teasi
    l
    yqui
    ckl
    yaspert
    her
    equi
    rement
    soft
    ime.
     Awr
    it
    tenconst
    it
    uti
    onbecomesapl
    ayt
    hingi
    nthehandsoft
    hel
    awy
    ersandt
    hecour
    ts.
     Wr
    it
    tenconst
    it
    uti
    oni
    snoteasi
    l
    yadapt
    edt
    oanewsi
    tuat
    ionorchangi
    ngci
    rcumst
    ances.
    2.Unwr
    it
    tenConst
    it
    uti
    on
    Unwri
    tt
    enconst
    it
    uti
    onmeansthatthefundamentalpr
    inci
    plesandpower softhegovernmentar
    enot
    wri
    tt
    endowni nanysi
    ngledocument .I
    tconsistsofcust oms,conventi
    ons,tr
    adi
    tions,andsome
    wri
    tt
    enlawsbeari
    ngdi
    ff
    erentdates.Example:Bri
    ti
    sh,Switzer
    land,I
    srael
    ,SaudiArabia,Omanand
    Bhut
    an.
    Mer
    it
    sofUnwr
    it
    tenConst
    it
    uti
    on
     I
    thast
    hequal
    i
    tyofel
    ast
    ici
    tyandadapt
    abi
    l
    ity
    .
     I
    tissody
    nami
    cthati
    tpr
    event
    sthechancesofpopul
    arupr
    isi
    ngs.
     I
    tcanabsor
    b&r
    ecov
    erf
    rom shocks.I
    tlooksl
    i
    keanat
    ural
    out
    growt
    hofanat
    ional
    li
    fe.
    Demer
    it
    sofUnwr
    it
    tenConst
    it
    uti
    on
     Si
    ncenotcompi
    l
    ed,
    iti
    snoteasyt
    odet
    ermi
    newhi
    chaspectofconst
    it
    uti
    oni
    svi
    olat
    ed.
     I
    tisdi
    ff
    icul
    ttocr
    eat
    eawar
    enesst
    hrougheducat
    ion.
     I
    tleadst
    osi
    tuat
    ionsofi
    nst
    abi
    l
    ity
    .
     I
    tleadst
    othest
    ateofconf
    usi
    on.Cont
    rov
    ersi
    esof
    tenar
    iseov
    erdi
    ff
    erentpr
    ovi
    sions.
     Unwr
    it
    tenconst
    it
    uti
    onmaybesui
    tabl
    etoamonar
    chi
    cal
    orar
    ist
    ocr
    ati
    csy
    stem.
    B.Const
    it
    uti
    onBasedonAmendi
    ngPr
    ocess
    1.Ri
    gidConst
    it
    uti
    on
    Here,thepr
    ocessofamendmenti sdif
    fi
    cult
    .Aspeci
    alprocedur
    ei sfol
    lowedtomakeachangeinany
    r
    ule oft he consti
    tut
    ion.A mor e dif
    fi
    cultpr
    ocedur
    e ofconst i
    tut
    ionalamendmentis nat
    ional
    r
    eferendum.Ar efer
    endum istheprocessofdir
    ectvoti
    ngbyci t
    izenst osuppor
    torr
    eject
    s.I
    nmost ,
    wri
    ttenconst
    itut
    ionsareri
    gidconsti
    tut
    ion.
    2.Fl
    exi
    bleConst
    it
    uti
    on
    Fl
    exibleconstit
    uti
    oni stheconsti
    tut
    ionwhichsetupsimpleamendmentprocedur
    eandther
    eisno
    specialrequi
    redpr ocedur
    e.Thesi mplestamendmentprocedureisabsol
    utemajor
    it
    y(t
    wot hi
    rds
    support)inparl
    iament.Inmost,
    unwritt
    enconst
    it
    uti
    onsarefl
    exibl
    e.
    C.Const
    it
    uti
    onBasedonDegr
    eeofPr
    act
    ice
    1.Ef
    fect
    iveConst
    it
    uti
    on:

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    Effecti
    ve consti
    tut
    ion is a si
    tuati
    on in which gover
    nment/
    cit
    izens pract
    ices cor
    respond t
    ot he
    provisi
    onsofconst i
    tut
    ion.Thus,itrequi
    resnotmer el
    yconst
    it
    uti
    onalrulesbutalsotheactingasper
    rul
    e.Hence, i
    tisconsti
    tuti
    onwithconst i
    tut
    ional
    i
    sm.
    2.Nomi
    nalconst
    it
    uti
    on:
    I
    tistheconsti
    tuti
    onaccurat
    elydescri
    besgover
    nment’
    /ci
    ti
    zens’pr
    act
    icei
    snotaccordingl
    y.I
    nshort,
    whentheconsti
    tuti
    onisremainstohaveonl
    ypaperval
    ueorabsenceofconst
    it
    uti
    onal
    ism.Theref
    ore,
    i
    tisconst
    it
    uti
    onwi t
    houtconsti
    tut
    ional
    i
    sm.
    D.BasedonSt
    ateSt
    ruct
    ure
    1.FederalConstit
    uti
    on:iti
    stheonethatdist
    ri
    but
    espoweramongt
    hedi f
    fer
    entuni
    tsofastate
    administ
    rat
    ion.Butthemodelt
    hati
    sfoll
    owedbyconst
    it
    uti
    onsi
    ndi
    str
    ibut
    ingst
    atepowerdi
    ff
    ers
    fr
    om eachot her
    .
    2.Uni
    taryConst
    it
    uti
    on:here,
    stat
    epoweri
    sconcent
    rat
    edinthehandsoft
    hecent
    ralgov
    ernment
    .In
    t
    hiscasethel
    ocalgover
    nmenthasnoguar
    ant
    eeforthei
    rexi
    stence.
    5.
    1.5. Const
    it
    uti
    onal
    ism
     Consti
    tut
    ionali
    sm r
    efer
    stoadoct r
    inethatgover
    nmentsshouldbefai
    thf
    ult
    othei
    rconst
    it
    uti
    ons
    becausetherul
    escanprot
    ectci
    ti
    zens’r
    ight
    sfrom ar
    bit
    rar
    yact
    ions.
     Hence,t
    hekeyelementsforconst
    it
    uti
    onal
    i
    sm areconst
    it
    uti
    on&ef
    fect
    ivei
    mpl
    ement
    ati
    on. I
    t
    desi
    resapol
    it
    icalor
    deri
    nwhichpowersareli
    mit
    ed.
     Afor
    m ofgovernmentcanonl
    ybecl
    assi
    fi
    edasconsti
    tut
    ional
    whent
    her
    uler
    sar
    esubj
    ectt
    oabody
    ofr
    ulesandpri
    ncipl
    es,
    whichl
    imi
    tst
    heexerci
    seoft
    heirpower.
     Thus,consti
    tut
    ional
    i
    sm doesnotmer elyrequi
    ret
    he exi
    stence ofconst
    it
    uti
    on r
    atherchecks
    whetherof
    fi
    cial
    sactinaccor
    dancewi
    thlaws.
    5.
    2.Const
    it
    uti
    onal
    Exper
    ienceofEt
    hiopi
    a:Pr
    eandPost1931
    5.
    2.1. Tr
    adi
    ti
    onalConst
    it
    uti
    on(
    Pre-1931)
    In Et
    hiopi
    a,documentsli
    ket he Kebr
    aNagast
    ,the Fat
    haNagastand ser
    atemengestused as
    t
    h t
    h
    consti
    tuti
    onf
    rom 13 toear
    ly20 c.
    i
    . Fet
    haNegest–Lawoft
    heKi
    n
     I
    twasacol
    lect
    ionoflawswhi
    chinusei
    nChri
    sti
    anEthi
    opiaf
    ormanycent
    uri
    es.I
    twasor
    igi
    nal
    l
    y
    wri
    tt
    eni
    nAr
    abicbytheCopt
    icEgy
    pti
    anwr
    it
    erAbuFada’
    il
    Ibnal
    -Assal
    .
     I
    tusedassour
    cesofconst
    it
    uti
    onal
    ,ci
    vi
    l,
    andcr
    imi
    nal
    laws(
    secul
    ar&r
    eli
    gious)
    .
     I
    twascompi
    l
    edf
    rom t
    heOl
    dTest
    ament
    ,theNewTest
    ament
    ,andt
    heRomanl
    aw.
     I
    twasf
    undament
    all
    awsandt
    heki
    ngv
    est
    edwi
    thabsol
    utepower
    .
     Thethronewasher
    edi
    taryandt
    hekingwast
    houghtt
    obeappoi
    nteddi
    vi
    nel
    ywi
    tht
    heassumpt
    ion
    thatr
    uleshav
    eaGodgivenpower.
    i
    i. Ki
    breNegest–Gl
    oryofKi
    ngs
     I
    twaswr i
    tt
    enbysi xTigr
    eancleri
    csinear
    ly14thconmyt
    hicalori
    ginsofr
    oyalhouse.I
    twas
    i
    mpor
    tantdocumentt
    hatevendefi
    nedwhoshoul
    dbecomeki
    nginEthiopi
    a.
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    ESDEPARTMENT(
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    2014)
     I
    tdeter
    minesthesuccessi
    onoft
    het
    hronei
    nEt
    hiopi
    a.I
    ttakest
    heEt
    hiopi
    anhi
    stor
    ybackt
    othe
    l
    egendofSol
    omonicdynasty.
     Basedonthi
    s,i
    tdet
    erminedthatanykingi
    nEthi
    opiamustdescendf
    rom t
    heSol
    omoni
    cdy
    nast
    yor
    musthavesuchbl
    oodrelat
    ionshi
    pwiththedy
    nasty
    .
    i
    ii
    . Ser
    ’at
    eMengi
    st–Ar
    tofRul
    e
     I
    tpr ov
    idedcert
    ainadmini
    strat
    iveprot
    ocolanddirect
    iv n19th c.I
    esi thar
    dlyconsi
    der
    edasa
    documentofConst
    it
    uti
    onalLawinit
    swidestsense.
     Nonetheless,asiti
    sthefir
    stt
    ohav
    ebeenusedf
    oral
    l
    ocat
    ingpoweramongt
    heCr
    own,i
    ts
    di
    gnit
    ariesandtheChur
    ch.
     I
    twasmor
    etheor
    eti
    cal
    thanpr
    act
    ical
    asi
    ncessantr
    ival
    ri
    esamongr
    oyal
    member
    s.
    5.
    2.2. The1931Fi
    rstWr
    it
    tenConst
    it
    uti
    on
     OnJuly16,1931byEmperorHail
    eSelassi
    e,t
    heeraofunwrit
    tenf
    orm ofconst
    it
    uti
    oncamet
    oan
    end.I
    nter
    nalandext
    ernal
    fact
    orscaused1931const
    it
    uti
    on.
     External
    ly
    ,thegr
    owingi
    nter
    act
    ionwi
    thext
    ernalwor
    ldf
    orcedt
    ovi
    ewEt
    hiopi
    aasamoder
    nst
    atet
    o
    therestoftheworl
    d.
     Theemper
    orhadt oconvi
    ncetheworl
    dt hathi
    scount
    rywasmoder
    nizi
    ngandt
    aki
    ngherpl
    ace
    amongt
    heciv
    il
    izedst
    ates(
    LeagueofNat
    ions).
     I
    nter
    nall
    y,itwasi nt
    endedtoprov
    ideal
    egalf
    ramewor
    kfort
    hesuppr
    essi
    onoft
    hepower
    ful
    t
    radi
    ti
    onalnobi
    l
    iti
    estotheemper
    or.
     I
    twasdesi
    gnedtouni
    fyandcentr
    ali
    zeallstat
    epowerint hehandsoft hemonar
    ch.Thi
    sal
    so
    mar
    kedt
    hebegi
    nni
    ngofthecul
    minat
    ionofthestr
    uggl
    eforcentr
    ali
    zat
    ion.
    5.
    2.3. TheRev
    isedConst
    it
    uti
    onof1955
     After24years,
    t heconst
    it
    uti
    onwasrev
    isedduet
    ofeder
    ati
    onofEr
    it
    reai
    n1952andt
    orespondf
    or
    theissuesofstudentsmovement
    s.
     Hence,
    theRev
    isedConst
    it
    uti
    onconti
    nuedt
    orei
    nforcet
    hepr
    ocessofcent
    ral
    i
    zat
    ion.Theemper
    or
    wasablet
    ogetmoreaddi
    ti
    onalpower
    sbyther
    evi
    sion.
     Hewasboththeheadofst
    ate,headofgov
    ernmentandov
    erseet
    hej
    udi
    ciar
    ythr sChi
    oughhi l
    ot
    (
    CrownCour
    t).
     However
    ,li
    kei
    tspredecessor
    ,theconst
    it
    uti
    ondecl
    aresthei
    nvi
    olabi
    l
    ityoft
    heEmper
    or’
    sdi
    gni
    ty
    andt
    hepowerofappoint
    inganddismi
    ssi
    ngmembersofthepar
    li
    ament.
     Feder
    ati
    onofEri
    tr
    eawit
    hEthi
    opialedtotheaddi
    ti
    onoft
    wonewdocument
    s(f
    eder
    alact&Er
    it
    rean
    const
    it
    uti
    on)i
    ntotheEt
    hiopi
    alegalsy
    stem.
     Thefeder
    alactwasadocumentthatspeci
    fiedt
    ermsofagreement
    sforf
    eder
    ati
    onofEr
    it
    reaand
    Ethi
    opi
    a.Er
    it
    reanest
    abl
    i
    shedt
    heirconst
    itut
    ionwi
    ththesuppor
    tofUN.
    5.
    2.4. The1987Const
    it
    uti
    onofPDRE
     I
    mmediat
    elyaft
    ercamet opower,theDer
    gueset
    upPMAC,at
    empor
    arygov
    ernment
    .ThePMAC
    wasal
    sointheprocessofr
    econst
    it
    uti
    ngit
    sel
    f.

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     ThePMACpr esent
    edi t
    selff
    orel
    ect
    ionst
    hroughanew par
    ty“
    Wor
    ker
    s’Par
    tyofEt
    hiopi
    a”.The
    par
    tybecamethevanguardcommuni
    stpar
    ty.
     Af
    tercomingtopower,
    theDerguei
    ssuedaseri
    esofdecr
    eesandpr
    ocl
    amat
    ionst
    hatwasusedas
    l
    egalr
    ulesunt
    ilt
    headopti
    onof1987const
    it
    uti
    on.
     I
    ttooksweepi
    ngmeasuresbyser
    iesofdecr
    eesli
    kenat
    ional
    i
    zat
    ionofr
    uralandur
    banl
    and,ext
    ra
    ur
    banhouses,
    pri
    vat
    eschool
    sandfact
    ori
    esbypassi
    ngseri
    es.
     I
    ntheArt
    icl
    e3,st
    atewouldcont
    rolkeyproduct
    ion,di
    str
    ibut
    ionandser
    viceent
    erpr
    ises,whi
    ch
    l
    egal
    i
    zedt
    hemassi
    venat
    ional
    i
    zati
    onofpri
    vatebusi
    nesses.
     Thismayleadustotheconcl
    usi
    ont
    hatt
    het
    imef
    rom 1974-
    1987wasaper
    iodofconst
    it
    uti
    onal
    vacuum i
    nEthi
    opi
    a.
     Thoughitwaslat
    e,Dergueconst
    it
    uti
    onwasadopt
    edi
    n1987byconst
    it
    uti
    onalcommi
    ssi
    onand
    approv
    edbyref
    erendum.
     Ast
    othePDREconst
    it
    uti
    on:
     St
    ateandr
    eli
    gionwer
    esepar
    atedf
    ort
    hef
    ir
    stt
    ime;
     Sov
    erei
    gnt
    ywasdecl
    aredt
    owor
    kingpeopl
    eofEt
    hiopi
    a.
     Cont
    ainspr
    ovi
    sionsondemocr
    ati
    candhumanr
    ight
    s;
     Recogni
    zeddi
    ff
    erentcul
    tur
    ali
    dent
    it
    ies&equal
    i
    tyofNNP’
    s
     I
    ntr
    oducedonepar
    tysy
    stem bygi
    vi
    ngr
    ecogni
    ti
    ont
    oWPE.
     Ai
    medatt
    hepr
    inci
    plesofMar
    xistandLeni
    nisti
    deol
    ogy
    ;
     Ai
    medatgi
    vi
    ngpowert
    othepeopl
    esv
    iar
    efer
    endum,
    local
    andnat
    ional
    assembl
    y.
    Pr
    act
    ical
    ly
    ,howev
    er,
    itwasnotdi
    ff
    erentf
    rom 1931and1955const
    it
    uti
    ons.
    5.
    2.5. The1995(
    FDRE)Const
    it
    uti
    on
     TheFDREconst
    it
    uti
    onhasawi
    dercov
    erageofbot
    hhumananddemocr
    ati
    cri
    ght
    s.I
    thassome
    sal
    i
    entf
    eat
    ures.
     Int
    roducti
    onoffeder
    ali
    sm,thepri
    nci
    pleofsel
    f-
    det
    ermi
    nati
    onofcoll
    ect
    ivi
    ti
    es,f
    undament
    alr
    ight
    s
    andfreedoms,
    equali
    tyandaff
    ir
    mativ
    eacti
    onareamongit
    sfeat
    ures.
     Inchapt
    er2,pr
    incipl
    es;popularsover
    eignt
    y,const
    it
    uti
    onalsupr
    emacy
    ,humanr
    ight
    s,secul
    ari
    sm &
    account
    abi
    li
    ty&transparencyareincl
    uded.
     TheConsti
    tut
    ionembodiedfundamentalpr
    inci
    ples,whi
    chgi
    veabackgr
    oundt
    omanyoft
    her
    ules
    thatemer
    geinsubsequentChapt
    ers.
    5.
    3.Democr
    acyandDemocr
    ati
    zat
    ion
    5.
    3.1. Def
    ini
    ngDemocr
    acy
     Theworddemocr
    acyref
    erstot
    hei deaofrul
    ebythepeopl
    eorgover
    nmentbythepeopl
    e.Tomean,
    gover
    nmentcomesf
    rom peopl
    e;exerci
    sedbypeopl
    e,&forpeopl
    e’
    sint
    erest
    s.
    I
    ndemocracies,r
    uler
    sareheldaccount
    abl
    efort
    heiractionsinthepubl
    i
    creal
    m andci
    ti
    zensact
    i
    ndi
    rect
    lyt
    hroughthecooper
    ati
    onofthei
    rel
    ect
    edrepresentat
    ives.

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    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
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    2014)
     Democracycanal
    sobeconcei
    vedastheinst
    it
    uti
    onal
    i
    zationoffreedom.I
    nthi
    scase,i
    tref
    erst
    o
    t
    heprocessofor
    gani
    zi
    ngagenci
    est
    hatcanwatchtherespectofr
    ights.
     Ther
    e aretwo way s ofexerci
    sing democr
    acy.Directdemocr
    acyi
    mpl
    i
    es t
    he r
    ightt
    o make
    deci
    sionsi
    sexer
    ciseddir
    ectl
    ybythewhol eci
    ti
    zens.
    Indir
    ectdemocracyref
    ersagovernmentinwhichciti
    zensexer
    ciset
    hei
    rri
    ght
    sandf
    reedomsand
    dischar
    gethei
    robli
    gati
    onsbutt
    hroughrepr
    esentat
    ives.
    5.
    3.2. Val
    uesandPr
    inci
    plesofDemocr
    acy
    Ther
    ear
    ethr
    eecor
    eval
    uest
    hatar
    ecent
    ralt
    otheconceptofdemocr
    acy
    .
    a.Li
    ber
    ty:
    Thisval
    ueincludesper sonalf
    reedom (tomeanthatIndi
    vidual
    sshoul
    dbef reefr
    om ar
    bit
    rar
    yarr
    est
    andsearch;poli
    ticalfreedom (t
    herighttopar
    ti
    cipat
    ef r
    eelyinthepol
    it
    icalpr
    ocessandeconomic
    fr
    eedom (r
    ighttopr opert
    y,j
    ob,et
    c).
    b.Just
    ice:
    Theseincl
    udedistr
    ibuti
    veJust i
    ce(fair
    lydi
    stri
    buti
    ngbenefit
    sandbur densi nsociety
    ),cor
    recti
    ve
    Justi
    ce(pr
    oport
    ionalresponsetocorrectwrongsandinjur
    ies)andproceduraljust
    ice(samesteps
    wit
    hopennessshouldbeusedf orgat
    heringi
    nformati
    onandmaki ngdeci
    sions).
    c.Equal
    it
    y:
    Threenoti
    ons:poli
    ti
    calequal
    ity(equalpol
    i
    ticalr
    ight
    sorinshortoneman,onevote)
    ,socialequali
    ty
    (nodiscr
    iminat
    ionwhatsoev er)andeconomi cequali
    ty(
    equalandfai
    rassessmenttothenat i
    onal
    resour
    cesservi
    ces).
    Besi
    des,
    thef
    oll
    owi
    ngsar
    efundament
    alpr
    inci
    plesofdemocr
    acy
    .Thesear
    e;
    A.Popul
    arSov
    erei
    gnt
    y
    I
    tiswhencit
    izenholdst
    heult
    imateauthor
    it
    yoverpubl
    icoff
    ici
    alsandthei
    rpol
    i
    cies.Ont
    heot
    hersi
    de,
    popul
    arsov
    ereignt
    yindemocracyassumesthepri
    nci
    pleofmajori
    tyr
    ule.
    B.Const
    it
    uti
    onalSupr
    emacy
    Thisi
    sapr inci
    plethatput
    stheconstit
    uti
    onatt
    hehi ghestlev
    el i
    nthehi
    erarchyoflaws.I
    talsoimpli
    es
    thati
    fanacti sf oundtobeagainsttheconst
    itut
    ion,itwouldoutofeffectorv oi
    d.IntheEthiopi
    an
    case,Art
    icle9oft heFDREconst i
    tuti
    onstat
    est hatt hehighestpowerl aw ofthecountryisthe
    consti
    tut
    ion.
    C.Rul
    eofLaw
    Incont
    emporaryti
    me,rul
    eofl awhasbeenr ef
    lect
    edeit
    heri
    nthei
    rconsti
    tuti
    onsorst
    atutes.Ruleof
    l
    aw isequali
    tybefor
    et helaw andno onei sabov ethelaw.Iti
    st hepr i
    nci
    pleunderwhi cha
    gover
    nmentexerci
    sesitsauthori
    tyinaccor
    dancewithpubl
    icl
    ydi
    scl
    osedl aws.Thelaw mustt r
    eat
    andpunishal
    li
    nthecountr
    yint hesameway.
    D.Secul
    ari
    sm
    Secul
    arism asser
    tst
    odismissori
    gnoresGod,andotherr
    eli
    giousv
    iewpoint
    swhendiscussi
    ngin
    pol
    iti
    cs.Iti
    st omeansepar
    ati
    onofst
    ateandrel
    igi
    on.I
    tdemandsstr
    ictsepar
    ati
    onofr
    eli
    giousand

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    pol
    i
    tical
    aff
    air
    s&noi
    nter
    fer
    enceamongeachot
    her
    .
    E.Separ
    ati
    onofPower
    s
    Itref
    erspoli
    ti
    calpowershoul
    dbedi v
    idedamongsev eralbodi
    esoroff
    icer
    soft hest
    ate.I
    tshows
    vari
    ati
    onindiff
    erentst
    atest
    ruct
    ureandt y
    pesofgovernment.Inor
    dert
    opr ot
    ectpowerabuse,i
    tis
    essenti
    alt
    oseparatepower
    samongor gansandt
    ier
    sofgov ernment
    .
    F.Fr
    ee,
    Fai
    randPer
    iodi
    cEl
    ect
    ion
    Here,fr
    eemeansal
    lpart
    iesshoul
    dgetthechancet
    opart
    ici
    patei
    nelecti
    on.Secondl
    y,f
    airmeansal
    l
    shouldbet
    reat
    edequal
    l
    y.Final
    l
    y,per
    iodi
    cmeanstohav
    efixedcal
    endar.
    G.Maj
    ori
    tyRul
    e&Mi
    nor
    it
    yRi
    ght
    Aft
    erconduct
    ingdemocr
    ati
    celect
    ion,t
    hosewhoget sthemaj
    ori
    tyvotewil
    lest
    abl
    i
    shagov
    ernment
    .
    Themajori
    tywil
    lgov
    ernt
    hecountr
    ywhilether
    ightoft
    heminor
    it
    yrespect
    ed.
    H.Pr
    otect
    ionandPr
    omot
    ionofHumanRi
    ght
    s
    Humanr i
    ghtsarethosenatural
    l
    ygivenv aluesthatr
    efl
    ectr
    espectforhumanl
    i
    fe.Hence,t
    hei
    r
    pr
    otect
    iontest
    sthel
    egit
    imacyandconst
    it
    utional
    it
    yofademocr
    ati
    cgovernment
    .
    I
    . Mul
    ti
    par
    tySy
    stem
    Democr
    acyr
    equi
    ressev
    eral
    pol
    i
    tical
    par
    ti
    eswor
    kingt
    oget
    heri
    nonepol
    i
    tical
    syst
    em.
    5.
    3.3. Democr
    ati
    zat
    ion
    Democrat
    izat
    ionistheprocessoftransi
    ti
    onsfr
    om nondemocr
    ati
    ctodemocr
    ati
    cregi
    meswi
    thi
    na
    speci
    fi
    edtime.I
    tisnotsi
    mpleprocess&takenanext
    endperi
    odofti
    me.
    Ther
    earethreemainel
    ement sindemocrat
    izati
    onremovalofaut
    hor
    it
    ari
    anr
    egi
    me,i
    nst
    all
    ati
    onof
    democr
    ati
    cregi
    me,andsust
    ainabi
    li
    tyofdemocrat
    icr
    egime.
    5.
    3.4. Act
    orsofDemocr
    ati
    zat
    ion
     Pol
    it
    ical
    Par
    ti
    es
    Thecent
    rali
    tyofpoli
    ti
    calparti
    esformoderndemocracyisgeneral
    lyaccept
    edbydemocr
    ati
    cpol
    i
    tics.
    I
    ndemocr ati
    csystem,polit
    icalpart
    iesprovi
    deproperfunct
    ioni
    ngofgov ernment
    .Inf
    act
    ,pol
    i
    tical
    par
    ti
    esactasabr i
    dgebetweenasoci etyandit
    sgovernment.
     Medi
    a
    MassMediaandDemocr acyar
    ealway srel
    atedtoeachot
    her.Medi
    aisamir
    rorofthesoci
    etyand
    howdemocrat
    icsoci
    etycanberepresent
    edthroughmedi
    a.Count
    ri
    eswhi
    char
    estrongdemocraci
    es
    al
    wayshav
    estrongandfreemedia.
     Ci
    vi
    cSoci
    eti
    es
    Civ
    ilsociet
    yissor tofvol
    untar
    yinsti
    tut
    ionforspecif
    icgoal
    .Ci
    vi
    lsoci
    etyfor
    msthebackboneof
    democracy.In countr
    iesl
    ikeEthi
    opia,ther
    earenumer ousgapslef
    tbyt hegover
    nmentinthe
    devel
    opmentanddemocr ati
    zat
    ionprocess.Ci
    vilsoci
    eti
    eshaveapotenti
    alofpl
    ayi
    ngnumerous
    moment ousrol
    esfordemocrati
    cdevel
    opment.

    MORALANDCI
    VICSEDUCATI
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    NSTRUCTOR:KEDI
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    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    5.
    4.HumanRi
    ght
    s:Concept
    sandTheor
    ies
    5.
    4.1. Whatar
    eHumanRi
    ght
    s?
     Humanr i
    ghtsarebasi
    ctohumani
    ty& appl
    ytoal
    lpeopl
    eev
    ery
    wher
    e.I
    tinf
    ersf
    undament
    al
    ent
    it
    lement
    sbelongt
    oever
    ymemberoft
    hehumanr
    ace.
     AstoUDHR,Ar
    ti
    cle2st
    ipul
    atedt
    hathumanr
    ight
    sbel
    ongt
    oev
    eryhumanbei
    ngwi
    thoutdi
    sti
    nct
    ion
    ofanyki
    nd.
     Humanright
    sareestabli
    sheduponsomemai nprinci
    plesi
    ncl
    udi
    nguni
    ver
    sal
    i
    ty,i
    nal
    i
    enabi
    l
    ity
    ,
    i
    ndi
    vi
    sibi
    l
    ity(
    appl
    yini
    tsful
    lestf
    orm)andi
    nter
    dependence.
     Whenwesayhumanr i
    ghtsareuniv
    ersal
    ,iti
    stoshow t
    hei
    rwor
    ldwi
    deappl
    i
    cabi
    l
    ity
    .Inal
    ienabl
    e
    meansy
    oucannotl
    osetheser
    ight
    sanymor e.
    5.
    4.2. Ri
    ght
    sHol
    der
    sandDut
    yBear
    ers
     Right
    sbecomeri
    ght
    swhent
    hej
    oboft
    het
    womai
    nact
    orsi er
    sdone.Thesear i
    ghthol
    der
    sand
    dutybear
    ers.
     Righthol
    der
    sarethosewhoareenti
    tl
    edt oenjoy
    ,possessorclai
    m agi
    venr
    ight
    .Dut
    ybear
    ersar
    e
    thosewhocarr
    ytheobli
    gat
    ionofpr
    otect
    ingtheseri
    ghtstor
    ighthol
    der
    s.
     Ther
    emustbeal wayssomeoneyouwillcl
    aimtheprot
    ect
    ion,pr
    ovi
    sionandf
    ulf
    il
    lmentofy
    our
    ri
    ght
    sfr
    om andbecomeaccount
    abl
    eforanyfai
    l
    urest
    odoso.
     Thepr
    imary(nottheonl
    y)dut
    ybear
    erf
    oral
    mostal
    lofourri
    ght
    sist
    hest
    ate.Besi
    des,i
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    s
    andot
    hernon-st
    ateact
    orsmaybenamedasdut
    ybear
    ers.
     Moreover
    ,unint
    err
    uptedandcycli
    crel
    ati
    onshi
    pisexpect
    edamongr
    ight
    shol
    der
    sanddut
    ybear
    ers.
    Ri
    ghtsholder
    sshouldclai
    mtheirri
    ght
    sfrom dut
    ybearer
    s&vi
    cever
    sa.
    5.
    4.3. Cat
    egor
    iesofHumanRi
    ght
    s
    Thecommonwayofcat
    egor
    izi
    ngHumanRi
    ght
    sisi
    ntot
    hree:Fi
    rst
    ,SecondandThi
    rdgener
    ati
    on
    ri
    ght
    s.
    5.
    4.3.
    1. Ci
    vi
    landPol
    it
    icalRi
    ght
    s–Fi
    rstGener
    ati
    onRi
    ght
    s
    Civi
    lrightsi
    ncludesuchright
    sastherighttol
    if
    e,l
    i
    bertyandpersonal
    securi
    ty,
    equali
    tybefor
    et helaw,
    prot
    ect i
    on fr
    om arbitr
    aryarrestand rel
    igi
    ousfreedom.Pol i
    ti
    calri
    ghtsincluderightto speech,
    expression,
    assembly,associ
    ati
    on,vot
    e&pol i
    ti
    calpar
    ti
    cipat
    ion.
    5.
    4.3.
    2. Soci
    alandEconomi
    cRi
    ght
    s–SecondGener
    ati
    onRi
    ght
    s
    Soci
    aland economi cright
    si ncl
    ude ri
    ghtt o educati
    on,heal
    th and well
    bei
    ng,work and fai
    r
    remuner
    ati
    on,t
    radeunions,f
    reeassociat
    ions,l
    eisur
    et i
    me,&socialsecur
    it
    y.Cul
    tur
    alr
    ight
    si ncl
    ude
    ri
    ghttoi
    ndi
    genousland,r
    it
    ual
    s,pract
    ices,
    andlanguage.
    5.
    4.3.
    3. Peace,
    Dev
    elopmentandEnv
    ironment
    alRi
    ght
    s–Thi
    rdGener
    ati
    on
    Thir
    dgener
    ati
    on(sol
    idar
    it
    y )ri
    ght
    saimedtosharethebenef
    it
    sofear
    th'
    snat
    ural
    resour
    ces.I
    tincl
    udes
    ri
    ghtst
    opubli
    cgoods,development
    ,env
    ironmentandpeace.

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    VICSEDUCATI
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    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    5.
    4.4. Der
    ogat
    ionsandLi
    mit
    ati
    onsonHumanRi
    ght
    s
    Ther
    ear etwocondi
    ti
    onsunderwhichhumanr i
    ghtscanber estr
    icted:l
    i
    mitat
    ionandder
    ogat
    ion.
    Limi
    tati
    onsarelawf
    ulinf
    ri
    ngementsofr i
    ghts.Itimposedpr i
    mar i
    l
    yt ofaci
    li
    tat
    eopti
    maluseor
    exer
    ciseofri
    ght
    sinacont
    extofscarcepubl
    icresources,
    spaceandt ime.
    Restr
    ict
    ionsareacceptabl
    eorjust
    if
    iabl
    eli
    mit
    sofhuman ri
    ght
    sdur i
    ng t
    henormaltimes.I t
    ci
    rcumscribedthemannertowhi
    chright
    scanbeenj
    oyedi
    napar t
    icul
    arsetofci
    rcumstances,
    oft
    eninnor mal
    times.
    Derogat
    ionmeansatemporarynon-appli
    cati
    onandsuspensi
    onofr
    ight
    sbyt
    hest
    atei
    nabnor
    mal
    oremergency(
    nat
    ural
    /ar
    ti
    fi
    cial
    )si
    tuations.
    Hence,suchli
    mit
    ati
    onshoul
    dnotbear
    bit
    rar
    yrat
    herbasedonl
    egal
    i
    ty,necessi
    ty,r
    ati
    onal
    i
    tyand
    pr
    oporti
    onal
    it
    y.
    Li
    mitat
    ionsmaybemadef orthesakeof :safeguar
    dingnati
    onalsecur
    it
    y;pr
    event
    ionofcr
    imes;
    pr
    otect
    ionofheal
    th,
    publ
    i
    cmorali
    ty;
    right
    s,fr
    eedom andinst
    it
    uti
    ons
    I
    nEthiopi
    a,bot
    hf eder
    alandregi
    onalgover
    nmentshavepower
    stodecl
    arest
    ateofemer
    gency
    .
    Regi
    onscandeclar
    einnatur
    aldi
    sast
    erandepidemi
    cs.
    Besi
    des,art
    icl
    e93oftheFDREconsti
    tut
    ionspeci
    fi
    estheCouncilofMini
    ster
    scandeclareaStat
    e
    ofEmergencywhent
    hereisfor
    eigni
    nvasion,
    endanger
    sconsti
    tuti
    onalor
    der,nat
    uraldi
    sast
    erand
    epi
    demic.
    5.
    4.5. Non-
    der
    ogabi
    li
    tyofHumanRi
    ght
    s 
     Therear
    eal socer
    tai
    nuni
    queandi
    nher
    enthumanr
    ight
    s,whi
    chcannev
    erbesuspendedunder
     any
    ci
    rcumstances.
     Someofthearti
    cl
    esarenon-derogablesuchasr
    ightt
    oli
    fe;f
    reedom f
    rom t
    ort
    ure,i
    nhuman
    tr
    eat
    ment
    ;ser
    vit
    udeandf
    reedom ofrel
    igi
    on.
     These ri
    ght
    s are al
    so non-
    derogabl
    e bythe FDRE consti
    tut
    ion.Condi
    ti
    ons li
    ke exi
    stence of
    emergency,
    thr
    eattonat
    ion,andguarant
    eeofnon-di
    scr
    iminat
    ionusedtosuspend.
    5.
    4.6. I
    mpl
    ement
    ati
    onandEnf
    orcementofHumanRi
    ght
    s
    5.
    4.6.
    1. I
    nter
    nat
    ionalBi
    llofHumanRi
    ght
    s
     Theveryreasonbehi
    ndt
    heestabl
    i
    shmentoft
    hei
    nter
    nat
    ionall
    aw i
    sensur
    inggl
    obalpeaceand
    secur
    it
    y,andtol
    eadawor
    th-
    li
    vi
    ngli
    fe.
     Hence,t
    hemainobject
    ivesoft
    hei
    nter
    nati
    onall
    awandi
    tsi
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsar
    einonewayoranot
    her
    r
    elat
    edwitht
    heprot
    ecti
    onofhumanri
    ghts.
     Theissuesofhumanright
    scomeint
    opict
    urei
    nt hei
    nter
    nat
    ionall
    awst
    art
    ingf
    rom t
    headopt
    ionof
    theCharteroft
    heUni
    tedNati
    onsonOct
    ober24,1945.
     Thechar
    termakesprotect
    ionofhumanr i
    ghtsoneofthet hr
    eemainobject
    ivesoft
    heUN,i
    n
    addi
    ti
    ont
    opreser
    vinggl
    obalpeaceandst
    imulat
    ingcompr
    ehensi
    vedev
    elopment.
     TheUni
    tedNat
    ionshassi
    xpr
    imeor
    gans,
    namel
    y;
     Gener
    alAssembl
    y
    MORALANDCI
    VICSEDUCATI
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    MCED-1011) I
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    Page62
    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
     Secur
    it
    yCounci
    l
     Economi
    c&Soci
    alCounci
    l(ECOSOC)
    ,
     I
    nter
    nat
    ional
    Cri
    minal
    Cour
    t(I
    CC)
    ,
     Of
    fi
    ceoft
    heSecr
    etar
    iatand
     Tr
    ust
    eeshi
    pCounci
    l(Suspendedoper
    ati
    ons-
    1994)
     Besi
    des,t
    heOfficeofHighCommissi
    onerforHumanRight
    s( OHCHR)i
    sest
    abl
    i
    shedundert
    he
    ECOSOC,anddedicat
    edt
    othepromoti
    onofhumanri
    ght
    sworldwide.
     Theint
    ernati
    onalbil
    lofhumanright
    sismadeupofv ar
    ioustr
    eat
    yandchar
    terbasedhumanr
    ight
    s
    i
    nstr
    ument s;
    treat
    ies,cov
    enant
    s,char
    ter
    sanddecl
    arati
    ons.
     TheUNChar t
    ercl
    earl
    yst
    atedt
    hattheorgani
    zat
    ionisdedi
    cat
    edt
    ohelpmenl
    i
    veal
    i
    fef
    reef
    rom
    fearofwar
    ,pr
    omoti
    onofhumanri
    ghtsandthewort
    hofhumanper
    son.
     TheUniver
    salDecl
    arat
    ionofHumanRi ght
    s( UDHR)ishumanri
    ghtsinst
    rument
    sconsi
    der
    edast
    he
    groundwor
    kofmostoft hepost
    -1945codi
    ficat
    ionofhumanri
    ghts.
     Manycount
    ri
    eshav
    eincludedit
    spr ovi
    sionsintheirbasi
    clawsorconst
    it
    uti
    ons.I
    thasser
    vedasa
    modelf
    ormostoft
    helaws,consti
    tuti
    onalprovi
    sionsandrules.
     Besi
    des,t
    heUN pr esent
    lyhasmor
    ethant
    encor
    ehumanr
    ight
    str
    eat
    ybasedhumanr
    ight
    s
    i
    nstr
    umentsandconventi
    ons.
     Thesei
    ncl
    udes,
    1.Conv
    ent
    ionont
    hePr
    event
    ionandPuni
    shmentoft
    heCr
    imeofGenoci
    de(
    1948)
    ,
    2.Conv
    ent
    ionRel
    ati
    ngt
    otheSt
    atusofRef
    ugees(
    1951)
    ,
    3.I
    nter
    nat
    ional
    Cov
    enantonCi
    vi
    landPol
    i
    tical
    Right
    s(I
    CCPR)
    ,
    4.Sl
    aver
    yConv
    ent
    ion(
    1926,
    butamendedbyPr
    otocol
    in1953)
    ,
    5.I
    nter
    nat
    ional
    Cov
    enantonCi
    vi
    landPol
    i
    tical
    Right
    s(1966)
    ,
    6.I
    nter
    nat
    ional
    Cov
    enantonEconomi
    c,Soci
    alandCul
    tur
    alRi
    ght
    s(1966)
    ,
    7.Convent
    ion agai
    nstTor
    tur
    e and Ot
    herCr
    uel
    ,Inhuman orDegr
    adi
    ng Tr
    eat
    mentor
    Puni
    shment( CAT)
    ,
    8.I
    nter
    nat
    ionalConv
    ent
    ion on t
    he El
    i
    minat
    ion ofAl
    lFor
    ms ofRaci
    alDi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ion
    (
    ICERD)
    ,
    9.Conv
    ent
    ionont
    heEl
    i
    minat
    ionofAl
    lFor
    msofDi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ionagai
    nstWomen(
    CEDAW)
    ,
    10.
    Conv
    ent
    ionont
    heRi
    ght
    soft
    heChi
    l
    d(CRC)
    ,and
    11.
    Int
    ernat
    ionalConvent
    ionont
    hePr
    otect
    ionoft
    heRi
    ght
    sofAl
    lMi
    grantWor
    ker
    sand
    Member softhei
    rFamili
    es
     Each ofthe above human r i
    ghtst
    reat
    yinst
    ruments has an aut
    onomous moni
    tor
    ing body
    ,
    composedofindependentexpert
    swhoexami
    netherepor
    ts.
     Thesecommitt
    eesareal
    soinchargeofissui
    ng"concl
    udi
    ngobser
    vat
    ions/
    comment
    s",wher
    ethey
    summarizet
    hei
    rconcer
    nsaboutcert
    ainstat
    esandalsogi
    ver
    ecommendations.
     Et
    hiopi
    aisasi
    gnat
    orymembert
    oal
    loft
    heaf
    orement
    ionedcor
    eint
    ernat
    ionalhumanr
    ight
    s

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    VICSEDUCATI
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    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    i
    nst
    rument
    s.
    5.
    4.6.
    2. Regi
    onalMechani
    sms
     UndertheUNumbr el
    l
    a,ther
    eareregi
    onalhumanr
    ight
    ssy
    stemswhi
    chcov
    ert
    hreepar
    tsoft
    he
    worl
    d;Afr
    ica,
    theAmeri
    casandEur
    ope.
     Thesetwo(inter
    nat
    ionalandregional)sy
    stemsar
    eai
    medt
    omakesur
    est
    ateact
    orsar
    eful
    fi
    ll
    i
    ng
    thei
    robl
    igat
    ioninpr
    otecti
    ng,t
    heircit
    izen’
    sri
    ght
    s.
     Hence,i
    fanindiv
    idualorgr
    oupsr
    ight
    sar
    enotpr
    otect
    edont
    hedomest
    icl
    evel
    ,“t
    hei
    nter
    nat
    ional
    syst
    em comesintoplay
    .
     Act
    ual
    ly,
    thi
    swor
    ksonl
    yfort
    hecount
    ri
    esf
    oundi
    nregi
    onsoft
    hewor
    ldwher
    esuchsy
    stemsar
    ein
    pl
    ace.
     Asmenti
    onedbefor
    e,regi
    onalhumanr
    ight
    ssy
    stemsar
    ecur
    rent
    lyest
    abl
    i
    shedonl
    yinEur
    ope,
    Af
    ri
    caandAmeri
    canregi
    ons.
    5.
    4.7. Et
    hiopi
    anHumanRi
    ght
    sSy
    stem
    Thef
    oundat
    ionoftheobser
    vanceoft
    hehumanr
    ight
    sinEt
    hiopi
    aist
    heFDREConst
    it
    uti
    on,whi
    ch
    wasr
    ati
    fi
    edin1994.
    TheConsti
    tut
    ionempowersal
    lgover
    nmentatal
    llev
    elswit
    hther
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tyanddut
    ytor
    espect
    andenf
    orcetheConst
    it
    uti
    onal
    prov
    isi
    onsofhumanright
    s.
    Moreover
    ,theConsti
    tut
    ionhasrequi
    redtheest
    abl
    ishmentofnationalhumanr
    ight
    scommi
    ssi
    on,
    gener
    alatt
    orneyof
    fi
    ce,off
    iceofombudsmen&independentcour
    ts.
    Toendwi t
    h,t
    herehavebeenest
    abl
    ishedinst
    it
    uti
    onswi
    tht
    hespeci
    fi
    candpr
    omi
    nentmandat
    eof
    respectandpromoti
    onsofhumanri
    ghts.
    Themai nor
    ganizati
    onsint
    hisr
    espectar
    e:t
    heEthi
    opi
    anHumanRi
    ght
    sCommi
    ssi
    on(
    EHRC)and
    theEt
    hiopi
    anInsti
    tut
    ionoft
    heOmbudsman(EIO)
    .
    Addi
    ti
    onal
    ly
    ,t heFeder
    alandRegionalEthi
    csandAnt i
    -Cor
    rupt
    ionCommissionsandt
    heChi
    ef
    Audi
    tor
    ’sOff
    icear
    eagenci
    esthatconsol
    i
    datetr
    anspar
    encyandaccount
    abi
    l
    ity
    .
    TheNati
    onalEl
    ecti
    onBoardest
    abl
    i
    shedbasedonConst
    it
    uti
    ont
    hatst
    atepowercanbeassumed
    onl
    ythr
    oughrepr
    esent
    ati
    ves.
    Chapt
    erSummar
    y
    Humanr i
    ghts,consti
    tuti
    on/ ali
    sm anddemocr acyar esomeoft hecor econcer nsoft hiscourse.The
    chapterdealswi ththeset hreeimpor tantnot i
    onsonebyone.Thechapt erdi scussionsgof r
    om
    defi
    niti
    ons/meaningst ot heoreti
    calargument sar oundt heseconcept s.Thecor eideasorar gument s
    ofthemaj orauthorsi
    nt hear easar ediscussedbr ief
    ly.Humanr ight
    sar eexpl ai
    nedi nt hefi
    rstsection
    asentitl
    ementswi t
    hbot hl egalandsoci alrecogni t
    ion.Humanr ightsmai nlyengagedt womai nactor s:
    ri
    ghtsowner sanddut ybear ers.I
    tisthecy cl
    icinteracti
    onbet weent heright sholdersanddut ybearers
    therespectandr eali
    zationofhumanr ightscomet opr act
    ice.TheUni v ersalDeclar ati
    onofHuman
    Rightsassociateshumanr i
    ghtswi t
    h" thehi ghestaspi r
    at i
    on"oft hecommonpeopl e,andpr ocl
    aims
    i
    tselftobea" commonst andar d"forall
    .Humanr ightsareal sorecognizedandst ipulatedinourFDRE

    MORALANDCI
    VICSEDUCATI
    ON(
    MCED-1011) I
    NSTRUCTOR:KEDI
    RA.
    Page64
    HAWASSAUNI
    VERSI
    TY-CI
    VICSANDETHI
    CALSTUDI
    ESDEPARTMENT(
    OCT-
    2014)
    Consti
    tuti
    oni nsi
    mi larmanner .Thus,ther eali
    zati
    onofal lhumanr ightsi snotamat t
    erofchoicef or
    stat
    esandnon- stateactorswor ki
    ngi nthear ea,i
    tisr
    atheranobl igati
    onmustbef ulfi
    lli
    fci
    tizenshav e
    toli
    veawor thli
    vingl i
    fe.Const i
    tuti
    on/ alism anddemocr acyar ealsoi mperati
    vei nanypol iti
    cal
    syst
    em.Bot hcanbeseenasabasi sfort hepr omoti
    on, protecti
    onandf ulf
    il
    lmentofhumanr i
    ghts.A
    consti
    tut
    ionalregimeex erciseslimitedpowerandr espect sciti
    zen’srights.Ther espect
    ,f ul
    fi
    ll
    ment
    andprov i
    sionofr i
    ght sisalsooneoft hef undamentalpr i
    ncipl
    esofdemocr acy.Thus,theset hr
    ee
    conceptsarenotmut ual
    lyexclusi
    ve.

    ENDOFCHAPTERFI
    VE!

    MORALANDCI
    VICSEDUCATI
    ON(
    MCED-1011) I
    NSTRUCTOR:KEDI
    RA.
    Page65

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