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Energy Recovery From Pyrolysis of Plasti PDF
Energy Recovery From Pyrolysis of Plasti PDF
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Oil produced from pyrolysis of plastics have been known for its higher calorific value than wood-based
Received 13 March 2017 oil, in which comparable to conventional diesel. Even though many studies have been conducted on
Received in revised form 15 June 2017 pyrolysis of plastics, the findings of those studies are not applied and reported yet according to the real
Accepted 16 June 2017
portion of plastic waste. The real amount of plastic waste available is mainly derived from non-recycled
plastics (NRP). NRP is defined as the plastic waste that remain in the recycling centers, which unable to be
processed due to the certain restrictions. The amounts of NRP vary for each country based on daily appli-
Keywords:
cations. In this study, data of NRP in Malaysia, US, UK, as well as global were used to investigate the
Plastic waste
Pyrolysis
potential production of liquid fuel based on their different composition of plastic waste. Pyrolysis was
Polystyrene conducted in a fixed bed reactor at 500 °C with nitrogen flow of 200 ml/min for 30 min reaction time.
Fuel The addition of polystyrene (PS) into the NRP composition was also studied to evaluate the improvement
Energy recovery of the liquid quality. Several important findings were discussed in this paper including some technical
problems, features of the liquid product, characteristics of the by-products and potential energy recovery
from NRP. The liquid product was analyzed by various methods such as FTIR, GCMS, elemental analysis
and water content.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.06.046
0196-8904/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
926 S.D. Anuar Sharuddin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 148 (2017) 925–934
production of liquid fuel and determine the quality standard. determined according to the NRP data obtained from Malaysia,
Besides, if the calorific value of NRP pyrolysis has been known, US, UK and global. However, PVC and PET were excluded in this
then the total of energy recovery can be easily and accurately pre- study due to their undesired properties. Pyrolysis of PVC mainly
dicted for a particular location. The use of NRP data is considered released HCl which tend to be corrosive and toxic when heated
important if this strategy is to be further advanced and moderately that caused damage to the process equipment [1].
commercialized. Besides, PVC waste accumulated in MSW was very minimal, about
The accumulation of NRP is mainly due to different physical 3% in plastic waste category which the source was very limited. As
properties of plastics during recycling. A major challenge in recy- for the PET, the discussion was provided in Section 3.2. Table 1
cling plastics is most plastics are not compatible with each other shows the global composition of NRP waste consisted in MSW
to be processed together during recycling. For instance, a slight within several years.
amount of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) contaminant present in poly-
ethylene terephthalate (PET) recycle stream will degrade the 2.2. Experimental setup and procedures
whole PET resin by becoming yellowish and brittle that requires
reprocessing [14]. Hence, proper sorting process is required before The pyrolysis experiments were performed using an updraft
recycling to avoid any contaminants from entering the recycling stainless steel fixed bed reactor under atmospheric pressure with
stream since plastics are made of different resin compound, trans- an internal diameter of 0.05 m and total length of 1.27 m. The
parency and colours. As for physical properties, normally pig- updraft fixed bed reactor was chosen due to its simple design,
mented or dyed plastics have lower market value. Clearly more robust since it was less sensitive to variation in particle sizes
transparent plastics are often desirable by the manufacturers since and quality of feedstock, low gas exit temperature, high burnout
they can be dyed to transform into new products, thus have greater and thermal efficiency [23]. The reactor was equipped with a K-
flexibility [15]. Plastic bags, for instance, are not accepted by most type thermocouple inside to monitor the temperature when
recycling centre since they may clog the machineries during recy- heated by an external furnace. A condenser that sustained the fur-
cling. Polystyrene (PS) is also not accepted in recycling program nace temperature at the desired level of ±0.5 °C was connected in
due to its lightness that easily blown away and creates litter during order to obtain the liquid oil through the gas condensation. The
collection. Besides, its bulky characteristic is also one of the rea- experimental setup was illustrated in Fig. 1.
sons PS is not preferred since it requires high transportation cost. This study was divided into two scenarios. The first scenario
PS is also hazardous to be in contact with any food since there was arranged to obtain an overview of the potential liquid yield
are some researches have shown that PS can create health prob- produced based on different compositions of NRP in Malaysia,
lem. Hence, it is often not profitable to recycle PS. US, UK and also global. A total of 400 g was used as a basic weight
The worldwide plastic consumption has reached about 322 mil- for calculation for each NRP based on the percentage shown in
lion tons in 2015, representing a 4% increase over 2014 [16]. Con- Table 1, where the PET and PVC were excluded. The pyrolysis pro-
sequently, the increase in plastic consumption will definitely result cess was performed at 500 °C with a heating rate of 20 °C/min by
in the accumulation of plastic waste. This means that the amount using the electrical furnace. Each experiment was performed at
of NRP is also growing each year. In developed countries particu- 30 min reaction time. Nitrogen was used as carrier gas with flow
larly US, the amount of plastic waste has reached to 39.3 million rate of 200 ml/min to remove the products from the reaction site
tons in 2014, indicating a 13% increase over 2011 [17,18]. As in and minimize the secondary reaction of vapors that would reduce
UK, the plastic waste has risen over 60% from 2005 to 2015 [19]. the yield of liquid oil. The second scenario was aimed to improve
The same trend is also observed in developing country such as the liquid quality by adding PS into the NRP composition. Malay-
Malaysia which experiencing a growth in plastic waste by 18% in sia’s NRP was selected as a model for this study. The ratios of PS
5 years [2]. These phenomena show that different countries tend were varied in the range of 25, 50, 75 and 100 wt%. The ratios of
to produce different amount of NRP, indicating the production of PS were calculated based on the basic weight of total NRP after
liquid fuel by pyrolysis of NRP will be varied in terms of quantity excluded PET and PVC. The process parameters were similar with
and quality. scenario 1. Each experiment was repeated three times to take the
In this study, the NRP data were used as feedstock ratio in average of the results. The product yield of the liquid oil, non-
pyrolysis process to observe the production of liquid yield as well condensable gas and tar were calculated using Eq. (1). Tar is
as the by-products. The NRP data of global and three different defined as the black viscous organic liquid produced in the product
countries which were Malaysia, US and UK were selected to be stream that is condensable and generally assumed to be largely
studied. Besides, the effect of PS addition into the feedstock ratio aromatic [24].
was also studied to investigate the product improvement. The
Desired product ðgÞ
obtained products were tested for viscosity, pH, density, elemental Yield of product ðwt%Þ ¼ 100% ð1Þ
analysis, water content, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and gas Total feed ðgÞ
chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS). In addition, the
energy recovery from liquid as the main product, while gas and 2.3. Characterizations
tar as the by-products were also calculated.
2.3.1. Characterization of raw materials
2. Materials and experimental procedures Proximate analysis can be defined as a technique to measure
the chemical properties of the plastic compound based on four par-
2.1. Materials ticular elements which are moisture content, fixed carbon, volatile
matter and ash content. Volatile matter and ash content are the
Plastic samples of PET, PVC, high-density polyethylene (HDPE), major factors that influence the liquid oil yield in pyrolysis process.
low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP) and PS were High volatile matter favors the liquid oil production while high ash
obtained from the post-consumer polymer waste stream in Malay- content decreases the amount of liquid oil, consequently increases
sia. The collected plastics were washed and dried using oven at the gaseous yield and char formation [25]. In this study, the prox-
105 °C for 24 h. Dry plastic waste was cut into small pieces and imate analysis was conducted according to the ASTM standards
fed into the reactor as feedstock. The plastic mixture ratio was prescribed in literature [26].
S.D. Anuar Sharuddin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 148 (2017) 925–934 927
Table 1
Global composition of NRP waste consisted in MSW.
Plastic material Malaysia plastic wastea (%) US plastic wasteb (%) UK plastic wastec (%) Global plastic wasted (%)
PET 16.2 12.4 15.3 15.43
HDPE 26.2 17.8 13.5 16.97
PVC 3.9 5.5 3.5 3.08
LDPE 31.1 19.6 25 33.95
PP 8.2 13.9 22.2 15.43
PS 13 8.7 4 12.35
a
Data taken in 2012 [20].
b
Data taken in 2014 [18].
c
Data taken in 2008 [21].
d
Data taken in 2011 [22].
Legend:
F: Furnace, R: Reactor, S: Sample, TC: Temperature controller, FC: Flow controller, V: Valve, C1:
Condenser, C2: Chiller, ST: Storage tank, FU: Filter unit, GA: Gas analyzer
On the other hand, the ultimate analysis determines the mass m ðkgÞ
q ðkg=m3 Þ ¼ ð2Þ
fractions of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and heteroatoms of a sam- V ðm3 Þ
ple. This elemental composition of plastics was determined accord-
where q is density of liquid, m is the mass of liquid and V represents
ing to ASTM D-5291 using a Model 2400 Perkin-Elmer Series II
the volume of the pycnometer. The measurement of acidity or
CHNS/O Analyzer and the oxygen content was calculated by
basicity of the pyrolysis oil is also crucial to avoid corrosion when
difference.
using as fuel. The pH was determined at 25 °C using a Mettler
Toledo pH meter series 320. Besides, the water content in the pyrol-
2.3.2. Characterization of pyrolysis oil
ysis oil was also analyzed using a Karl Fischer 737 KF Coulometer
In order to evaluate the quality of pyrolysis oil, several impor-
from Metrohm. For this analysis, about 2–6 mg of sample was used
tant properties such as the viscosity, pH, density, water content,
to measure the water content.
elemental analysis, FTIR and GCMS were determined. Viscosity is
Elemental analysis was also done on the pyrolysis oil to measure
defined as a measurement of the fluid resistance to flow. Viscosity
the mass fractions of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and heteroatoms in
is very crucial in petroleum industry since it determines how easy
the composition. This analysis was useful in identifying any
the oil can flow from the reservoir to the well during extraction
unknown compounds, besides determining the purity of the syn-
process and also plays a crucial role in fuel injection process
thesized compound. The elemental analysis was done using a Model
[3,27]. In this study, the viscosity was measured using a rotational
2400 Perkin-Elmer Series II CHNS/O Analyzer in which elements
viscometer equipped with an SC4-18 spindle (Brookfield Viscome-
such as C, H, N and S were determined while oxygen content was
ter model DVII+ Pro EXTRA). About 7 ml of sample at 50 °C was
obtained by the difference. The high heating value (HHV) was calcu-
taken for the viscosity measurement.
lated based on Eq. (3) as below since the oxygen compound was less
Besides that, density is another important physical characteris-
than 15%, where the units for C, H and O elements should be in wt%.
tic for fuel generally expressed in kg/m3 in SI unit or also equiva-
lent to g/ml. As for this study, a 25 mL pycnometer was used to MJ
338:2C þ 1442:8 H O
8
determine the density of the pyrolysis oil which was tested at HHV ¼ ð3Þ
kg 1000
24 °C. The density was calculated based on Eq. (2):
928 S.D. Anuar Sharuddin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 148 (2017) 925–934
FTIR analysis was also done to identify various characteristic ent condenser made by acrylic was used for an easy observation in
functional groups present in the oil in which a Perkin Elmer FTIR the same experimental setup. It was discovered that yellowish liq-
spectrometer (Spectrum 400) was used in this study. The samples uid was produced in the condenser as shown in Fig. 3. After several
were scanned in the range of 400–4000 cm 1 with a resolution of minutes, the yellowish liquid turned into solid and adhered to the
4 cm 1. Besides that, the component of the liquid product was also wall of condenser. The yellowish substance had clogged piping
analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GCMS). from reactor to condenser which caused problems in product col-
An Agilent Technologies 7890A gas chromatograph equipped with lection and sterilization of system. According to Cepeliogullar
an Agilent 5975C mass-selective detector (mass spectrometer) was and Putun [31], the yellowish substance was benzoic acid that
utilized for the component analysis. The Agilent HP-5 50 m column could clog piping and heat exchanger, thus might need serious
with an inner diameter of 0.32 mm and a film thickness of 0.25 mm attention if running at industrial scale. This signifies that the pyrol-
was used in the GCMS. High purity helium was used as carrier gas ysis of PET was inefficient in terms of time and cost since it
at constant flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. The analysis was started by required regular maintenance [32,33]. Hence, PET was excluded
heating the column at 50 °C and kept isothermal for 1 min, then in this experiment. Besides PET, PVC was also excluded since the
increased to 270 °C with a rate of 7 °C/min. This condition was held pyrolysis of PVC produced hydrogen chloride (HCl) which tends
for 10 min. The volume of sample injected was about 1 mL. to be corrosive and toxic when heated moderately that could cause
damage to process equipment [28,34].
3. Result and discussion Table 3 shows the product yields from pyrolysis of NRP at var-
ious ratios for selected countries and globally based on the NRP
3.1. Characterization of plastic materials ratio consisted in MSW. Based on Table 3, it can be seen that the
pyrolysis of NRP from US produced the lowest liquid yield which
The proximate and ultimate analyses of different plastic materi- was only 26.33 wt%. From the plastic composition, it can be
als are shown in Table 2. Based on the proximate analysis results, observed that the amount of LDPE in the NRP composition of US
the moisture content of all plastics were very low except for PET was the lowest among other countries, besides having low content
which was slightly high compared to others. No fixed carbon was of PS. According to Sharuddin et al. [1], the sequence of the pyrol-
found in all plastics except PET and PVC. The amount of volatiles ysis oil yield of the four thermoplastics in an ascending order
compound was found high in all type of plastics except PET and would be HDPE, PP, LDPE and PS. Since LDPE and PS produced high
PVC which somewhat lower. Besides that, PET and PVC also had sub- amount of pyrolysis oil, this briefly explained the reason of the
stantial amount of ash. The lower amount of volatiles compound higher liquid yield obtained from Malaysia’s NRP (29 wt%) com-
and high ash content in PET and PVC signified the potential of pro- pared to the US. Even though Malaysia had the highest amount
ducing very less liquid oil in pyrolysis [25]. For the ultimate analysis, of HDPE in its waste stream, the high composition of LDPE and
the oxygen content of PET was determined to be very high around PS helped to boost the liquid product obtained from pyrolysis,
31.49 wt% whereas high chlorine content was found in PVC around which in returns produced higher liquid yield than US. This
57.61 wt%. The high oxygen content indicated that PET had lower denotes that the studied polymers did not react independently
calorific values while the high chlorine content made the liquid pro- and there was an interaction occurred between the plastic sam-
duced from pyrolysis of PVC not suitable to be used as fuel [28]. ples. The waste of LDPE basically contributed by trash bags, wrap-
The TGA thermographs of different type of plastics at heating ping foils for packaging and plastic bags, while the PS waste mostly
rate of 20 °C/min are illustrated in Fig. 2. TGA analysis was useful contributed by toys, medical stuff, electronics, food packaging and
to define the starting degradation temperature for each sample. construction stuff.
The results showed that all plastics started to degrade at 300 °C In order to further enhance the liquid production from pyrolysis
and completed the degradation at 500 °C except PVC. Unlike other of NRP mixture, the effect of PS to the pyrolysis performance was
plastics, the degradation of PVC occurred in two steps. The first further explored. In this study, Malaysia was selected as a repre-
degradation step occurred within 200–350 °C where a complete sentative of the countries. PS was added at various ratios of 25,
dehydrochlorination happened. The process followed by the 50, 75 and 100 wt% into the feed of Malaysia’s NRP composition
decomposition of polyene chain that happened during the second that was fixed throughout the study. The product yield of pyrolysis
step within 400–500 °C [30]. From Fig. 2, it can be concluded that oil, tar and non-condensable gases were summarized in Table 4.
500 °C was selected as the most effective temperature for pyrolysis From the table, it was observed that the pyrolysis oil kept increas-
since all type of plastics have completed their decompositions ing with the increase of PS. The same trends during pyrolysis of
when reaching this temperature. individual plastics with PS were also observed by Lee et al. [35]
and Onwudili et al. [36]. The maximum oil yield obtained from this
3.2. Pyrolysis yield study was 72.08 wt% at 100 wt% PS addition. Besides, the tar for-
mation and non-condensable gases also reduced as the ratio of
In a preliminary study, pyrolysis of PET alone was conducted to PS was increased. According to Onwudili et al. [36], there was a
observe the potential product being produced from it. A transpar- synergy existed between plastic such as LDPE when mixed with
Table 2
Proximate and ultimate analyses of different plastic materials.
100 HDPE
LDPE
80
20
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Temperature (ºC)
Table 3
Distribution of products for three countries as well as global from pyrolysis of NRP waste at different ratios.
Table 4
Products distribution from pyrolysis of Malaysia’s NRP at different ratio of added PS.
in Table 5. For the comparison purpose, conventional diesel stan- pure NRP was 7.18 wt% which was the lowest. With the addition of
dard was also included in the table. It can be observed from Table 5 PS, the hydrogen increased from 7.98 to 9.12 wt% and this shows
that the water content of oil obtained from pure NRP was 0.92% that the higher portion of PS being added could improve the
which was higher than the conventional diesel. However, the mea- HHV of the pyrolysis oil. The HHV of the oil from pure NRP was
sured water content decreased when the ratio of PS was increased. 39.70 MJ/kg. The calorific value of the oil improved from 41.96 to
The low water content indicates that the pyrolysis oil has good fuel 43.94 MJ/kg and almost approaching the HHV for diesel which
property since high water content is often undesirable as it can be was 44.94 MJ/kg. In addition to that, the sulfur content of the
damaging to the ignition performance and causes rust to build up pyrolysis oil was also much lower than the standard diesel. Lower
in the engines. sulfur content was a key to reduce the vehicle emission of sulfur
The measurement of the viscosity shown in Table 5 was oxides (SOx) [43,44]. Hence, the addition of PS into NRP in pyroly-
dynamic viscosity. No significant change observed from the viscos- sis managed to improve the physical and chemical properties of
ity properties for pyrolysis of pure NRP or after the addition of PS. the pyrolysis oil to be comparable to conventional diesel. From
The viscosity of oil from pure NRP as well as after the addition of PS the results, the energy density of the oil produced from the
was even lower than the diesel. This signified that the pyrolysis oil 100 wt% PS addition was very close to the standard diesel and in
produced was less viscous and therefore, easier to pump and suit- terms of the environment aspect, the oil was found superior than
able to be used in fuel injection process [1]. Besides, same trend the diesel due to its lower sulfur content (by 50% difference).
was observed for density which was no significant change and FTIR is a very important analysis technique that can be used to
the density of the pyrolysis oil was similar with the conventional detect various functional groups in oil. The FTIR spectra obtained
diesel. for the pyrolysis oil from different ratio of added PS to the Malay-
The pH value for the liquid from pure NRP was 7.03 and the sia’s NRP are shown in Fig. 4. The peaks of the spectra were similar
addition of PS reduced the pH slightly from 6.76 to 6.51. This for all the ratios due to their similar structures. The preceded peaks
shows that the pyrolysis oil obtained from NRP had non- in the range of 2923 and 2852 cm 1 indicated the presence of
corrosive property. The non-corrosive property makes the pyroly- alkane with the CAH stretching vibration. The small peaks
sis oil suitable to be used in engines, boilers, refinery equipment between 1494 and 1448 cm 1 implied the presence of aromatic
and can even be stored in any storage containers without causing group that represented the C@C stretching vibration. Many peaks
corrosion problem. appeared in the range of 989–694 cm 1 with 694 cm 1 to be the
The ultimate analyses to determine the elemental composition strongest peak which reinforced the identification of alkene @CAH
of the pyrolysis oil are also shown in Table 5. Referring to Table 5, it bending vibration. This illustrates that the pyrolysis oil had highly
can be seen that the elemental composition of oxygen in liquid aliphatic nature.
from pyrolysis of pure NRP was found high at 3.83 wt%. High oxy- GCMS analysis was also conducted to identify the substances in
gen content resulted in low calorific value, corrosion problems and the pyrolysis oil. The detected substances were identified by
instability [42]. However, the increase of PS able to reduce the oxy- searching the MS library database. Priority was given to the peaks
gen content to 0 wt%, which was similar with the diesel standard. with high degree of probability (70%) and also with area of 0.1%
The major element contributed to high HHV value was hydrogen. and greater since more than 100 peaks were detected. The results
As the trend shown in Table 5, the hydrogen element of liquid from were summarized in Tables 6and 7 for the two extreme composi-
Table 5
Physical and chemical properties of pyrolysis oil.
and after the 100 wt% PS addition. Overall, since the compound
containing hydrogen and carbon were found abundant in both oil
categories, this gives a clear indication that the pyrolysis oil has
potential to be used as combustible fuel source. Therefore, the
results from GCMS analysis was found tally with the FTIR results.
Table 6
GCMS result for the oil obtained from pyrolysis of pure NRP.
Table 7
GCMS result for the oil obtained from pyrolysis of NRP with 100 wt% PS addition.
Table 8
Elemental analysis of the tar by-product and the HHV results.
PS added into plastic mixtures (wt%) Elemental composition (wt%) HHV (MJ/kg)
*
C H N S O
0 89.16 16.16 0.04 0.49 0.00 53.47
25 85.88 16.01 0.05 0.43 0.00 52.14
50 85.49 15.79 0.06 0.39 0.00 51.69
75 83.32 14.39 0.04 0.37 1.88 48.60
100 81.59 14.29 0.07 0.32 3.73 47.54
*
Calculated by difference.
S.D. Anuar Sharuddin et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 148 (2017) 925–934 933
Fig. 6. Potential energy recovered based on pyrolysis of pure NRP without PS addition.
plastics were recycled while the balance remained in the landfill tity and quality of the oil produced. The oil obtained was increased
which fell into the category of NRP. From this statistic, it can be by 85% after the addition of 100 wt% PS. The addition of PS also
seen that the percentage of recycled plastics was still at the lowest. reduced the tar and gas formation by increasing the oil yield.
This makes the amount of NRP being disposed in the landfill to be Besides, the oil properties also improved in terms of HHV, pH val-
about 79.7% or equivalent to 2272 MT/day. Since this study sug- ues and water content. The HHV of the oil increased with the addi-
gested that PET and PVC plastics to be excluded from the pyrolysis, tion of PS to 44.94 MJ/kg which was almost comparable to the HHV
the new total of NRP would be 2189 MT/day or 659,920 MT/year. of diesel. Moreover, the potential energy recovered from the liquid
Fig. 6 displays an example of calculation for potential energy con- of NRP pyrolysis also increased to 19,800 billion Btu per year after
tained in the produced liquid from NRP through pyrolysis technol- the 100 wt% PS addition. In addition to that, the pH values for the
ogy. The calculation shows that the energy contained in the liquid oil produced from the pure NRP as well as after the addition of PS
from pure NRP was 7200 billion Btu per year. This amount of were found very near to neutral (pH7) and these were good indi-
energy was equivalent to 1,257,336 barrels of oil. Considering the cator that the oil was not corrosive and very suitable for engines
high heating value of methane gas and tar, this study also recom- and refinery equipment. Remarkably, the sulfur content in the oil
mended their usage as source of fuel. Methane gas as by-product was also much lower than the diesel standard, thereby more envi-
contributed 450 billion Btu/year of energy recovery which equal ronmental friendly. The increase of aliphatic compound in the oil
to 78,561 barrels of oil. Tar also managed to contribute 16,800 bil- after the addition of PS also implied the oil potential to be used
lion Btu of energy to Malaysia’s energy supply per year or equal to as fuel as it released extra energy for combustion. To add the PS
2,928,270 barrels of oil. In summary, total of 24,450 billion Btu per in the NRP pyrolysis, the source of PS can be obtained from the
year or equivalent to 4,264,167 barrels of oil per year could be RPS available in the recycle stream.
recovered from the pyrolysis of pure NRP. In addition, the potential
energy of the liquid from NRP increased to 19,800 billion Btu per
Acknowledgements
year or equivalent to 3,457,675 barrels of oil when 100 wt% PS
was added. A substantial increase of energy almost triple from
The authors would like to thank the University of Malaya for
the liquid produced from pure NRP signified the great advantages
fully funding the work described in this publication through the
of additional PS. The additional energy produced would help to
PPP project number PG066-2015B. A special thanks is also
strengthen the future energy security of Malaysia in facing the glo-
extended to the University Technology Mara (UiTM) and Ministry
bal oil crisis, as well as increasing the domestic energy reserve.
of Higher Education (MOHE) for providing financial support under
the Young Lecturer’s Scheme (TPM).
4. Conclusions
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