DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE OF

ENVIROMENTAL STUDIES
 DEFINITION
Sum of all social, economical,biological,physical
or chemical factors which constiute the
surroundings of a man, who is creator as well as
moulder of the environment
• Xenobiotic is a term used to describe chemical substances that are foreign
to animal life and thus includes such examples as plant constituents,
drugs, pesticides, cosmetics, flavorings, fragrances, food additives,
industrial chemicals and environmental pollutants.
• Xenobiotic compounds are man made chemicals that are present in the
environment at higher concentration. These are either not produced
naturally or are produced at much lower amount than that by man. The
compounds that resist biodegradation and persist in the environment for
long period of time are called recalcitrant.
 XENOBIOTICS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
• Xenobiotic substances are an issue for sewage treatment systems, since they are many in
number, and each will present its own problems as to how to remove them (and whether
it is worth trying to)
• Some xenobiotics substances are resistant to degradation. Xenobiotics such as
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and
trichloroethylene (TCE) accumulate in the environment due to their recalcitrant properties
and have become an environmental concern due to their toxicity and accumulation. This
occurs particularly in the subsurface environment and water sources, as well as in
biological systems, having the potential to impact human health.
• Microorganisms may be a viable solution to the issue of environmental pollution by the
production of xenobiotics; a process known as bioremediation. Microorganisms are able to
adapt to xenobiotics introduced into the environment through horizontal gene transfer, in
order to make use of such compounds as energy sources.
• Bioremediation= is a process used to treat contaminated media, including water, soil and
subsurface material, by altering environmental conditions to stimulate growth of
microorganisms and degrade the target pollutants. In many cases, bioremediation is less
expensive and more sustainable than other remediation alternatives.
 POLLUTION
• A pollutant is a substance that pollutes the air, water or land. This term is
used to describe things in the environment that do not belong. In a
broader sense, the term 'pollutant' has even been used to describe
undesirable levels of sound or light. For example, the lights and never-
ending traffic noise.
• Physical pollution:- Of the different types of pollution, physical pollution
may be the most recognizable. Simply stated, physical pollution is the
introduction of discarded materials into the environment. Physical
pollution is what you might refer to as trash and is the direct result of
human actions. In other words, nature does not produce physical
pollution because in natural systems, all byproducts or wastes are
eventually recycled back into the environment. For example, in nature, a
fallen tree will degrade and eventually return nutrients to the soil.
• Chemical pollution is another type of pollution. It is defined
as the introduction of chemicals into the environment.
Chemicals may not be seen by the naked eye, but they can
cause problems in all areas of the environment, from the air
we breathe to the freshwater we drink to the soil we use for
growing crops.
• Biological pollution (impacts or bio pollution) is the impact of
humanity's actions on the quality of aquatic and terrestrial
environment. Specifically, biological pollution is the
introduction of non-indigenous and invasive species.[
 ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS
• Environmental standards are typically set by
government and can include prohibition of
specific activities, mandating the frequency
and methods of monitoring, and requiring
permits for the use of land or water. ...
Standards differ depending on the type of
environmental activity.
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY INDEX
AAQS
 GROUND LEVEL OZONE
• Unlike natural stratospheric ozone, which protects us from the
sun's ultraviolet radiation, ground-level ozone is a pollutant. It
forms when heat and sunlight allow the reaction of two other
pollutants: nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds. High
heat can accelerate this process.
Depending on level of exposure, ground level ozone can cause
following health effects
• Cause coughing and sore or scratchy throat.
• Make it more difficult to breathe deeply and vigorously and cause
pain when taking a deep breath.
• Inflame and damage the airways.
• Make the lungs more susceptible to infection.
• Aggravate lung diseases such as asthma, emphysema, and chronic
bronchitis.
• Increase the frequency of asthma attacks.
 PARTICULATE MATTER
• Particulate matter is the sum of all solid and liquid particles suspended in
air many of which are hazardous. This complex mixture includes both
organic and inorganic particles, such as dust, pollen, soot, smoke, and
liquid droplets.
• PM2. 5 refers to the atmospheric particulate matter that has a diameter
of less than 2.5 micrometres, which is about 3% of the diameter of human
hair. PM10 are the particles with a diameter of 10 micrometers and they
are also called fine particles.
• SOURCES- Particulate Matter is of different sizes and it can be due to both
human and natural sources. Sources can be primary and secondary. The
primary source includes automobile emissions, dust and cooking smoke.
The secondary source of pollution can be due to complex reactions of
chemicals like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide. These particles are
mixed in air and pollute it. Apart from these, forest fires, wood burning
stoves, agricultural burning, smoke of the industry, dust occur from
various construction sites also causes air pollution etc.
HEALTH EFFECTS OF PARTICULATES
• Due to small in size both PM2.5 and PM10 particles act as gas. When you breathe,
these particles they penetrate into the lungs, which can lead to cough and asthma
attacks. High blood pressure, heart attack, stroke etc. serious diseases may occur
and as a result of which premature death can occur. Do you know that if the level
of PM2.5 is high in the air mist or fog increases and the visibility is affected? The
worst effect of these particles in the air is on children and the elderly people.
 CARBON MONOXIDE
• Carbon monoxide poisoning is caused by inhaling combustion
fumes. When too much carbon monoxide is in the air you're
breathing, your body replaces the oxygen in your red blood cells
with carbon monoxide. This prevents oxygen from reaching your
tissues and organs.

• Various fuel-burning appliances and engines produce carbon

monoxide. The amount of carbon monoxide produced by these
sources usually isn't cause for concern. But if they're used in a
closed or partially closed space — cooking with a charcoal grill
indoors, for example — the carbon monoxide can build to
dangerous levels.
• Smoke inhalation during a fire also can cause carbon monoxide
poisoning.
 Risk factors
• Exposure to carbon monoxide may be particularly dangerous for:

• Unborn babies. Fetal blood cells take up carbon monoxide more

readily than adult blood cells do. This makes unborn babies more
susceptible to harm from carbon monoxide poisoning.
• Children. Young children take breaths more frequently than
adults do, which may make them more susceptible to carbon
monoxide poisoning.
• Older adults. Older people who experience carbon monoxide
poisoning may be more likely to develop brain damage.
• People who have chronic heart disease. People with a history of
anemia and breathing problems also are more likely to get sick
from exposure to carbon monoxide.
• Those in whom carbon monoxide poisoning leads to
unconsciousness. Loss of consciousness indicates more severe
exposure.
 Complications
Depending on the degree and length of
exposure, carbon monoxide poisoning can
cause:

• Permanent brain damage

• Damage to your heart, possibly leading to life-
threatening cardiac complications
• Fetal death or miscarriage
• Death
 SYMPTOMS

Signs and symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning

may include:

• Dull headache
• Weakness
• Dizziness
• Nausea or vomiting
• Shortness of breath
• Confusion
• Blurred vision
• Loss of consciousness
 PREVENTION
Simple precautions can help prevent carbon monoxide poisoning:

• Install carbon monoxide detectors. Put one in the hallway near each sleeping area in your house.
Check the batteries every time you check your smoke detector batteries — at least twice a year. If
the alarm sounds, leave the house and call 911 or the fire department. Carbon monoxide
detectors are also available for motor homes and boats.
• Open the garage door before starting your car. Never leave your car running in your garage. Be
particularly cautious if you have an attached garage. Leaving your car running in a space attached
to the rest of your house is never safe, even with the garage door open.
• Use gas appliances as recommended. Never use a gas stove or oven to heat your home. Use
portable gas camp stoves outdoors only. Use fuel-burning space heaters only when someone is
awake to monitor them and doors or windows are open to provide fresh air. Don't run a
generator in an enclosed space, such as the basement or garage.
• Keep your fuel-burning appliances and engines properly vented. These include:

• Space heaters
• Furnaces
• Charcoal grills
• Cooking ranges
• Water heaters
• Fireplaces
 NITROGEN DIOXIDE
• Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) is one of a group of highly
reactive gases known as oxides of nitrogen or
nitrogen oxides (NOx). Other nitrogen oxides
include nitrous acid and nitric acid. NO2 is used
as the indicator for the larger group of nitrogen
oxides.

• NO2 primarily gets in the air from the burning of

fuel. NO2 forms from emissions from cars, trucks
and buses, power plants, and off-road equipment.
 EFFECTS OF NO2
• Breathing air with a high concentration of NO2 can irritate
airways in the human respiratory system. Such exposures over
short periods can aggravate respiratory diseases, particularly
asthma, leading to respiratory symptoms (such as coughing,
wheezing or difficulty breathing), hospital admissions and visits to
emergency rooms. Longer exposures to elevated concentrations
of NO2 may contribute to the development of asthma and
potentially increase susceptibility to respiratory infections. People
with asthma, as well as children and the elderly are generally at
greater risk for the health effects of NO2.

• NO2 along with other NOx reacts with other chemicals in the air
to form both particulate matter and ozone. Both of these are also
harmful when inhaled due to effects on the respiratory system.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF NO2
• NO2 and other NOx interact with water, oxygen
and other chemicals in the atmosphere to form
acid rain. Acid rain harms sensitive ecosystems
such as lakes and forests.
• The nitrate particles that result from NOx make
the air hazy and difficult to see though. This
affects the many national parks that we visit for
the view.
• NOx in the atmosphere contributes to nutrient
pollution in coastal waters.
EFFECTS OF LEAD
 LEAD
• Lead poisoning occurs when lead builds up in the body,
often over months or years. Even small amounts of lead
can cause serious health problems. Children younger than
6 years are especially vulnerable to lead poisoning, which
can severely affect mental and physical development. At
very high levels, lead poisoning can be fatal.

• Lead-based paint and lead-contaminated dust in older

buildings are the most common sources of lead poisoning
in children. Other sources include contaminated air, water
and soil. Adults who work with batteries, do home
renovations or work in auto repair shops also might be
exposed to lead.
 LEAD
Symptoms
• Initially, lead poisoning can be hard to detect — even people who seem healthy can have
high blood levels of lead. Signs and symptoms usually don't appear until dangerous
amounts have accumulated.
• Lead poisoning symptoms in children

Signs and symptoms of lead poisoning in children include:

• Developmental delay
• Learning difficulties
• Irritability
• Loss of appetite
• Weight loss
• Sluggishness and fatigue
• Abdominal pain
• Vomiting
• Constipation
• Hearing loss
• Seizures
 LEAD POISONING SYMPTONS IN
ADULTS
• High blood pressure
• Joint and muscle pain
• Difficulties with memory or concentration
• Headache
• Abdominal pain
• Mood disorders
• Reduced sperm count and abnormal sperm
• Miscarriage, stillbirth or premature birth in
pregnant women
 Prevention
• Simple measures can help protect you and your family from lead poisoning:

• Wash hands and toys. To help reduce hand-to-mouth transfer of contaminated dust
or soil, wash your children's hands after outdoor play, before eating and at bedtime.
Wash their toys regularly.
• Clean dusty surfaces. Clean your floors with a wet mop and wipe furniture,
windowsills and other dusty surfaces with a damp cloth.
• Remove shoes before entering the house. This will help keep lead-based soil outside.
• Run cold water. If you have older plumbing containing lead pipes or fittings, run your
cold water for at least a minute before using. Don't use hot tap water to make baby
formula or for cooking.
• Prevent children from playing on soil. Provide them with a sandbox that's covered
when not in use. Plant grass or cover bare soil with mulch.
• Eat a healthy diet. Regular meals and good nutrition might help lower lead
absorption. Children especially need enough calcium, vitamin C and iron in their
diets to help keep lead from being absorbed.
• Keep your home well-maintained. If your home has lead-based paint, check
regularly for peeling paint and fix problems promptly. Try not to sand, which
generates dust particles that contain lead.
SMOG
 SMOG
• Smog is air pollution that reduces visibility. The term "smog" was first
used in the early 1900s to describe a mix of smoke and fog. The smoke
usually came from burning coal. When sunlight hits these chemicals, they
form airborne particles and ground-level ozone.
• The atmospheric pollutants or gases that form smog are released in the
air when fuels are burnt. When sunlight and its heat react with these
gases and fine particles in the atmosphere, smog is formed. It is purely
caused by air pollution.
• At least two distinct types of smog are recognized: sulfurous smog and
photochemical smog. Sulfurous smog, which is also called “London smog,
” results from a high concentration of sulfur oxides in the air and is caused
by the use of sulfur-bearing fossil fuels, particularly coal.
• The main sources of these precursors are pollutants released directly into
the air by gasoline and diesel-run vehicles, industrial plants and activities,
and heating due to human activities.
 SMOG
• Smog is often caused by heavy traffic, high
temperatures, sunshine, and calm winds. These
are a few of the factors behind an increasing level
of air pollution in the atmosphere. During the
winter months when the wind speeds are low, it
helps the smoke and fog to become stagnate at a
place forming smog and increasing pollution
levels near the ground closer to where people are
respiring. It hampers visibility and disturbs the
environment.
 DEVASTATING EFFECTS OF SMOG
• Smog is harmful and it is evident from the components that form it and
effects that can happen from it. It is harmful to humans, animals, plants,
and nature as a whole. Many people deaths were recorded, notably,
those relating to bronchial diseases. Heavy smog is responsible for
decreasing UV radiation greatly. Thus heavy smog results in low
production of the crucial natural element vitamin D leading to cases of
rickets among people.
• When a city or town gets covered in smog, the effects are felt
immediately. Smog can be responsible for any ailment from minor pains
to deadly pulmonary diseases such as lung cancer. Smog is well known for
causing irritation in the eye. It may also result in inflammation in the
tissues of lungs; giving rise to pain in the chest. Other issues or illnesses
such as cold and pneumonia are also related to smog.
 MINOR EXPOSURE TO SMOG
• Minor exposure to smog can lead to greater
threats of asthma attacks; people suffering
from asthma problems must avoid exposure.
Smog also causes premature deaths and
affects densely populated areas building it up
to dangerous levels. The highly affected
people include old people, kids and those
with cardiac and respiratory complications as
they have an easy tendency to be a
disadvantage of asthma.
 AEROSOLS
• Tiny airborne particles, also called aerosols, are formed in
several different ways. They can be created by sea salt from
sea spray and bursting bubbles, windblown dust, and volcanic
eruptions as well as from fossil fuel combustion from
automobiles, ships, airplanes, and factory emissions.
• Some aerosols have a cooling effect by reflecting solar energy
back into space, while other aerosols containing substantial
amounts of carbon warm their surroundings by absorbing the
sun's energy, and can also directly harm human health when
particles are at ground level.
 EFFECTS OF AEROSOLS
• The health impacts of aerosols consist of both short-term acute
symptoms, like asthma and bronchitis, and long-term chronic irritation
and inflammation of the respiratory track, which can potentially lead to
cancer.
• Aerosols influence climate in two primary ways: by changing the amount
of heat that gets in or out of the atmosphere, or by affecting the way
clouds form. Aerosols also influence how clouds form and grow. Water
droplets coalesce readily around particles, so a particle-rich atmosphere
promotes cloud formation.
ACID RAIN CYCLE
 ACID RAIN
• CAUSES- Acid rain is atmospheric precipitation mixed with pollution
elements that produce acids as reacting with the natural atmospheric
gases and water, which causes the rain to become more acidic. Mainly,
scientists detect high levels of nitric and sulfuric acids. The pH of
''normal'' rain is 5.6, which is slightly acidic (pure water has a pH of 7), but
acid rains can have pH lower than 5, and even 4 in the areas with a lot of
cars and industrial pollution
• The main cause for the acid rain is the burning of fossil fuels and coal:
their waste gases contain a lot of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides
(NOx). Coal-burning power plans, transportation, and large industrial
facilities are the main contributors.
 What Is The Impact Of Acid Rain?

• The environment can sometimes adapt to the changing water

acidity by changing its biosystem towards plants and animals that
can exist in more acidic conditions. However, it also means losing
many unique biomes, such as in the Rocky Mountains and some
parts of the northwest and the southeast US.

• Some fish and aquatic animals that reproduce in water have

difficulties adjusting to growing acidity. Evergreen forests suffer
the most among plants. Dead and crippled trees are a typical sight
in areas regularly affected by acid rains. Acid can leech or change
nutrients in the soil that plants need to grow, or change them so
drastically that they can no longer be absorbed.
 IMPACT OF ACID RAIN ON BUILDINGS AND MONUMENTS

• Acid precipitation dissolved stone or alters its appearance. Pollution and

acid rain accelerate the corrosion of buildings and monuments, causing
concern about the loss of historical buildings. Even sandstone is affected,
but marble and limestone, often used for the architecture of importance,
suffer the most. When acids in polluted air react with the calcite in those
materials, it dissolves, and surfaces become eroded, lose its gloss, color,
and delicate carvings.
ATMOSPHERIC INVERSION
 ATMOSPHERIC INVERSION
• A temperature inversion in the atmosphere in which the
temperature, instead of falling, increases with height above the
ground. With the colder and heavier air below, there is no
tendency to form upward currents and turbulence is suppressed.
Inversions are often formed in the late afternoon when the
radiation emitted from the ground exceeds that received from the
sinking sun. Inversions are also caused by katabatic winds, that is
cold winds flowing down the hillside into a valley, and by
anticyclones. In inversion layers, both vertical and horizontal
diffusion is inhibited and pollutants become trapped, sometimes
for long periods. Low-level discharges of pollutants are more
readily trapped by inversions than high level dischargers, hence
the case for high stacks. Furthermore, high level discharges into
an inversion tend to remain at a high level because of the absence
of vertical mixing.
 AIR POLLUTION EPISODES
• MEUSE VALLEY EPISODE OF 1930
• DONORA EPISODE OF 1948
• LONDON EPISODE OF 1952
• BHOPAL GAS TRAGEDY OF 1984
• CHERNOBYL DISASTER OF 1986
• SOUTH EAST ASIAN HAZE OF 1997
MEUSE VALLEY INCIDENT OF 1930
 CAUSES FOR MEUSE VALLEY INCIDENT
OF 1930
• Based on the pathological evidence and emission analysis, it was
concluded that sulphur dioxide was likely the cause of the symptoms
experienced in the Meuse Valley area through a process of elimination.
This was determined as the largest concentration of pollutant in the valley
was sulphur dioxide, primarily due to the domestic burning of coal.
Further analysis indicates sulphur dioxide concentrations within the
Meuse Valley reached 25-100 mg/m3. In addition, it was calculated that
sulphur dioxide was the only pollutant that could have dispersed
throughout the valley in high enough concentrations to exhibit toxicity in
humans. Furthermore, the weather conditions promoted the production
of sulphuric acid which may have been responsible for some of the
asthma-like symptoms. Therefore, it was determine that the event was
not due to excessive sulphur dioxide emissions, but the combination of
the sulphur dioxide emissions and meteorological conditions, stating that
the event would occur again with the same activity levels and weather
(Firket, 1936).
 1948 DONORA SMOG
• The 1948 Donora smog killed 20 people and caused respiratory problems
for 7,000 of the 14,000 people living in Donora Pennsylvania, a mill town
on the Monongahela River 24 miles (39 km) southeast of Pittsburgh FOR
the period of 4 days(OCT 27TH- OCT31ST).
• The New York Times as "one of the worst air pollution disasters in the
nation's history. Even 10 years after the incident, mortality rates in
Donora were significantly higher than those in other communities nearby.
• Causes-Hydrogen fluoride and sulfur dioxide emissions from U.S. Steel's
Donora Zinc Works and its American Steel & Wire plant were frequent
occurrences in Donora. What made the 1948 event more severe was a
temperature inversion, a situation in which warmer air aloft traps
pollution in a layer of colder air near the surface. The pollutants in the air
mixed with fog to form a thick, yellowish, acrid smog that hung over
Donora for five days. The sulfuric acid, nitrogen dioxide, fluorine, and
other poisonous gases that usually dispersed into the atmosphere were
caught in the inversion and accumulated until rain ended the weather
pattern after 4 days.
 LONDON EPISODE OF 1952
• Great Smog of 1952, was a severe air pollution event that affected
London, England, in December 1952. A period of unusually cold weather,
combined with an anticyclone and windless conditions, collected airborne
pollutants—mostly arising from the use of coal—to form a thick layer of
smog over the city. It lasted from Friday 5 December to Tuesday 9
December 1952, then dispersed quickly when the weather changed.
• It caused major disruption by reducing visibility and even penetrating
indoor areas, far more severely than previous smog events, called "pea-
soupers". Government medical reports in the weeks following the event
estimated that up to 4,000 people had died as a direct result of the smog
and 100,000 more were made ill by the smog's effects on the human
respiratory tract. More recent research suggests that the total number of
fatalities may have been considerably greater, with estimates of between
10,000 and 12,000 deaths.
 BHOPAL GAS TRAGEDY, 1984
• The Bhopal disaster, also referred to as the Bhopal gas tragedy, was a gas
leak incident on the night of 2–3 December 1984 at the Union Carbide
India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India. It is
considered among the world's worst industrial disasters.
• Cause- Leakage of poisonous gas called Methyl Isocyanite (MIC) resulted
in death and respiratory injuries of thousands of people
CHERNOBYL DISASTER OF 1986
 CHERNOBYL DISASTER OF 1986
• The Chernobyl accident in 1986 was the result of a flawed reactor design
that was operated with inadequately trained personnel.
• The resulting steam explosion and fires released at least 5% of the
radioactive reactor core into the environment, with the deposition of
radioactive materials in many parts of Europe.
• Two Chernobyl plant workers died due to the explosion on the night of
the accident, and a further 28 people died within a few weeks as a result
of acute radiation syndrome.
• The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic
Radiation has concluded that, apart from some 5000 thyroid cancers
(resulting in 15 fatalities), "there is no evidence of a major public health
impact attributable to radiation exposure 20 years after the accident."
• Some 350,000 people were evacuated as a result of the accident, but
resettlement of areas from which people were relocated is ongoing
 SOUTH EAST ASIAN HAZE OF 1997
• The 1997 Southeast Asian haze was a large-scale air quality disaster that
occurred during the second half of 1997, its after-effects causing
widespread atmospheric visibility and health problems within Southeast
Asia. The total costs of the Southeast Asian haze are estimated at US$9
billion, due mainly to health care and disruption of air travel and business
activities.
• Countries affected were Indonesia, Thailand, Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia,
Philippines and Sri Lanka.
• The 1997 Southeast Asian haze was caused mainly by slash-and-burn
techniques adopted by farmers in Indonesia.Slash and burn has been
extensively used for many years as the cheapest and easiest means to
clear the lands for traditional agriculture. Fire is also used during the long
fallow rotation of the so-called jungle rubber in Sumatra and Kalimantan
to remove most of the biomass, including the woody parts before new
plantations are re-established.
 SOUTH EAST ASIAN HAZE OF 1997
• EFFECTS- Atmospheric particulate matter was the form of air
pollutant that predominantly contributed to the haze and
degradation in ambient air quality standards during this crisis. In
all countries affected by the smoke haze, an increase of acute
health outcomes was observed. Health effects; included
emergency room visits due to respiratory symptoms such as
asthma, upper respiratory infection, decreased lung function as
well as eye and skin irritation, were caused mainly by this
particulate matter. In Singapore, for instance, health surveillance
showed a 30% increase in hospital attendance due to air quality
related symptoms. Generally, children and the elderly, as well as
those with pre-existing respiratory and cardiac diseases were the
most susceptible to adverse health outcomes from the haze
exposure. The smoke haze episode has added to the urban and
industrial air pollution in Southeast Asia, causing it to reach
alarming levels in many metropolitan areas.
 SECONDARY POLLUTANTS
• Thus Secondary pollutants are pollutants which form in the atmosphere.
These pollutants are not emitted directly from a source (like vehicles or
power plants). ... Photochemical smog is made up of various secondary
pollutants like ozone, peroxyacyl nitrates (PANs), and nitric acid.
• Secondary pollutants include ground-level ozone, acid rain and nutrient
enrichment compounds.