VIBRATION AND STRAIN MEASUREMENT

Weightage: 14 Marks
Vibration:
• It is the movement or mechanical oscillation of a machine or its part from its position of equilibrium.

Types of vibration
• Free vibration
• Force vibration

Free Vibration:
• If a system after initial disturbance is left to vibrate on its own due to internal elastic forces, the
resulting vibration is known as free vibration.
Ex: oscillations of a pendulum about a vertical equilibrium position

Force Vibration:
• When a body vibrate under the influence of periodic external force the body is said to be under force
vibration.
• When an external force is acting, the body does not vibrate with its own natural frequency, but vibrates
with the frequency of the applied external force.
Ex: vibrations of I.C. Engines, electric motor, centrifugal pump.

Natural frequency:
• In free vibration after initial disturbance body start to vibrate and oscillations continues on its own, the
frequency of these oscillations or vibration is known as natural frequency.

Free body diagram and spring mass system:

A free body diagram is a graphic, dematerialized, symbolic representation of the body (structure, element or
segment of an element) showing all the force, moment, reaction force, and directions and in which all
connecting pieces and supports have been removed.

Vibration measurement Elements:

 Velocity pickup
 Accelerometer
 Inductive pickup
 Capacitive pickup
 Stroboscope

1
 VIBRATION AND STRAIN MEASUREMENT
Weightage: 14 Marks
Velocity pick-up:
Working Principle:
• It works on the electrodynamic principle, when electrical conductor moves in a magnetic field, the
voltage is generated across the conductor.
It is self-generating sensor requiring no external devices to
produce a vibration signal.
• It detect the movement based on the velocity.

Construction and working:

It consist of
1. Permanent magnet
2. Coil of wire
3. Spring support for the coil and wire

• Pickup is filled with oil to dampen the spring action.

• Lead wires attached to the coil supported by spring of
low stiffness.
• Permanent magnet is firmly attached to the vibrating part
• Pickup vibrates as the test object attached it.
• Coil inside the pickup forced the magnetic field by vibratory motion.
• The relative motion between permanent magnet and the coil generates a voltage that is proportional to
the vibration.
• The voltage output of the pickup is proportional to the velocity of vibration hence it is called as velocity
pickup.

Advantages:-
1. Easy to install on rotating machine
2. Cost is less
3. No need of external supply
Disadvantages:-
1. Different manufacturing for vertical and horizontal axis mounting.
2. It is susceptible to cross axis vibration
Applications:
1. It is used to measure the vibration of
general purpose machine

Accelerometer:
• An accelerometer is an apparatus, either
mechanical or electromechanical, for
measuring acceleration or deceleration
• The piezoelectric accelerometer work
on the principle of piezoelectric effect,
when mechanical stress or forces are
applied to some materials along certain
planes, they produce electric voltage.

2
 VIBRATION AND STRAIN MEASUREMENT
Weightage: 14 Marks
Construction and working:
• A piezoelectric accelerometer is an accelerometer that employs the piezoelectric effect of certain
materials to measure dynamic changes in mechanical variables (e.g. acceleration, vibration, and
mechanical shock).
• The acceleration of the test structure is transmitted to a seismic mass inside the accelerometer that
generates a proportional force on the piezoelectric crystal. This external stress on the crystal then
generates a high-impedance, electrical charge proportional to the applied force and, thus, proportional
to the acceleration.
Advantages:-
1. High frequency response
2. High transient response
3. The piezoelectric accelerometer are small in size
4. Rugged construction.
5. Linearity

Disadvantages:-
1) Output is low:-
2) It is very difficult to give the desired shape to the crystals with sufficient strength.

Application:
• They can be used for studying high speed phenomenon like explosions, earthquake and blast
waves.
• They are also used in aerodynamic shock tube work and seismograph (used for measurement of
acceleration and vibration in rockets).
• The automotive companies used piezoelectric accelerometer to detect detonations in the engine
blocks.

Inductive Pickup

Construction and Working:

1) The unit consists of a small permanent magnet with a coil round it.
2) This magnetic pick up is placed near a metallic toothed rotor whose speed is to be measured.

3
 VIBRATION AND STRAIN MEASUREMENT
Weightage: 14 Marks
3) As the shaft rotates, the teeth pass in front of the pick-up and produce a change in the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit.
4) The field expands or collapses and a voltage is induced in the coil.
5) The frequency of the pulses depends upon the number of teeth on the wheel and its speed of rotation.
6) Since the number of teeth is known, the speed of rotation can be determined by measuring the pulse
frequency.
7) To accomplish this task, pulse is amplified and squared, and fed into a counter of frequency measuring unit.
8) If the rotor has 60 teeth, and if the counter counts the pulses in one second, then me counter will directly
display the speed in revolutions per minute.
Advantages:-
1. Simple construction
2. Output in digital form
3. Less maintenance
4. Easy to calibrate
5. No loading effect
6. High accuracy

Disadvantages:-
1. High Cost

Capacitive type pick-up tachometer

Working Principle:
It works on principle of parallel plate capacitance.
Construction and Working:
1) The device consists of a vane attached to one end of the rotating machine shaft.
2) When the shaft rotates between the fixed capacitive plates, there occurs a change in the capacitance.
3) The capacitor forms a part of an oscillator tank so that number of frequency changes per unit of time is a
measure of the shaft speed.

4) The pulses thus produced are amplified, and squared, and may then be fed to frequency measuring unit or
to a digital counter so as to provide a digital analog of the shaft rotation.
Advantages
1. High sensitivity
2. High accuracy
3. Small loading effect
Disadvantages
1. Electronics circuit is complex
4
 VIBRATION AND STRAIN MEASUREMENT
Weightage: 14 Marks
Stroboscope
Working Principle:
It works on principle flashing frequency of light so that moving object appears to be standstill.
Construction and working:
1) The stroboscope is simple manually
operated portable device which is used for
measurement of speed, it has variable
frequency flashing light.
2) An oscillator is provided to control
flashing frequency.
3) The speed is measured by adjusting
frequency so that the moving object is
visible at specific intervals.
4) The flashing light is directed on
rotating member, which usually has some
spoke, gear teeth or some other feature.
5) If rotating member do not have any of such features, a paper having black and white stripes is attached to
it or some marking is done as a target.
6) The frequency of lamp flashing is adjusted until the target appears stationary. Under this condition speed
is equal to flashing frequency.
7) The scale of stroboscope can be calibrated to read the speed directly.

Advantages
1. This method imposes no load on the shaft.
2. It is a contactless method.
3. This method is very useful when actual physical contact is not possible.
4. It does not require any special attachment with shaft.
Disadvantages
1. Variable frequency of strobotron cannot be stabilized to give a fixed frequency.
2. If surrounding light is above some level, this instrument cannot be used.

Introduction to FFT Analyzer:

• The concept of the FFT spectrum analyzer is built around the Fast Fourier Transform.
• It is uses Fourier analysis and digital signal processing techniques to provide spectrum analysis.
• Using Fourier analysis any waveform in the time domain can be represented by the weighted sum of
sine and cosine signals.
• Using his FFT transform it is possible to converted continuous time domain into the continuous
frequency domain, in which both magnitude and phase information are included.
• FFT capture a series of successive discrete values at regular intervals in the test equipment
• These discrete samples for the time domain waveform reflects into the frequency domain and results
in the frequency domain being split into discrete frequency components

5
 VIBRATION AND STRAIN MEASUREMENT
Weightage: 14 Marks
Attenuators:
• At this stage FFT analyser ensures that the signal is at the required level for the analogue to digital
conversion. These stages may provide either gain or attenuation.
Low pass filter:
• The waveform must be sampled at a sufficiently high rate. To avoid aliasing a low pass filter is placed
ahead of the sampler to remove any unwanted high frequency elements.
Sampler:
• It capture a series of successive discrete sample at regular intervals from time domain waveform.
Analogue to Digital conversion
• The samples are then passed to an analogue to digital converter, ADC which produces the digital
format for the samples that is required for the FFT analysis.
FFT analyzer:
• The data from the sampler is in the time domain but it is converted into the frequency domain by the
FFT analyzer. This is then able to further process the data using digital signal processing techniques
to analyze and process the data
Display:
• Displays are very flexible and enable the information to be presented in formats that are easy to
comprehend and reveal a variety of facets of the signal.

Advantages of FFT Analyzer:-

1. It is measure all frequency components at the same time.
2. Fast capture of waveform
3. Able to capture non-repetitive events
4. Able to analyse signal phase
5. Waveforms can be stored
Disadvantages:
1. Frequency limitations: ADCs with more bits tend to have lower frequency limits.

Application of FFT Analyzer:-

1. It is used for the sound and vibration analysis
2. To measure the transfer function of a mechanical system.
3. In forensics, laboratory for measuring the wavelength of light at which a material will absorb in the
infrared rays.

What is strain?
• The amount of deformation a material experiences due to an applied force is called strain.
• Strain is defined as the ratio of the change in length of a material to the original, unaffected
length.
• Strain can be positive (tensile) due to elongation, or negative (compressive) due to contraction.

6
 VIBRATION AND STRAIN MEASUREMENT
Weightage: 14 Marks
What is Gage factor (GF)?
GF is the ratio of the fractional change in electrical resistance to the fractional change in length, or strain.
∆𝑅⁄ ∆𝑅
𝐺𝐹 = 𝑅 = ⁄𝑅
∆𝐿⁄ ∈
𝐿
Strain Gauge Strain Gauge Selection Criteria
1. Gauge Length
2. Number of Gauges in Gauge Pattern
3. Arrangement of Gauges in Gauge Pattern
4. Grid Resistance
5. temperature sensitivity
6. Carrier Material
7. Gauge Width
8. Availability
9. low cost

Advantages & Disadvantages Of Strain Gauge

Advantages
• There is no moving part.
• It is small and inexpensive.

Disadvantages
• It is non-linear.
• It needs to be calibrated.

Applications of Strain Gauge

Vibration measurement
• Torque measurement
• Bending and deflection measurement
• Compression and tension measurement
• Strain measurement

Types of Strain Gauges

Based on Mounting
• Bonded strain gauge
• Unbonded strain gauge

Bonded strain gauge

• These gauges are directly bonded (that is pasted) on the surface of the structure under study. Hence
they are termed as bonded strain gauges.
The three types of bonded strain gauges are
1. Fine wire strain gauge
2. Metal foil strain gauge
3. Semi-conductor gauge

1. Fine wire strain gauge

• A fine resistance wire diameter 0.025 mm which is bent again and again as shown in diagram.
7
 VIBRATION AND STRAIN MEASUREMENT
Weightage: 14 Marks
• This is done to increase the
length of the wire so that it
permits a uniform distribution of
stress.
• This resistance wire is
placed between the two carrier
bases (paper, Bakelite or Teflon)
which are cemented to each
other.
• The carrier base protects
the gauge from damages. Leads
are provided for electrical
connection of strain gauge to a
measuring instrument

Operation
• With the help of an adhesive material, the strain gauge is pasted/bonded on the structure under study.
• Now the structure is subjected to a force (tensile or compressive). Due to the force, the structure will
change the dimension.
• As the strain gauge is bonded to the structure, the stain gauge will also undergo change in both in
length and cross-section (that is, it strained).
• This strain (change in dimension) changes the resistance of the strain gauge which can be measured
using a wheat stone bridge.
• This change in resistance of the strain gauge measure of the applied force on the structure when
calibrated.
Advantages of Fine Wire Strain Gauge
• The range of this gauge is +/- 0.3% of strain.
• This gauge has a high accuracy.
• Has a linearity of +/- 1%.
Limitation of Fine Wire strain gauge
• These gauges cannot be detached and used again (because the gauges are bonded to the structure).
• These gauges are costly.

Metal Foil Strain Gauge

• The metal foil of 0.02mm
thick is produced using the
printed circuit technique.
• This metal foil is produced on
one side of the plastic backing.
• Leads are soldered to the metal
foil for electrically connecting
the strain gauge to a measuring
instrument (wheat stone
bridge).

8
 VIBRATION AND STRAIN MEASUREMENT
Weightage: 14 Marks
Operations of Metal foil Strain gauge
• With the help of an adhesive material, the strain gauge is pasted/bonded on the structure under study.
• Now the structure is subjected to a force (tensile or compressive). Due to the force, the structure will
change the dimension.
• As the strain gauge is bonded to the structure, the stain gauge will also undergo change in both in
length and cross-section (that is, it strained).
• This strain (change in dimension) changes the resistance of the strain gauge which can be measured
using a wheat stone bridge.
• This change in resistance of the strain gauge becomes a measure of the extent to which the structure is
strained and a measure of the applied force when calibrated.

Advantages of Metal foil Strain gauge

• These strain gauges can be manufactured in any shape.
• Perfect bonding of the strain gauge is possible with structure under study.
• The backing can be peeled off and the metal foil with leads can be used directly on the structure under
study. In such cases, a ceramic adhesive is to be used.
• These gauges have a better fatigue life.
• Has good sensitivity and have stability even at high temperatures.

Semi – conductor or Piezo Resistive Strain Gauge

• The sensing element is rectangular filament made as a wafer from silicon or geranium crystals.
• To these crystals, boron is added to get some desired properties and this process is called doping and
the crystals are called doped crystals.
• This sensing element is attached to a plastics or stainless steel backing.
• Leads made of gold are drawn out from the sensing element for electrically connecting the strain gauge
to a measuring instrument (wheat stone bridge).

There are two types of sensing element namely:

• Negative or n-type (resistance decrease with respect to tensile strain).
• Positive or P-type ( resistance increase with respect to tensile strain).

Operation
• With the help of an adhesive
material, the strain gauge is
pasted/bonded on the structure under
study.
• Now the structure is subjected to a
force (tensile or compressive). Due to
the force, the structure will change the
dimension.
• As the strain gauge is bonded to
the structure, the stain gauge will also
undergo change in both in length and
cross-section (that is, it strained).
• When the sensing element
(crystal) of the semiconductor strain

9
 VIBRATION AND STRAIN MEASUREMENT
Weightage: 14 Marks
gauge is strained, its resistivity changes contributing to a change in the resistance of the strain gauge.
• The change in the resistance of the strain gauge is measured using a wheat stone bridge. . This change
in resistance of the strain gauge becomes a measure of the extent to which the structure is strained and
a measure of the applied force when calibrated.

Advantages of semi-conductor Strain gauges

• These gauges have high gauge factor and hence they can measure very small strains.
• They can be manufactured to very small sizes.
• They have an accuracy of 2.3%
• They have excellent hysteresis characteristics.
• They have a good frequency of response.
• They have good fatigue life.
Limitation of semi-conductor Strain gauges
• These gauges are brittle and hence they cannot be used for measuring large strain.
• The gauge factor is not constant.
• These gauges have poor linearity.
• These gauges are very costly and are difficult to be bonded onto the structure under study.
• These gauges are sensitive to change in temperature.

Unbonded strain gauge

These strain gauges are not directly bonded (that is, pasted) onto the surface of the structure under study.
Hence they are termed as unbounded strain gauges.

Description of the Unbonded Strain gauges:

The arrangement of an unbonded strain gauges consists of the two frames P and Q carrying rigidly fixed
insulated pins. these two frames can move relative with respect to each other and they are held together by a
spring loaded mechanism. A fine wire resistance strain gauge is stretched around the insulated pins. The strain
gauge is connected to a wheat stone bridge.

Operation of Unbonded strain gauges:

• When a force is applied on the
structure under study (frames P & Q),
frames P moves relative to frame Q, and
due to this strain gauge will change in
length and cross section.
• That is, the strain gauge is
strained. This strain changes the resistance
of the strain gauge and this change in
resistance of the strain gauge is measured
using a wheat stone bridge.
• This change in resistance when
calibrated becomes a measure of
the applied force.
Advantages of Unbonded strain gauge:
• The range of this gauge is +/- 0.15% strain.
• This gauge has a very high accuracy.

10
 VIBRATION AND STRAIN MEASUREMENT
Weightage: 14 Marks
Limitation of unbonded strain gauges
• It occupies more space.

Application of Unbonded strain gauge:

• Unbonded strain gauge is used in places where the gauge is to be detached and used again and again.
• Unbonded strain gauges are used in force, pressure and acceleration measurement.

Methods of Strain Measurement

1. AXIAL STRAIN Measurement
2. Bending strain measurement
3. Torsional strain measurement

1. Axial strain measurement

• Axial Strain equal to the axial stress divided by Young’s Modulus.
ϵA = 𝑶𝑨 /E
Where axial stress (𝑶𝑨 ) equal to the axial load
divided by the cross-sectional area.
𝑶𝑨 = 𝑭𝑨 /A
• The cross sectional area for rectangles
equals (b x h).
• Therefore, strain gauges used in axial
configurations can be used to determine
axial loads (F (axial)).
F (axial) = E ϵA b h

2. Bending strain measurement

• Bending Strain or moment strain is equal to bending stress divided by Young’s Modulus of Elasticity.
ϵB = oB/E
oB = MB/Z = F x l /Z
• Moment stress (oB) equals bending
moment (F x l) divided by sectional
modulus.
• Sectional modulus (Z) is a property of
the cross-sectional configuration of the
specimen.
• For rectangles only, the sectional
2
modulus is (𝑏ℎ6 ).
• Strain gauges used in the bending strain configuration can be used to determine vertical load (F); this
is more commonly referred to as a bending beam load cell.
2
F = E ϵB(Z)/l =𝐸𝛜𝐁(𝑏ℎ6 )/𝑙

11
 VIBRATION AND STRAIN MEASUREMENT
Weightage: 14 Marks
Torsional strain measurement:
• Torsional Strain equals torsional stress (τ) divided by torsional modulus of elasticity (G).
ϒ= τ/G
τ= Mt (d/2)/J
• Where torsional stress (τ) equals
torque (Mt) multiplied by the distance
from the center of the section to the
outer fiber (d/2), divided by (J) the
polar moment of inertia.
• The polar moment of inertia is a
function of the cross sectional area.
• For solid circular shafts only,
J =π 𝑑 4/32 .
• Strain gages can be used to determine
torsional moments as shown in the
equation below.
Mt = τ(J) (2/d)
= ϒG (J) (2/d)
= ϒG (π𝑑3/16 )
*******************************************************************************

Assignment:
2 MARKS
1. Classify the strain measurement methods
2. Define term “Gauge factor’’
3. State the functions of Accelerometer
4. List the different types of vibration measuring devices.
5. State the advantages of stroboscope.
4 MARKS
1. Explain the procedure of strain measurement of cantilever beam with neat diagram
2. Differentiate between Inductive Pick up and Capacitive Pick up
3. Draw and explain the working of Stroboscope
4. Draw and explain the working of Accelerometer
5. Draw and explain the working of capacitive pickup

6 MARKS
1. Draw a labelled block diagram of FFT analyser. State the advantages and applications.
2. Explain the working and application of bonded strain gauge.

12