Hong Bang International University Introduction to Linguistics

English Language Department Ms Khai Hoan

WEEK 6 & 7
SYNTAX
PART 1 – WHAT IS SYNTAX?
The term ‘syntax’ is from the Ancient Greek ‘syntaxis’, a verbal noun which literally means
‘arrangement’ or ‘setting out together’. Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with
the ways in which words, with or without appropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of
meaning within the sentence.
(Matthews, 1992:1)
‘Syntax deals with how sentences are constructed.’
(Robert J. Van Valin, 2001:1)
‘Syntax: the grammatical principles, units, and relations involved in sentence structure.’
(Jacobs, 1995:4)
‘Syntax involves learning the various forms of a word and how they should be deployed in a sentence.
It also means recognizing the function of grammatical words and organizing lexical and grammatical
words in a meaningful order not only within a phrase but also within clauses.’
(Blake N.F. & Jean Moorhead, 1993: 41)
PART 2 – ANALYZING BY FORM, FUNCTION, AND POSITION
A word or a group of words in a sentence can be of different grammatical categories or parts of speech.
For example, ‘late’ may be an adjective or an adverb; ‘swimming’ may be a gerund or a present participle
etc.
Ex: I usually get up late. (adverb)
I am always late to school (adjective)
Swimming regularly helps to keep fit. (gerund)
Swimming one hour every morning, I am getting fitter and fitter. (present
participle)
A word cannot be analyzed precisely basing on its form only. Stageberg suggested a three-criteria
analysis of sentence units: analyzing by Forms, Functions, and Positions.
Ex: This morning, I met him at the supermarket.
• This morning is a Noun Phrase by Form; a Modifier by Function; and an Adverbial by Position.
• At the supermarket is a Prepositional Phrase by Form; a Modifier by Function, and an Adverbial
by Position.
Ex: This morning, I met him at the supermarket.
NP / M / Aval PP / M / Aval
PART 3 – FORM CLASSES – THE PARTS OF SPEECH
3.1. Words:
‘Grammar is the system of rules that define a language. It comprises the classes of words, their
pronunciations, and their functions and relations in the sentence’. (Lester, p. 243)

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Hong Bang International University Introduction to Linguistics
English Language Department Ms Khai Hoan
The parts of speech are the classes of words. Words in English can be divided into two main classes:
1. Open classes: consisting of lexical words. Some characteristics of open classes:
• They have lexical meaning / a definable meaning which can be found in the dictionary.
• They have a very large membership.
• They can have more words added to them as the language grows and changes.
• They are Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs, and Adverbs.
2. Closed classes: consisting of grammatical / structural or functional words. Some characteristics
of closed classes:
• They do not have lexical meaning. They have grammatical meaning.
• They have a smaller, restricted membership which rarely changes.
• They do not open for new words.
• They are pronouns, auxiliaries, prepositions, conjunctions, determiners.
(Blake, 1993:5)
3.2. Phrase definition:
◦ ‘A phrase is a group of grammatically related words without a subject and a predicate. A
phrase functions as a single part of speech. It differs from a clause, which has a subject and a
verb.” (Lester: 268)
◦ A phrase is identified by its head word (HW)/ main word and performs as a unit in the
sentence.
Ex: in the morning
to cook a pot of chili on an open campfire.
coming home in the evening
the dog sleeping near the front gate

3.3. Types of phrases in English:

• Noun phrases (NP) consist of a head noun and modifying words.
A noun phrase can perform different functions:
+ Subject. Ex: The boy near the window is my son.
+ DO. Ex: I love the boy next door.
+ I O. Ex: I offer the boy next door a bouquet.
+ OP. Ex: I went out with the boy next door last night.
+ SC. Ex: Paula is the girl I met yesterday.
+ OC. Ex: Paul calls her his expected sweetheart.
• Adjective phrases (AP) consist of a main word, which is an adjective, and its modifier(s).
Adjective phrases tell which one or what kind about a noun that immediately precedes or
follows the phrase.
An adjective phrase may be of different functions:
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Hong Bang International University Introduction to Linguistics
English Language Department Ms Khai Hoan
+ Modifier. Ex: A very handsome boy is playing chess in class.
+ Modifier. Ex: The films harmful to children are not to be shown.
+ SC. Ex: Paula is very charming.
+ OC. Ex: Paul find the exercise extremely difficult.
• Adverb phrases (AvP) contain a head word, which is an adverb, and its modifier(s).
Adverb phrases tell why, when, where, how, what for, under what conditions, to what degree
… to describe a verb, adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause.
An adverb phrase is in function modifier.
Ex: He sings very beautifully. (verb modifier)
Very luckily, the boy did not die. (sentence modifier)
• Preposition phrases (PP) consist of a preposition as head word and its object. PP = P + NP.
A preposition phrase may function as:
+ A noun
Ex: On the beach now is much better than in class. (subject)
I prefer in class. (DO)
The mouse emerged from behind the wardrobe. (OP)
My favorite hiding place is under the table. (SC)
I find your explanation over their head. (OC)
+ An adjective
Ex: My son is the boy near the window. (noun modifier)
The smile on Jack’s face faded at the news. (noun modifier)
+ An adverb
Ex: Work with extreme caution when you set the fuse.
(verb modifier)
Due to the bad weather, the plane arrived one hour late.
(sentence modifier)
• Infinitive phrases (Inf.P) consist of an infinitive verb as head word, followed by its object(s),
modifier(s), or complement(s).
Inf.P = Inf. + O/C/M
Infinitive phrases may act as:
+ A noun
Ex: To eat a lot of vegetables everyday is good for health (S)
They are trying to build a fire. (DO)
To study English effectively, the best way is to be in an
English speaking environment. (SC)
I consider to study this way to waste time. (OC)
+ An adjective

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Hong Bang International University Introduction to Linguistics
English Language Department Ms Khai Hoan
Ex: A test to check cholesterol level is needed for fat people.(M)
+ An adverb
Ex: We used dynamite to demolish the building quickly. (VM)
To pass the final exam, you must study hard. (St M)

In some circumstances, the infinitive may take a subject:

Ex: The coach wanted his players to learn patience.( ‘his players’ is the subject of ‘to
learn’).
• Gerund phrases (GP) contain a gerund as head word and its object(s), modifier(s), or
complement(s). GP = G + O/C/M
A gerund phrase acts as a noun phrase.
Ex: Swimming everyday is good ( S )
I enjoy swimming in the morning. (DO)
I give studying English all my favor ( IO )
Before going to school, I always have a big breakfast (OP)
Most children’s hobby is playing in the rain. (SC)
I find to live this way being in prison (OC)
• Present participle phrases (PresPP) consist of a present participle as head word plus its object,
modifier, or complement.
Pres.PP = Pres.P + O/C/M.
A present participle can serve as:
+ An adjective
Ex: The boy sitting near the window is a new student. ( noun M)
+ An adverb
Ex: The little girl rushes into my arms crying loudly. (verb M)
Coming home, I found my dog poisoned (sentence M)
• Past participle phrases (PPP) contain a past participle as head word followed by its
modifier(s). PPP = Past.P + M
A past participle phrase can act as
+ An adjective
Ex: On the river bank sat little Robert, covered with mud (NM)
+ An adverb
Ex: Wounded by an arrow, the eagle fell on the ground (St M)
Note: Participial phrases must share the same subject with the main
verb.
• Absolute phrases

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Hong Bang International University Introduction to Linguistics
English Language Department Ms Khai Hoan
An absolute phrase modifies an entire clause rather than one word and is grammatically
unconnected to the clause, so it is set off by commas.
An absolute phrase usually consists of a participle and its own subject.
An absolute phrase acts as an adverb phrase / modifier / adverbial.
Ex: Their child being hurt on the playground, the parents sued the city.
The general paced the room, voice pitched with passion, eyes darting from one person to
another, and hands gesturing wildly.
The van loaded, we headed for the mountains.
The President left the room, reporters clustering around him.
The concert being over, everyone went home.
(Lester, 268-273)
• Verb phrases
A verb phrase consists of the main verb, its auxiliary(ies), object(s), complement(s), or
modifier(s).
Verb phrases act as the Predicator of a sentence.
Ex: The small boy is sleeping.
Paul usually goes to school early with his friends.
The boy is playing chess with his friends in the class.

PRACTICE
PRACTICE 1
Underline the noun phrase(s) in each sentence and identify the function of the NP.
1. Under the Christmas tree, Peter found the gifts he had wanted most.
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2. My little sister consider the teddy bear her best friend.
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3. The resources of our library are limitless.
...............................................................................................................................................
4. The little man pulled at the top of his tie.
...............................................................................................................................................
5. Everyone in the neighborhood likes the new girl down the block.
...............................................................................................................................................
6. Jean found that a summer job involved some busy hours.
...............................................................................................................................................
7. The students were planning the first social event of the season.
...............................................................................................................................................
8. The old cottages across the street will be demolished soon.

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Hong Bang International University Introduction to Linguistics
English Language Department Ms Khai Hoan
PRACTICE 2
Underline the adjective phrase(s) in each sentence and identify the function of the AP.
1. John is fond of Mary.
2. Everest is a tremendously high mountain.
3. He is nicer than she is.
4. The pizza looks very delicious.
5. He was overly enthusiastic.
6. A person smarter than me needs to figure this out.
7. He was upset about the exam.
PRACTICE 3
Write 2 sentences that contain at least one AvP in each sentence.
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...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
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PRACTICE 4
Underline the preposition phrase(s) in each sentence and identify the function of the PP.
1. In spite of the rain, we went out.
...............................................................................................................................................
2. The year before last he won a gold medal, and the year before that he won a silver.
...............................................................................................................................................
3. The telephone is by the window.
...............................................................................................................................................
4. Don’t stand with your hands in your pockets.
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5. She paid for lunch in advance, so we don’t need to pay now.
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6. I went to the wrong house by mistake.
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7. She was all in black.
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8. The doctor says that she is out of danger at last.
...............................................................................................................................................
9. The cupcake with colorful sprinkles is yours.
...............................................................................................................................................
10. In attempting to save the child from drowning, she nearly lost her own life.
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Hong Bang International University Introduction to Linguistics
English Language Department Ms Khai Hoan
11. As the snow gradually melted near that neighborhood, people with snow shovels in their hands
emerged from their homes.
...............................................................................................................................................
12. The play about the brave hero was considered a success by everyone but the nasty critic at the
local paper.
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PRACTICE 5
Identify the form and function of each underlined phase.
1. Under the Christmas tree, Peter found the gifts he had wanted most.
...............................................................................................................................................
2. Mother has thrown out all of our mess.
...............................................................................................................................................
3. The resources of our library are limitless.
...............................................................................................................................................
4. The little man pulled at the top of his tie.
...............................................................................................................................................
5. Everyone in the neighborhood likes the new girl down the block.
...............................................................................................................................................
6. Jean found that a summer job involved some busy hours.
...............................................................................................................................................
7. I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity.
...............................................................................................................................................
8. The students were planning the first social event of the season.
...............................................................................................................................................
9. Walking along the shoreline, my sister was taking a lot of photos..
...............................................................................................................................................
10. The old cottages across the street will be demolished soon.
...............................................................................................................................................
11. His long story about some obscure ancestor in New Zealand bored us to death.
...............................................................................................................................................
12. I’ve lived in a lot of different houses.
...............................................................................................................................................
13. Science and Engineering degrees are run by the school of Science and Engineering.
...............................................................................................................................................
14. My teacher is the young one educated at Oxford.
...............................................................................................................................................
15. The man stood laughing, his weapons at his hips.

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Hong Bang International University Introduction to Linguistics
English Language Department Ms Khai Hoan
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16. Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river.
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17. Cracked from top to bottom, the mirror was now ruined.
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18. Traveling abroad is a good way to expand your worldview.
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19. Its branches covered in icicles, the tall oak stood in our yard.
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20. He wanted to see her as soon as possible.
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