Coursework 1

Solutions

Question 1: 30 marks
a) Use dimensional analysis to derive the dimensions of 𝑘 in E.1. (1.5 marks)

𝐹 = 𝑘Δ𝑥

Identify dimensions of each variable

𝐿
Dimensions of 𝐹 = 𝑀. and of Δ𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑇2

𝐹 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2
Replacing these in E.1, we find for 𝑘 = Δ𝑥 = = 𝑀𝑇 −2
𝐿

Common mistake: using units instead of dimensions.

b) Assuming that the particles are at rest, 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 and 𝑇2 = 𝑇3. Find the matrix equation that
relates the particle displacements 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 to the spring elasticities 𝑘i and the spring natural
lengths 𝑙I for 𝑖 ∈ {1, 2, 3}. Find 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 for the simplest situation, which is 𝑘1=𝑘2= 𝑘3 and 𝑙1 =
𝑙2 = 𝑙3. (10.5 marks)

𝑇1 = 𝑘1 (𝑥1 − 𝑙1 )

𝑇2 = 𝑘2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 − 𝑙2 )
𝑇3 = 𝑘3 (𝐿 − 𝑥2 − 𝑙3 )

Since the particles are at rest, start by equating the tensions

𝑘1 (𝑥1 − 𝑙1 ) = 𝑘2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 − 𝑙2 )
𝑘2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 − 𝑙2 ) = 𝑘3 (𝐿 − 𝑥2 − 𝑙3 )

Multiplying out, grouping unknown on the left and known on the right, we have

(𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )𝑥1 − 𝑘2 𝑥2 = 𝑘1 𝑙1 − 𝑘2 𝑙2

−𝑘2 𝑥1 + (𝑘2 + 𝑘3 )𝑥2 = 𝑘2 𝑙2 − 𝑘3 𝑙3 + 𝑘3 𝐿

In matrix form this system of 2 equation and 2 unknowns can be written as

𝑘1 + 𝑘2 −𝑘2 𝑥 𝑘1 𝑙1 − 𝑘2 𝑙2
[ ] [ 1] = [ ] (M.1)
−𝑘2 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 𝑥2 𝑘2 𝑙2 − 𝑘3 𝑙3 + 𝑘3 𝐿
Also correct

𝑥1 𝑘 + 𝑘2 −𝑘2 −1 𝑘1 𝑙1 − 𝑘2 𝑙2
[𝑥 ] = [ 1 ] [ ] (M.2)
2 −𝑘2 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 𝑘2 𝑙2 − 𝑘3 𝑙3 + 𝑘3 𝐿

Or writing out the inverse matrix.

At this point, we should replace with 𝑘1=𝑘2= 𝑘3 and 𝑙1 = 𝑙2 = 𝑙3 to find the displacements 𝑥1 and 𝑥2.
We can replace in either M.1 or M.2. In M.1 𝑘1 can be factored out of the matrices after the
replacement.

𝑥1 2𝑘 −𝑘1 −1 0
[𝑥 ] = [ 1 ] [ ]
2 −𝑘1 2𝑘1 𝑘1 𝐿

or
𝑥1 2 −1 −1 0
[𝑥 ] = [ ] [ ]
2 −1 2 𝐿

Finding the inverse of the 2x2 matrix

𝑥1 1 2 1 0
[𝑥 ] = [ ][ ]
2 3 1 2 𝐿
Or
𝑥1 1 2𝑘 𝑘1 0
[𝑥 ] = 2 [ 1 ][ ]
2 3𝑘 𝑘1
1
2𝑘1 𝑘1 𝐿

Multiplying the two matrices correctly, we have for the displacements 𝑥1 and 𝑥2
𝐿
𝑥1 1 2 × 0 + 1𝐿 𝑙
[𝑥 ] = [ ] = [ 3 ] = [ ] (units = m)
2 3 1 × 0 + 2𝐿 2𝐿 2𝑙
3
Common mistakes:

• immediately replacing with 𝑘1=𝑘2= 𝑘3 and 𝑙1 = 𝑙2 = 𝑙3 before matrix equation is set up:
good practice to build universal models which allow easy change of parameters.
• Not solving by using matrix operations (instead solving by going back to simultaneous
equations).
• Missing units: we insist on units, as it is important to be into the practice of using them
always (to avoid costly mistakes as shown in Week 2). The units were also given in the
question.
 c) Develop the model in b) for 3 particles and four springs. The particles are at rest, 𝑇1 = 𝑇2, 𝑇2
= 𝑇3 and 𝑇3 = 𝑇4. Solve for the simplest situation, which is 𝑘1=𝑘2= 𝑘3= 𝑘4 and 𝑙1 = 𝑙2 = 𝑙3= 𝑙4.
(9 marks)

Start by writing out the equations for the tensions

𝑇1 = 𝑘1 (𝑥1 − 𝑙1 )
𝑇2 = 𝑘2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 − 𝑙2 )

𝑇3 = 𝑘3 (𝑥3 − 𝑥2 − 𝑙3 )

𝑇4 = 𝑘4 (𝐿 − 𝑥3 − 𝑙4 )

Since the particles are at rest, equating the tensions leads to

𝑘1 (𝑥1 − 𝑙1 ) = 𝑘2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 − 𝑙2 )

𝑘2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 − 𝑙2 ) = 𝑘3 (𝑥3 − 𝑥2 − 𝑙3 )

𝑘3 (𝑥3 − 𝑥2 − 𝑙3 ) = 𝑘4 (𝐿 − 𝑥3 − 𝑙4 )
Which can be rearranged to

(𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )𝑥1 − 𝑘2 𝑥2 = 𝑘1 𝑙1 − 𝑘2 𝑙2

−𝑘2 𝑥1 + (𝑘2 + 𝑘3 )𝑥2 − 𝑘3 𝑥3 = 𝑘2 𝑙2 − 𝑘3 𝑙3

−𝑘3 𝑥2 + (𝑘3 + 𝑘4 )𝑥3 = 𝑘3 𝑙3 − 𝑘4 𝑙4 + 𝑘4 𝐿

This can be written in matrix form
𝑘1 + 𝑘2 −𝑘2 0 𝑥1 𝑘1 𝑙1 − 𝑘2 𝑙2
[ −𝑘2 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 −𝑘3 ] [𝑥2 ] = [ 𝑘2 𝑙2 − 𝑘3 𝑙3 ]
0 −𝑘3 𝑘3 + 𝑘4 𝑥3 𝑘3 𝑙3 − 𝑘4 𝑙4 + 𝑘4 𝐿

Replacing with is 𝑘1=𝑘2= 𝑘3= 𝑘4 and 𝑙1 = 𝑙2 = 𝑙3= 𝑙4

𝑥1 2𝑘1 −𝑘1 0 −1 0
[𝑥2 ] = [−𝑘1 2𝑘1 −𝑘1 ] [ 0 ]
𝑥3 0 −𝑘1 2𝑘1 𝑘1 𝐿

Can factor out 𝑘1 . Finding the inverse of the 3x3 matrix (3 marks in total), starting with the
determinant
2 −1 0
2 −1 −1 −1 −1 2
|−1 2 −1| = 2 | | − (−1) | | + 0| |
−1 2 0 2 0 −1
0 −1 2
 2 −1 0
|−1 2 −1| = 2(4 − 1) + 1(−2 − 0) + 0 = 6 − 2 = 𝟒
0 −1 2

The matrix of cofactors is

2 −1 −1 −1 −1 2
+| | −| | +| |
−1 2 0 2 0 −1
3 2 1
−1 0 2 0 2 −1
−| | +| | −| | = [2 4 2]
−1 2 0 2 0 −1
1 2 3
−1 0 2 0 2 −1
[+ | 2 −1| −|
−1 −1
| +| |
−1 2 ]
Notice the matrix is symmetrical, its transpose is the same.

The reciprocal of the determinant times the adjoint matrix (the transpose of the matrix of cofactors)
then gives the inverse of the matrix

2 −1 0 −1 1 3 2 1 𝑇 1 3 2 1
[−1 2 −1] = [2 4 2] = [2 4 2]
4 4
0 −1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3

Finally multiplying out to find the solution for the displacement

𝑥1 𝐿/4
1 3 2 1 0 1 0+0+𝐿 𝑙
[𝑥2 ] = [2 4 2] [0] = [0 + 0 + 2𝐿 ] = [ 𝐿/2 ] = [2𝑙 ] (units = m)
𝑥3 4 4 0 + 0 + 3𝐿
1 2 3 𝐿 3𝐿/4 3𝑙
Common mistakes:

• Not solving by ‘hand’ the matrix equation – we wanted to check you have retained this
analytical skill. A small penalty is given for this.

d) A system of five particles and six springs is such that the spring constants are 𝑘1 = 10, 𝑘2 = 15,
𝑘3 = 9, 𝑘4 = 6, 𝑘5 = 12 and 𝑘6 = 19 N.m-1, 𝐿 = 1.5 m and 𝑙1 = 𝑙2 = ⋯ = 𝑙5 = 𝑙6 = 0.13 m. Assuming
that this system is at rest, you are required to calculate the particle positions 𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥3, 𝑥4
and 𝑥5. (9 marks)

Method 1. Starting by writing out the equations for the tensions

𝑇1 = 𝑘1 (𝑥1 − 𝑙1 )
𝑇2 = 𝑘2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 − 𝑙2 )
𝑇3 = 𝑘3 (𝑥3 − 𝑥2 − 𝑙3 )
𝑇4 = 𝑘4 (𝑥4 − 𝑥3 − 𝑙4 )
 𝑇5 = 𝑘5 (𝑥5 − 𝑥4 − 𝑙5 )
𝑇6 = 𝑘6 (𝐿 − 𝑥5 − 𝑙6 )

We repeat the procedure in b) and c) and obtain

𝑘1 + 𝑘2 −𝑘2 0 0 0 𝑥1 𝑘1 𝑙1 − 𝑘2 𝑙2
−𝑘2 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 −𝑘3 0 0 𝑥2 𝑘 2 𝑙2 − 𝑘3 𝑙3
0 −𝑘3 𝑘3 + 𝑘4 −𝑘4 0 𝑥3 = 𝑘3 𝑙3 − 𝑘4 𝑙4 (M.3)
0 0 −𝑘4 𝑘4 + 𝑘5 −𝑘5 𝑥4 𝑘4 𝑙4 − 𝑘5 𝑙5
[ 0 0 0 −𝑘5 𝑘5 + 𝑘6 ] [𝑥5 ] [𝑘5 𝑙5 − 𝑘6 𝑙6 + 𝑘6 𝐿]

Method 2. Observing the pattern in b) and c), we can deduce that for a system of 5 particles and 6
springs, we will have 5x5 matrix of coefficient and a 5x1 column vector for the unknown
displacements.

Following the pattern again, we can construct matrix equation as in M.3.

Answer in meters

x = 0.2541 m

0.4668 m
0.7346 m
1.0713 m
1.3047 m

Common mistakes:

• Not solving the matrix equation computationally – we wanted to check you can decide
when computational approaches are more appropriate.
• No comments in code – good practice to annotate code so that you can easily get back
to it, or when sharing it with others.
• Parameters not separately defined in code – again, good practice which allows to
quickly and painlessly change the parameters, especially useful when optimising the
system performance.
Example code (Should be in Appendix):
%Coursework 1 Q1 d) A mass-spring problem with 5 particles and 6
springs
%% Define parameters
%k=spring constant (N/m)
k1=10;
k2=15;
k3=9;
k4=6;
k5=12;
k6=19;
l1=0.13; %spring natural length (m) l1=l2=l3=l4=l5=l6
L=1.5; %total distance in the system (m)

%% The matrix equation describing the problem of the form A*x=b,

where A is the
%%matrix of coefficients, x is the column vector of unknowns
(displacement
%%of particles) and b is the vector of known parameters.
% Define A, matrix of coefficients
A=[k1+k2 -k2 0 0 0;
-k2 k2+k3 -k3 0 0;
0 -k3 k3+k4 -k4 0;
0 0 -k4 k4+k5 -k5;
0 0 0 -k5 k5+k6];
% Define B, vector of known parameters on RHS
b=l1.*[k1-k2;
k2-k3;
k3-k4;
k4-k5;
k5-k6+k6*L/l1];

%% Find solutions
x=inv(A)*b %inv(A) calculates the inverse of A; x is vector of
solutions for the displacement (m)
Question 2: 40 marks
a) Knowing that 𝜁 is dimensionless, use dimensional analysis to find the dimensions of the
damping constant 𝑐. (2 marks)
𝑐
𝜁=
2𝑚𝜔

Identify dimensions of each variable

Dimensions of:

ζ=1
𝑚=𝑀

1 𝑘 𝑀𝑇 −2
𝜔 = 𝑇 = 𝑇 −1 since it is natural frequency or 𝜔 = √𝑚 = √ = 𝑇 −1
𝑀

Replacing and rearranging for c, we have

𝑐 = 1 × 𝑀𝑇 −1 .

𝑑𝑥
b) Find an expression for the velocity of vibrational displacement 𝑥̇ (𝑡) = . (4 marks)
𝑑𝑡

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶1 exp [(−𝜁 + √𝜁 2 − 1) 𝜔𝑡] + 𝐶2 exp [(−𝜁 − √𝜁 2 − 1) 𝜔𝑡]

Differentiating with respect to 𝑡 to find the velocity of displacement

𝑑𝑥
𝑥̇ (𝑡) = = 𝐶1 𝜔 (−𝜁 + √𝜁 2 − 1) exp [(−𝜁 + √𝜁 2 − 1) 𝜔𝑡]
𝑑𝑡
+ 𝐶2 𝜔 (−𝜁 − √𝜁 2 − 1) exp [(−𝜁 − √𝜁 2 − 1) 𝜔𝑡]

c) Knowing that 𝑥(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥0 and 𝑥̇(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥̇0, find an expression for the constants 𝐶1 and
𝐶2 for the cases where: (i) The system is overdamped (ζ > 1), and (ii) The system is
critically damped (𝜁 = 1). (4 marks)

i) (i) The system is overdamped (ζ > 1)

Substitute for the initial conditions for 𝑥(𝑡) and 𝑥̇ (𝑡) at time 𝑡 = 0 in order to find the constants 𝐶1
and 𝐶2 .

𝑥(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥0 = 𝐶1 exp [(−𝜁 + √𝜁 2 − 1) 𝜔 × 0] + 𝐶2 exp [(−𝜁 − √𝜁 2 − 1) 𝜔 × 0]

 𝑥0 = 𝐶1 e0 + 𝐶2 𝑒 0 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2

𝐶2 = 𝑥0 − 𝐶1

𝑥̇ (𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥̇ 0 = 𝐶1 𝜔 (−𝜁 + √𝜁 2 − 1) 𝑒 0 + 𝐶2 𝜔 (−𝜁 − √𝜁 2 − 1) 𝑒 0

𝑥̇ 0 = 𝐶1 𝜔 (−𝜁 + √𝜁 2 − 1) 𝑒 0 + (𝑥0 − 𝐶1 ) 𝜔 (−𝜁 − √𝜁 2 − 1) 𝑒 0

𝑥̇ 0 = 2𝐶1 𝜔√𝜁 2 − 1 − 𝑥0 𝜔 (𝜁 + √𝜁 2 − 1)

Rearranging to find 𝐶1

𝑥̇ 0 + 𝑥0 𝜔(𝜁 + √𝜁 2 − 1)
𝐶1 =
2𝜔√𝜁 2 − 1

Going back to the expression for the initial condition of the vibrational displacement to find 𝐶2

𝑥̇ 0 + 𝑥0 𝜔(𝜁 + √𝜁 2 − 1)
𝐶2 = 𝑥0 − 𝐶1 = 𝑥0 −
2𝜔√𝜁 2 − 1

𝑥0 2𝜔√𝜁 2 − 1 − 𝑥̇ 0 − 𝑥0 𝜔(𝜁 + √𝜁 2 − 1)
𝐶2 =
2𝜔√𝜁 2 − 1

𝑥0 𝜔(−𝜁 + √𝜁 2 − 1) − 𝑥̇ 0
𝐶2 =
2𝜔√𝜁 2 − 1

ii) The system is critically damped (𝜁 = 1).

We should be able to use the same constants we found in i), but we can see that when 𝜁 = 1 they are
undefined. Therefore, we must find a different method.

Method 1. We can see that another way of expressing the solution for the vibrational displacement
in the case of underdamped systems (𝜁 < 1) is E.5

𝑥(𝑡) = exp(−𝜁𝜔𝑡) × {𝐶1′ cos [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡] + 𝐶2′ sin [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡]}.

Looking at this expression in the limit 𝜁 → 1

lim 𝑥(𝑡) = exp(−𝜔𝑡) × {𝐶1′ cos [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡] + 𝐶2′ sin [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡]},
𝜁→1
where √1 − 𝜁 2 is very small and approaches 0.

Limits for cos and sin of very small angles 𝜃 → 0 (angle approaching 0) are

cos 𝜃 = 1 and sin 𝜃 = 𝜃.

This leads to 𝑥(𝑡) in the limit 𝜁 → 1

lim 𝑥(𝑡) = exp(−𝜔𝑡) × {𝐶1′ × 1 + 𝐶2′ × (√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡}.

𝜁→1

As the constants 𝐶1′ and 𝐶2′ are arbitrary and can encompass any parameter (e.g. 𝜔, 𝜁), we can
rewrite this as

lim 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜔𝑡 (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑡),

𝜁→1

Where 𝐶2 = 𝐶2′ 𝜔(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) and 𝐶1 = 𝐶1′

Or when 𝜁 = 1,

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜔𝑡 (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑡).

Method 2. If we are familiar with free damped vibration, we know that it is modelled by a 2nd order
linear homogeneous ordinary differential equation. If we are familiar with solutions of 2nd order
ODEs, we know that depending on the roots to the auxiliary equation, we can have either 2 real
roots (in our case ci) overdamped), 2 complex roots which are a conjugate pair (that is part d)), and 2
real repeating roots 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑘 (this case: critically damped), in which case the solution takes the
form

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑘𝑡 (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑡).

In our case 𝑘 = (−𝜁 + √𝜁 2 − 1)𝜔, which is 𝑘 = −𝜔 when 𝜁 = 1 and leads to a solution for 𝑥(𝑡)

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜔𝑡 (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑡).

Applying the given initial conditions, we have

𝑥(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥0 = 𝑒 −𝜔×0 (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 × 0) = 𝐶1

𝐶1 = 𝑥0

Differentiating the new expression for 𝑥(𝑡) above with respect to time

𝑥̇ (𝑡) = −𝜔𝐶1 𝑒 −𝜔𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝜔𝑡 − 𝜔𝐶2 𝑡𝑒 −𝜔𝑡

At t=0 this is

𝑥̇ (𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥̇ 0 = −𝜔𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = −𝜔𝑥0 + 𝐶2

𝐶2 = 𝑥̇ 0 + 𝜔𝑥0

d) When 𝜁 < 1, the system is said to be underdamped. In this case, the vibrational
displacement takes the complex form

𝑥(𝑡) = C1 exp [(−ζ + i√1 − 𝜁 2 )𝜔𝑡] + C2 exp [(−ζ − i√1 − 𝜁 2 )𝜔𝑡] (E. 4)

Show that E.4 can be expressed as

𝑥(𝑡) = exp(−ζωt) × {C1′ cos [(√1 − 𝜁 2 )𝜔𝑡] + C2′ sin [(√1 − 𝜁 2 )𝜔𝑡], (E.5)

where 𝐶1′ = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 and 𝐶2′ = 𝑖(𝐶1 − 𝐶2 ). (6 marks)

Rewriting E.4 by applying the product properties of exponents, we have

𝑥(𝑡) = C1 exp(−ζωt) exp [(i√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡] + C2 exp(−ζωt) exp [(−i√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡]

Grouping

𝑥(𝑡) = exp(−ζωt) × {C1 exp [(i√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡] + 𝐶2 exp [(−i√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡]}

2𝜔𝑡 2 𝜔𝑡
Since 𝑒 −𝑖√1−𝜁 is the complex conjugate of 𝑒 𝑖√1−𝜁 , we can write the complex numbers in polar
form as

𝑥(𝑡) = exp(−ζωt)
× { 𝐶1 (cos [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡] + 𝑖 sin [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡])
+ 𝐶2 (cos [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡] − 𝑖 sin [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡])}

Alternatively, can use properties of 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽, 𝐜𝐨𝐬(−𝜽), 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 and 𝐬𝐢𝐧(−𝜽) to reach above
conclusion.

Regrouping

𝑥(𝑡) = exp(−ζωt) × {cos [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡] (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 ) + sin [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡] (𝑖𝐶1 − 𝑖𝐶2 )}

and introducing the new constants 𝐶1′ = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 and 𝐶2′ = 𝑖(𝐶1 − 𝐶2 ) for simplicity
 𝑥(𝑡) = exp(−ζωt) × {𝐶1′ cos [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡] + 𝐶2′ sin [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡]}

e) Knowing that 𝑥(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥0 and 𝑥̇(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑥̇0, find an expression for 𝐶’1 and 𝐶′2 and express
E.5 in a fully explicit form. (4 marks)

Differentiating E.5 with respect to time using the product rule to find dx/dt
𝑑𝑥
= −𝜁𝜔𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑡 { 𝐶1′ cos [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡] + 𝐶2′ sin [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡]}
𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑡 { 𝐶1′ (−√1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔) sin [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡] + 𝐶2′ √1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔 cos [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡]}

Regrouping 𝑐𝑜𝑠 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 terms

𝑑𝑥
= 𝜔𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑡 { cos [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡] ( −𝜁𝐶1′ + √1 − 𝜁 2 𝐶2′ )
𝑑𝑡
+ sin [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡] ( −𝜁𝐶2′ − √1 − 𝜁 2 𝐶1′ )}

Now applying the initial conditions, for 𝑥0

𝑥0 = 1(𝐶1′ cos 0 + 𝐶2′ sin 0)

𝐶1′ = 𝑥0

And for 𝑥̇ 0

𝑥0̇ = 𝜔 × 1 { cos 0 (−𝜁𝐶1′ + √1 − 𝜁 2 𝐶2′ ) + sin 0 ( −𝜁𝐶2′ − √1 − 𝜁 2 𝐶1′ )}

𝑥0̇ = 𝜔 (1 × (−𝜁𝐶1′ + √1 − 𝜁 2 𝐶2′ ) + 0)

Replacing for 𝐶1′ and rearranging, we can find for 𝐶2′

𝑥0̇
+ 𝜁𝑥0 𝑥0̇ + 𝜁𝜔𝑥0
𝐶2′ =𝜔 =
√1 − 𝜁 2 𝜔√1 − 𝜁 2

Replacing for 𝐶1′ and 𝐶2′ in 𝑥(𝑡)

𝑥0̇ + 𝜁𝜔𝑥0
𝑥(𝑡) = exp(−ζωt) × {𝑥0 cos [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡] + sin [(√1 − 𝜁 2 ) 𝜔𝑡]}
𝜔√1 − 𝜁2
 f) Plot the response 𝑥(𝑡) for the following values of 𝜁: 1.5, 1, 0.5, 0 and -0.5. Based on your
results, describe the effect of the constant 𝜁 on the stability of the system. (10 marks)

Figure 1. Vibrational displacement for damping ratio = 1.5, 1, 0.5 and 0.

Figure 2. Vibrational displacement for damping ratio = -0.5.

Analysis (5 marks)
A stable system is a system which converges either to a point of stability (a stable position) or a
stable trajectory1.

We can analyse the behaviour of the systems based on observations of the graphs made, or by
considering the form of the solution for the vibrational displacement

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑠2 𝑡 ,

where 𝑠1,2 = {−𝜁 ± 𝑖(√1 − 𝜁 2 )} 𝜔.

• For zeta>1, we can see that the system experiences exponential decay with no oscillation,
eventually returning to its position at rest (𝑥 = 0). In the particular case of zeta=1.5, the
displacement returns to zero (the system returns to rest) after approximately 1 second. This
means the system is stable. Referring to the equations describing the response of the
system, we can see 𝑠1,2 are both negative real numbers if 𝜁 > 1. Then the solution for the
displacement is given by 2 decaying (decreasing) natural exponential functions, making the
coefficients smaller and reaching 0 as time increases, leading to a stable behaviour.
• For zeta=1, we see that the system experiences exponential decay with no oscillation,
returning to its position at rest (𝑥 = 0) faster. Since the system returns to its position at
rest, it is stable. In this case, 𝑠1,2 = −𝜔, a negative real number, meaning the displacement
decays to 0. This mode of vibration is the fastest the system can return to its resting
position, called the critical damping case (damping ratio =critical damping ratio).
• For 0<zeta<1, the system experiences exponentially decaying oscillation, eventually
returning to its positions at rest. This means the system is stable. In this case, the roots of
the system 𝑠1,2 are complex numbers with real and imaginary parts. The system oscillates
due to the imaginary parts. Since the real parts are negative, it will also experience
exponential decay. As a whole, the response will be an exponentially decaying oscillation.
• For zeta=0, the system experiences periodic, constant amplitude, sinusoidal oscillation. Since
the trajectory of the response (displacement) is constant, the system is stable. In this case,
the roots of the solution have only imaginary parts 𝑠1,2 = ±𝑖𝜔 (resulting in the oscillatory
behaviour from the 𝑠𝑖𝑛 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 terms), meaning there is no exponential element (decay or
increase) which is a result of real parts of the roots.
• For zeta<0=-0.5, the system experiences oscillation with an exponentially increasing
amplitude. Since the system does not converge to a position or trajectory, it is unstable.
For −1 < 𝜁 < 0, the roots will be complex numbers with positive real parts. This results in
the exponentially increasing in amplitude oscillation. For 𝜁 < −1, the roots are positive real
numbers, resulting in a non-oscillating increasing/growing exponential behaviour.

Note on code: Can also be produced with the expression for 𝒙(𝒕) in the underdamped case plus
the solution for 𝜻 = 𝟏.

Common mistakes:

• Missing labels, legend, comments, parameters.

• Not identifying if the system is stable/unstable and not giving any explanation to
justify the claim.

1 Krysinski, T. and Malburet, F., 2011. Mechanical instability. ISTE.

Example code (Should be in Appendix):
%Coursework 1 Q2 f) Free vibration: Vibrational displacement in overdamped,
undamped, critically damped and underdamped scenarios.
%% Define parameters
omega=4*pi; %natural frequency of vibration [rad/s]
x0=1; %[m] % initial condition for the vibrational displacement
xdot0=1; % [m/s] initial condition for the velocity of the vibrational displacement

t=[0:0.01:5]; %time interval of 5 [s]

zeta=[1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5]; %values for zeta (damping ratio) determining mode of
damping

%% Governing equations for each mode of damping.

%%When zeta=0, the system is undamped; if zeta>1 it is overdamped; z=1 it is
critically damped, and when z<1 it is underdamped. For each case, there is a
different expression for x, the vibrational displacement
for i=1:length(zeta)
z=zeta(i); %for quicker inputting
a=sqrt(z^2-1); %a is a auxiliary parameter to help with inputting the governing
equations

if zeta(i)>1 %overdamping
c1=(xdot0+x0*omega*(z+a))/(2*omega*a);
c2=x0-c1;
x=c1*exp((-z+a)*omega.*t)+c2*exp((-z-a)*omega.*t);

elseif zeta(i)==1 %critical damping

c3=x0;
c4=xdot0+omega*x0;
x=exp(-omega.*t).*(c3+c4.*t);

else %undamped and underdamped cases

c5=x0;
c6=(xdot0+z*omega*x0)/(omega*1i*a); %1i*a is sqrt(1-zeta); alternatively can
introduce a1=sqrt(1-z^2);
x=exp(-z*omega.*t).*(c5.*cos(1i*a*omega.*t)+c6.*sin(1i*a*omega.*t));

end

%%Plot figure with response. After seeing the response when zeta=-0.5 is too
large to be on the same graph with other plots, we separate them.
if z>-0.005 % when zeta smaller than this, response becomes too large in
comparison)
figure (1)
plot(t,x) %%Plot figure with response
hold on

else
figure (2)
plot(t,x) %% Plot figure with response
hold on
end

end

%% Format figures
figure(1)
axis([0 5 -2 2]); % Specify the axis limits so as not to obscure the plot with the
legend
xlabel('Time (s)')
ylabel('Vibrational displacement (m)')
title('Vibrational displacement over time for different damping ratios, \zeta')
legend('\zeta=1.5', '\zeta=1','\zeta=0.5', '\zeta=0')
figure(2)
xlabel('Time (s)')
ylabel('Vibrational displacement (m)')
title('Vibrational displacement over time for different damping ratios, \zeta')
legend('\zeta=-0.5','Location', 'Northwest') % Use 'Location' to move the placement
of the legend to not obscure the plot
 g) The conjugate frequencies of damped vibration 𝑠1 = (−𝜁 + 𝑖√1 − 𝜁 2 )𝜔 and 𝑠2 =
(−𝜁 − 𝑖√1 − 𝜁 2 )𝜔 can show the systems locus of stability on the complex plane when
calculated for −1 ≤ 𝜁 ≤ 1. Plot an Argand diagram showing how 𝜁 affects the position of
𝑠1 and 𝑠2 in the complex plane. Indicate in the complex plane the regions of stability and
instability of the system. Knowing that the vibration of the 1940 Tacoma Bridge was self-
excited and grew unbounded, in which region of this diagram do you believe the
response could be placed? (10 marks)

From 2f), we can see that the system is unstable (does not reach a stable position or trajectory)
when a part of its solution is an increasing exponential (that is, the roots of the characteristic
equation have positive real parts). This means that the conjugate frequencies (roots) of the system
lying in the right-hand region of the complex plane (in the positive real axis section) give rise to
unstable behaviour of the system (corresponding to −1 ≤ 𝜁 < 0).

Systems with roots on the left-hand side, including on the imaginary axis (undamped oscillatory
behaviour) are all stable as they converge to the resting/undisturbed position due to the decaying
exponential (resulting from the negative real parts of the roots) or follow a stable trajectory in the
undamped oscillation case (corresponding to 0 ≤ 𝜁 ≤ 1).

Since the Tacoma Bridge was self-excited and grew unbounded, the system was unstable – its
displacement was continuously increasing with time until it reached mechanical failure. This means
the conjugate frequencies of its vibration lie on the right-hand of the complex plane, in the shaded
region of instability.

Common mistakes:

• Missing labels, legend, comments, parameters.

• Not identifying the regions of stability and instability and not giving any explanation to
justify the claim.
• Not identifying the region of behaviour of the Tacoma Bridge.
Region of
stability Region of
instability

Figure 3. Plot of conjugate frequencies of damped vibration as a function of the damping ratio, 𝜁.
Example code (Should be in Appendix):
%Coursework 1 Q2 g) Free vibration: Roots of characteristic equation
depending on zeta (damping ratio) and resulting stability of the system.

%% Define parameters
omega=4*pi; %natural frequency of vibration [rad/s]
z=[-1:0.1:1]; %range for damping ratio

%% Calculate the roots of the system, also known as the conjugate

frequencies of damped vibration.
s1=omega.*(-z+1i.*sqrt(1-z.^2));
s2=omega.*(-z-1i.*sqrt(1-z.^2));

plot(s1,'o') %'o' specifies the use of a circle to mark data points rather
than a line between them
hold on
plot(s2,'r*') %using different colour and indicator to distinguish between
the 2 conjugate roots
legend('s1','s2')
%title('Conjugate frequencies at different damping ratios') %removed for
%neatness, can add the required information in a caption when in document

%% Axes properties: The code below apart from axis labels is not necessary.
It is an example of switching axes location to the origin and of including
additional axis for zeta.
axis=[-15 15 -15 15];
ax1=gca;
ax1_pos = ax1.Position; % position of first axes
ax1.XAxisLocation='origin'; %move them to origin
ax1.YAxisLocation='origin';
xticks([-10,-5,0,5, 10]);
ax1.XTickLabel={'-10','-5','0','5','10'};
ax2 = axes('Position',ax1_pos,... %axes 2 are only included to have neater
axis labels for s outside of the plot
'XAxisLocation','bottom',...
'YAxisLocation','left',...
'Color','none');
xlabel('Real part of s') %x axis label for s
ylabel('Imaginary part of s') %y axis label for s
xticks({}) %keeps the axis empty since no new data plotted
yticks({})
ax3 = axes('Position',ax1_pos,... %separate axis for the damping ratio, zeta
'XAxisLocation','top',...
'YAxisLocation','left',...
'Color','none');
xlim([-15/omega 15/omega])
yticks({}) %keeps the axis empty since no data on y axis
xticks([-1:0.2:1]) %specifies tick locations on the x axis for zeta
xticklabels(-[-1:0.2:1]) %since zeta axis needs to be reversed but matlab
does not accept that, rename ticks
xlabel('damping ratio, \zeta') %x axis label for zeta

Note on code: Can also be produced using any value for 𝝎. The axis properties part of the code is
not compulsory (apart from the axis labels but that is marked separately) for the exercise (merely
a reference for more complicated axis manipulation).
Question 3: 30 marks
a) If all quantities are expressed in SI units, find the value of 𝜙 in E.6. (3 marks)
2
5
5
5𝑎 𝜙 √2𝑔
ℎ(𝑡) = [ℎ02 − 𝜋 𝑡] E. 6
2 tan2 ( 2 − 𝜃)

Identify dimensions of each variable

ℎ(𝑡): 𝐿 [𝑚] height of water

𝐿 𝑚
𝑔: 𝑇 2 [𝑠2 ] gravitational acceleration

𝑡: 𝑇 [𝑠] time

𝑎: 𝐿 [𝑚] radius of outlet

5𝑎 𝜙√2𝑔
Only variables of compatible units can be added/subtracted, therefore the dimension of 𝜋 𝑡
2 tan2( 2 −𝜃)
5
has to be 𝐿2 .

5𝑎 𝜙√2𝑔 5
Dimensions of 𝜋 𝑡: 𝐿𝜙 × √𝐿𝑇 −2 𝑇 = 𝐿2
2 tan2( 2 −𝜃)

1 5
𝐿𝜙 × 𝐿2 × 𝑇 −1+1 = 𝐿2

2𝜙 + 1 = 5, 𝜙=2

b) Create a mathematical model of the time-dependent volume of water in the container

𝑉(𝑡) in terms of the height of water ℎ(𝑡). (3 marks)

This tank might be modelled as a frustum which is also correct.

Since a<<r(t), we can approximate the container shape to a cone. The formula for the volume of a
cone is

𝜋𝑟 2 (𝑡)ℎ(𝑡)
𝑉(𝑡) =
3

𝜋
Knowing that 𝑟(𝑡)/ℎ(𝑡) ≈ tan( 2 − 𝜃), replacing an expression for 𝑟(𝑡) in the formula for 𝑉(𝑡):
 𝜋
𝑟(𝑡) ≈ ℎ(𝑡) tan ( 2 − 𝜃)

𝜋 2
𝜋[ℎ(𝑡) tan( 2 −𝜃)] ℎ(𝑡)
𝑉(𝑡) ≈ 3

Obtaining the final expression for the volume of water

𝜋 𝜋
𝑉(𝑡) ≈ ( ) ℎ3 (𝑡) tan2 ( − 𝜃)
3 2

c) Find an expression for the time 𝜏 that it takes for the container to empty. Check the
validity of your expression by calculating 𝜏 for 𝑎 = 1 cm and ℎ0 = 30 cm and plotting ℎ(𝑡)
from 0 < 𝑡 < 𝜏 in MATLAB. (3 marks)

Mathematically expressing the information given by the question (i.e. height of water is 0 at 𝜏)

2
5
5
5𝑎 2 √2𝑔
ℎ(𝜏) = [ℎ02 − 𝜋 𝜏] = 0
2 tan2 ( 2 − 𝜃)

Solving the equation obtained above in 𝜏:

2
5
5 𝑎22𝑔
ℎ(𝜏) = ℎ0 [1 − ( ) √ 𝜏] = 0
2 tan2 (𝜋 − 𝜃) ℎ05
2

This is 0 if the expression under the exponent is 0, which leads to

5 𝑎2 2𝑔
1=( ) √ 𝜏
2 tan2 (𝜋 − 𝜃) ℎ05
2

𝜋 2
2 tan ( 2 − 𝜃) ℎ5
𝜏 = ( )[ ] √ 0
5 𝑎 2𝑔

The final step for this question is using MATLAB to verify whether the expression obtained above
gives good/physical estimations.
A value for 𝜃 was not provided in this question, we can estimate that a value that would make sense
𝜋 7𝜋
in the real world would be in the range 16 < 𝜃 < 16 . Here, θ = π/4 is chosen.

Figure 4. Example plot of the time needed for the container to empty when 𝜃 = 𝜋/4.

Example code (Should be in Appendix):

% Defining parameters and constants in the problem
a = 1 * (1e-2);
h0 = 30 * (1e-2);
g = 9.83;
theta = pi/4;
tau = (2/5)*( (tan((pi/2)-theta)/a)^2 )*sqrt( (h0^5)/(2*g) );

%Defining time-dependent vectors

t = 0:(tau/20):tau;
ht = h0*( 1 - t*( (5/2)*((a/tan((pi/2) - …
theta))^2)*sqrt((2*g)/(h0^5)) )).^(2/5);

% Plotting routines
plot(t,ht)
xlabel('time [s]')
ylabel('h(t) [m]')
 d) Express h(t) in terms of τ, then find h ̇(t). (6 marks)

From the definition of 𝜏 and ℎ(𝑡):

𝜋 2
2 tan ( 2 − 𝜃) ℎ5
𝜏 = ( )[ ] √ 0
5 𝑎 2𝑔

2
5
5 𝑎2
2𝑔
ℎ(𝑡) = ℎ0 [1 − ( ) √ 𝑡]
2 tan2 (𝜋 − 𝜃) ℎ05
2

5 𝑎2 2𝑔 1
We can see that we can replace (2) 𝜋 √ℎ5 with 𝜏 . Thus
tan2( 2 −𝜃) 0

2
𝑡 5
ℎ(𝑡) = ℎ0 (1 − )
𝜏

Knowing that 𝜏 is independent of 𝑡 and using the chain rule

2 3
𝑑ℎ 𝑑 𝑡 5 2 1 𝑡 −5
ℎ̇ (𝑡) = = [ℎ0 (1 − ) ] = ℎ0 × × (− ) (1 − )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜏 5 𝜏 𝜏

3
2ℎ0 𝑡 −5
ℎ̇(𝑡) = (− ) (1 − )
5𝜏 𝜏

𝑑𝑉(𝑡)
e) Find the rate 𝑉̇ (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡 at which water leaves the container. Discuss how the design
parameters 𝜃, ℎ0 and 𝑎 affect the outflow in this container. (15 marks)

𝜋 𝜋
𝑉(𝑡) ≈ ( ) ℎ3 (𝑡) tan2 ( − 𝜃)
3 2
Using the chain rule, since 𝑉(𝑡) depends on 𝑡 as ℎ(𝑡) does, hence
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ
𝑉̇ (𝑡) = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑡

From d)
3
𝑑ℎ 2ℎ0 𝑡 −5
= (− ) (1 − ) = ℎ̇(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 5𝜏 𝜏

From a)
𝑑𝑉 𝜋 𝜋 2
= ( ) 3ℎ2 (𝑡) [tan ( − 𝜃)]
𝑑ℎ 3 2

Hence, the outflow rate is

3
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ 𝜋 2 2ℎ0 𝜋 2 𝜋 2 𝑡 −5
= = 𝜋ℎ2 (𝑡) [tan ( − 𝜃)] ℎ̇(𝑡) = (− ) ℎ (𝑡) [tan ( − 𝜃)] (1 − )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑡 2 5𝜏 2 𝜏

ii) Discuss how the design parameters 𝜃, ℎ0 and 𝑎 affect the outflow in this container.
2
𝑡 5
We can replace h(t) with ℎ(𝑡) = ℎ0 (1 − 𝜏) to make 𝑉̇ (𝑡) only dependent on the design parameters
in question
4 3
𝑑𝑉 2ℎ03 𝜋 𝑡 5 𝜋 2 𝑡 −5
= (− ) (1 − ) [tan ( − 𝜃)] (1 − )
𝑑𝑡 5𝜏 𝜏 2 𝜏

1 𝜋 2
𝑑𝑉 2ℎ03 𝜋 𝑡 5 𝜋 2 2 tan ( 2 − 𝜃) ℎ5
= (− ) (1 − ) [tan ( − 𝜃)] , where 𝜏 = ( ) [ ] √ 0
𝑑𝑡 5𝜏 𝜏 2 5 𝑎 2𝑔

1
𝑑𝑉 𝑡 5
= −𝑎 2 𝜋√2𝑔ℎ0 (1 − )
𝑑𝑡 𝜏

Outflow is the amount of fluid going out of the container, and the outflow rate is the rate at which the
fluid is going out of the container. Since 𝑉̇ (𝑡) is negative, we know the fluid is going out of the system,
so we think of the outflow rate as the absolute value of 𝑉̇ (𝑡) or |𝑉̇ (𝑡)|.
These are discussed under the assumption the remaining parameters are unchanged. (9 marks)

Effect of 𝜽

Before looking at the expression, we can say that at the same fluid height, the smaller the angle
becomes, the less the volume of fluid in the container is. From this leads that it will empty faster
(less fluid has to go out), but likely at a lower rate (since there is less fluid and pressure driving the
outflow). Let us confirm this with the expressions we found previously.

For 𝜃~0, the walls of the container will be on the horizontal axis, leading to its volume being infinite,
𝜋
𝑉(𝑡)~∞ and 𝜏 → ∞ as tan (~ 2 )~∞ . This means it will take the container a very long time to empty
for small 𝜃, and the container will maintain a very high rate of outflow (𝑉̇ (𝑡) is negative to signify fluid
is going out of the container, but its absolute value will be high) for a very long period of time as (1 −
𝑡
𝜏
) ~1 for longer.
𝝅 𝑡
As 𝜽 increases towards 𝟐 , 𝜏 decreases and (1 − 𝜏) decreases too, meaning the container will empty
faster and the outflow rate will reduce faster too (will reach 0 more rapidly). However, 𝜽 does not
affect the initial outflow rate (at 𝑡 = 0, 𝑉̇ = −𝑎 2 𝜋√2𝑔ℎ0 will be the same for all 𝜃).
𝜋
At 𝜃 = 2 , the container will be a cylinder, the water will immediately flow through the container
𝜋 𝜋
(𝜏 = 0), emptying it immediately. The outflow rate 𝑉̇ (𝑡) is undefined at 𝜃 = , but the closer 𝜃 → ,
2 2
the faster it reduces to 0.

Effect of 𝒉𝟎

With respect to time, the outflow rate is highest when the hydrostatic pressure forcing the fluid out
of the container under the effect of the gravitational force is highest, which is at the start (𝑡 = 0) as
at that point the maximum volume of fluid is exerting the pressure. As the remaining fluid in the
container reduces, the rate at which it flows out reduces too.

Similarly, if all other parameters are constant, as ℎ0 increases, so will the volume of fluid 𝑉(𝑡),
meaning the container will take longer to empty but it will be emptying at a higher rate as ↑ ℎ0 →↑
𝑉 →↑ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 →↑ 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒.

We can examine the formulas for 𝜏 and 𝑉̇ (𝑡) to confirm this. As ↑ ℎ0 ,

𝜋 2 5
2 tan( −𝜃) ℎ5
𝜏= (5) [ 𝑎2 ] √ 0
2𝑔
increases at a rate Δℎ0 .2

𝑡
When 𝜏 increases, (1 − 𝜏) increases too, meaning the outflow rate will be maintained for longer at a
level close to the high initial level (at 𝑡 = 0).
1
𝑑𝑉
At 𝑡 = 0, the outflow rate is = −𝑎 2 𝜋√2𝑔ℎ0 , so the initial outflow rate will increase at a rate Δℎ02 .
𝑑𝑡

We can conclude that as ℎ0 increases, both 𝜏 and 𝑉̇ (𝑡) increase, with the increase more
pronounced for 𝝉. In other words, as ℎ0 increases, the container takes longer to empty but the rate
at which it empties is higher (and stays higher for longer).
Effect of 𝒂

There is no change to the volume of fluid in the container if we change 𝑎. A bigger opening would
naturally imply the outflow rate will be higher and the container will empty faster. Let us confirm
this with the expressions we found previously.
𝜋 2
2 tan( 2 −𝜃) ℎ5
As 𝑎 increases, 𝜏 = (5) [ ] √2𝑔0 decreases at a rate Δ𝑎 2 .
𝑎

𝑡
As 𝜏 decreases, (1 − 𝜏) decreases too, meaning the container will empty faster and the outflow
rate will reduce faster too.
𝑑𝑉
As 𝑎 increases, the initial outflow rate at 𝑡 = 0 will also increase as 𝑑𝑡 (0) = −𝑎 2 𝜋√2𝑔ℎ0 at a rate
Δ𝑎 2 .

We can conclude that as 𝑎 increases, 𝜏 reduces while 𝑉̇ (0) increases and the outflow rate reduces
quicker too. In other words, the container empties in less time, more fluid going out of it at the start
which rapidly reduces to 0.

Note: The analysis on parameter effect could be supplemented with graphs, but they are not
necessary. Having the graph is not sufficient to answer the question: understanding what the
effect of these parameters on how the container empties is the desired output.

For reference

Figure 5. Volumetric flow rate for different wall angles,𝜃.

Figure 6. Volumetric flow rate for different initial fluid levels, ℎ0 .

Figure 7. Volumetric flow rate for different radii of the outlet, 𝑎.