DRAINAGE ENGINEERING REPORT

1.0 HYDROLOGY

Hydrology is the study of water, its properties, movement, and its interaction with the
environment within each phase of the hydrologic cycle. Domains of hydrology include:

A. Hydrometeorology : The study of water in the atmosphere.

B. Geohydrology : The study of water underneath the earth.
C. Mainland hydrology : The study of hydrologic processes that operate at or near the
earth’s surface.

Mainland hydrology can further be classified into

Limnology which is the study of stationery water e.g. lakes

Potmology which is the study of moving water e.g. streams, rivers
Glaciology which is the study of water stored in mountains

Hydrometry is the act of taking measurements of water parameters including the velocity of a
river, level of water etc. whiles Hydrodata is the plotting of the acquired hydrometric data
into a graph.

1.1 THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

The hydrologic cycle describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the
surface of the earth. Water can change states among liquid, vapour, and ice at various places
in the water cycle. Although the balance of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time,
individual water molecules can come and go. The water moves from one reservoir to another,
such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes of
evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and subsurface flow. In so
doing, the water goes through different phases: liquid, solid, and gas.

The hydrologic cycle also involves the exchange of heat energy, which leads to temperature
changes. For instance, in the process of evaporation, water takes up energy from the
surroundings and cools the environment. Conversely, in the process of condensation, water
releases energy to its surroundings, warming the environment.

The water cycle figures significantly in the maintenance of life and ecosystems on Earth.
Even as water in each reservoir plays an important role, the water cycle brings added
significance to the presence of water on our planet. By transferring water from one reservoir
to another, the water cycle purifies water, replenishes the land with freshwater, and transports
minerals to different parts of the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the geological features
of the Earth, through such processes as erosion and sedimentation. In addition, as the water
cycle involves heat exchange, it exerts an influence on climate as well.
1.1.2 DESCRIPTION

The sun is the driving force behind the hydrologic cycle. Heated water in the oceans and seas
and water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil (evapotranspiration) rises into
the air. Rising air currents take the vapour up into the atmosphere where cooler temperatures
cause it to condense into clouds. Cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as
precipitation (rainfall, sleet, snow, hail). Most water falls back into the oceans. Some of the
rainfall is intercepted on the leaves. Some precipitation falls onto the land and is absorbed
(infiltration) or becomes surface runoff which gradually flows into streams, lakes, or rivers
whiles some are retained in puddles, ditches, and other depressions in the surface of the
ground (depression storage). Water in streams and rivers flows to the ocean, seeps into the
ground, or evaporates back into the atmosphere. Some water in the soil seeps downward into
a zone of porous rock which contains groundwater. A permeable underground rock layer
which is capable of storing, transmitting, and supplying significant amounts of water is
known as an aquifer.

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

The mathematical expression of the hydrologic cycle is referred to as water budget/balance:
h p=h e+h Q+h inf + h s
hp = head of water/ amount of water from atmosphere
he = amount of water evaporated
hQ = discharge (volume of runoff per unit time)
hinf = amount of water infiltrated
hs = depression storage
hp=he+ {( h Q+ hinf +h s)}-abstraction

1.2 ESTIMATING DISCHARGE

Discharge is the volume of runoff per unit time. The catchment of a river above a certain
location is determined by the surface area of all land which drains towards the river from
above the point.

1.2.1 RATIONAL FORMULA

The Rational formula estimates the peak rate of runoff at any location in a watershed as a function of
the drainage area, runoff coefficient, and mean rainfall intensity for a duration equal to the time of
concentration (the time required for water to flow from the most remote point of the basin to the
location being analyzed). The rational formula is expressed as:

q = CiA (Imperial Units)

Where q – ft3/sec
i = rainfall intensity (in/hr)
A = watershed area in acres
C = runoff coefficient, ratio of the peak runoff rate to the rainfall intensity, dimensionless

q = 0.278CiA (SI Units)

Where q = design peak runoff rate in m3/s

C = the runoff coefficient
i = rainfall intensity in mm/h for the design return period and for a duration equal to the “time
of concentration” of the watershed

To use the rational method there are a few assumptions:

Rainfall intensity is constant throughout catchment

Limited to a catchment area not more than 0.8km2
However the Modified rational formula can be used up to a catchment size of 25km2

Q = 0.278fCiA

f = area reduction factor

1.2.1.1 RUNOFF COEFFICIENT

The assignment of the runoff coefficient (C) is somewhat subjective. The runoff coefficient is
a function of the topography (c T ¿, degree of urbanisation (c URB ¿, vegetation (c V ¿ and soil
type (c S ) of the catchment area. C =c T + c S + c V +c URB .
A Simple runoff coefficient is used when 80% of the catchment area has the same features
i.e. the catchment area is homogenous and isotropic. The simple runoff coefficient is given:
runoff
C= and ranges between 0≤C≤1
rainfall
If land use varies within a watershed, the watershed segments are considered individually,
and a weighted runoff coefficient coefficient value is calculated as follows:
C1 A 1+ C2 A 2 +C3 A 3 … … … …
C=
C1 A 1+ C2 A 2 +C3 A 3 … … … …

1.2.1.2 AREA REDUCTION FACTOR (F)

The area reduction factor converts point rainfall into area rainfall and is given as
f = 1-0.001(log A)(9logN-0.042P+152)
where A=catchment area
N = return period
P = mean annual rainfall

1.2.1.3 RAINFALL INTENSITY (I)

mm
The rainfall intensity is the depth of rainfall per hour in .
hr

1.2.1.4 TIME OF CONCENTRATION (Tc)

The time required for water to flow from the most remote (in time of flow) point of the area
to the outlet once the soil has become saturated and minor depressions filled. It is assumed
that when the duration of the storm equals the time of concentration, all parts of the
watershed are contributing simultaneously to the discharge at the outlet. The time of
concentration is equal to the design duration. There are several methods for computing time
of concentration with the B. Williams equation one.
B. Williams Equation

58.5 L
Tc = (in minutes)
A 0.1 S 0.2

Where L = flow length (km)

A = Area (km2)
S= Slope of catchment

0.975 L
Tc = (in hours)
A0.1 S 0.2

1.2.2 NATIONAL RESOURCES CONSERVATION SYSTEM (NRCS)

With this method, the peak discharge is determined once the runoff curve number has been
determined. The flow in the catchment area is divided into three parts namely:

i. Sheet (overland) flow (0-90m)

0.0913(n L)0.08
t 1=
(P 20.5 S0.4 )
where t 1=¿time of concentration
n = surface roughness
L= (maximum of 90m)
P2= 2 years, 24 hour rainfall (mm)
1000
S = potential maximum retention = Ku( -10) in mm
RCN
where Ku=25.4, RCN= runoff curve number

ii. Shallow concentrated flow

0.5
V= Ku K S p
where V= velocity of flow
Ku=1
Sp = slope
K= intercept coefficient
L
t 2= (mins)
V∗60
For unpaved areas V= 4.9178√ Sp
For paved areas V= 6.196035√ Sp

iii. Channel/pipe flow

1 2 /3 1/ 2
V= R S
n
 L
t 3=
V∗60

Tc =t 1+ t 2 +t 3

1.2.2.1 DIRECT RUNOFF

The depth of direct runoff is given as

2
(P−0.2 S R )
Q D= (mm)
P+ 0.8 S R

P = depth of 24 hr precipitation (mm)

S R= retention in mm

Q = q uAQ D (m3 /s ¿
2
q u= Ku*10co +c 1 logtc+c2 (logtc )
Ku =0.000431
A=basin area (km ¿ ¿2
q u= unit peak flow m3 /s ¿ km2 /mm
c 0 , c 1 , c 2 ,=coefficient
Ia = 0.2 S R
Ia/p ¿ 0.5

q A= Q f p where f p= Adjustment factor

1.2.2.2 LIMITATIONS OF THE NRCS

1) Basin should have fairly homogenous value.

2) RCN should be forty or greater.
3) Time of concentration should be between 0.1 & 10 hours.
4) Ia/p should be between 0.1 and 0.5.
5) Basin should have one more channel or branches with nearly equal times of concentration.
6) Neither channel nor reservoir routing can be imported.
7) Fp factor is applied only for ponds & swarms that are not in the flow path.
 2.0 HYDRAULICS

This is the application of engineering hydrology into solving structural elements (drains,
culvert, bridges, and dams).

2.1 DRAINS

Drains are structures that collect and convey runoff to its appropriate outfall.

2.1.1 CLASSIFICATION

Drains are classified based on

A) Degree of conveyance

Primary Drain (storm drain): Finally discharges into water body or sea
Secondary Drain: These are often found along the road side
Tertiary Drain: These are found at home

B) Geometry
Rectangular drain

Trapezoidal drain

U-shaped drain

V shaped

Semi-circular drain
 C) Function
Roadside drain
Intercepted drain
Cut off drain
Chute drain
Diverted drain

2.1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWS

The Froude number (Fr) is used to distinguish between critical, subcritical and supercritical
flow. Hydraulic jumps may occur when water enters a pipe in super-critical flow, and then
the flow in the pipe becomes subcritical as water begins to back up due to downstream.

Steady flow: Flow characteristics (velocity) do not change with time at a

particular location.
Unsteady flow: Flow characteristics (velocity) change with time at a particular
location.
Uniform flow: Depth of water is the same from one location to another.
Non-uniform flow: Depth of water is the different from one location to
another.
Laminar flow: Flow moving in a streamline pattern with respect to Reynolds
number.
Turbulent flow: Flow not moving in a streamline pattern with respect to
Reynolds number.
Subcritical flow: Flow of mild slope. Fr = 1
Supercritical flow: Water flows relatively quickly and unimpeded through a
fairly steep slope. Fr ¿ 1
Critical flow: borderline flow between subcritical and supercritical flow. Fr ¿
1

2.1.2.1 FREEBOARD
The vertical distance from the top of the channel to the water surface (highest anticipated) at
design condition. This distance should be sufficient to prevent waves or fluctuation in the
water surface from overflowing the sides. It is usually given as 0.15m.

2.1.2.2 HYDRAULIC OF DRAINS

 1 2 /3 1/ 2
The velocity (V) of flow through a drain is calculated as V= R S with the discharge
n
(Q) given as Q= VA
where n= Manning’s coefficient (which defines the roughness nature of surface)
n=0.015 for fresh concrete; 0.024-0.027 for earth ditches
R= hydraulic radius
S= slope (ratio of vertical drop to length of channel travelled)
A= area of flow

For a rectangular drain as an example

A= B*H
A
R= where P= wetted perimeter
P
P= 2H+B
BH
R=
2H +B

2.2 CULVERTS

Culvert is a structure that conveys runoff from one side of the road to the other. The
minimum slope for a culvert so that it will not silt = 1.2%. A culvert should span up to 6
meters.

2.2.1 TYPES

Pipe Culvert (PC)

Box Culvert (BC)

 Corrugated Metal Pipe (CMP)

Slab Culvert

2.2.2 PARTS OF A CULVERT

Endwall invert Headwall

barrel Soffit apron (extension)

 Curtain wall

Headwall or endwall

Wingwall

Chamfer

2.2.3 CULVERT CONTROL

When designing culverts, it should be determined whether the flow through the culvert is
controlled at the inlet or the outlet. With inlet control, the amount of water passing through is
controlled as water enters the culvert whiles with outlet control, the amount of water is
controlled downstream of the inlet.

2.2.3.1 CULVERT UNDER INLET CONTROL

√
Qc = CoANp 2 g ( H−

where A= flow area

D
2
)

Np = number of pipes (number of cells)

H= head of water
D= diameter/depth of barrel
Co = 0.62

2.2.3.2 CULVERT UNDER OUTLET CONTROL

Qc = CcNpA√ 2 g H l
where Cc = (Kx+ kf +ki)−0.5
2
2gn L
Kf= 4 /3
R
H l = headloss, Kx (exit coefficient) = 1, Kf = friction coefficient,
Ki = inlet coefficient (for pipe culvert= 0.5, Box culvert = 0.4)
n = manning coefficient
L= length of culvert

2.3 BRIDGE
A bridge is a structure providing goods and services from one side of the valley to another or
over an obstruction.

2.3.1 TYPES

Simply supported
Suspended bridges
Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)/Simply Supported : Suitable for any type
of foundation and spans up to 10m
RCC T Beam/ Simply supported: Suitable for any type of foundation. Spans
up to 10-25m
RCC Continous T Beam/Slab: Suitable for rocky unyielding foundations.
Spans 10-20m.
RCC Balanced Cantilever : Suitable for deep foundations. Spans 25-60m.
Prestressed T Beam & Slabs simply Supported: Suitable for any type of
foundation generally deep. Spans between 20-60m.
Cable Stray Girders: Suitable for deep foundations. Span range 80-500m.

TYPE BASED ON SPAN

Per the span of a bridge, bridges can be classified as:

Minor bridges-span of 6-25m

Medium (midi-bridges)- span of 26-100m
Major bridge- ¿ 100 m

TYPE BASED ON MATERIAL

Reinforced bridges
Steel bridges
Timber bridges

2.3.2 PARTS OF A BRIDGE

A bridge consists of a

Superstructure : from the lower deck up

Substructure : from the lower deck to bed of a river
Foundation: Bed of river to footing of bridge

Functions of Bridge Parts

Deck: The riding surface

Girders: Supports the deck
Piers: Support the deck at intervals
Abutment: Extreme supports
Ballast: restricts movement of a deck

2.3.3 WATER WAY REQUIREMENTS OF RIVER

Two main types of rivers are:

i. Alluvial River: dynamic, wash and erode their banks and carry material along.
ii. Incis River: Have stable banks.

The minimum and maximum water way requirement for alluvial rivers using the Lacey
Regime formula is given as:

Max – 4.8Q1 /2 (m)

Min – 3.2Q1 /2 (m)

2.3.4 SCOURING
When a river flows very fast it picks up material from the river bed or banks and washes it
away. This is called scour. Sometimes scouring causes large holes in river beds or washes
large sections of the bank away. Bridges may be destroyed by scour. The depth of scour hole
0.473Q 1/3
is given as D = where f = 1.76√ m where m=mean size of aggregates for bed
f 1 /3
in mm

3.0 PAVEMENT DRAINAGE

Road drainage is one of the most important factors to consider in the construction of a road.
Surface drainage must be provided to drain precipitation away from the pavement structure.
Cross slope directs water to the shoulder where it flows into a ditch, then down the ditch to a
culvert and finally into an existing natural drainage. Water on road surface can lead to
hydroplaning and skidding which may result in accidents and fatalities. Pavement drainage
design includes predicting the

frequency of run/off (10years return period, 50years for sag curve)

Allowable spread (movement of water from the edge of kerb to the
crown)

The amount of water moving at the edge (Gutter capacity) is given as

K
Q= ( ) Sx5 /3 S1 /2 T 8 /3
n
where K=0.376
Q = gutter capacity (m3 /s )
T = spread/width of flow (m)
Sx = cross slope (m/m)
S = longitudinal slope
T= 1.443(Q3 /8 ¿ Sx−5 /8 S 3 /16

In pavement drainage, designs are made for

Storm drain
Gutter
Grate inlet

Kerb inlet
Combination inlet

Gully pots
 and slot inlets

Inlets must be placed

Before junctions
0% grade should have inlets (in super elevation)
30m after crest
For a sag curve
5-7m for combination inlets

The curb opening length (Lt) required intercepting 100% efficiency (all water to be
drained) is given as

0.42 0.3 1
Lt = KuQ Sl ( )
ns x

Ku= 0.817
E=1-(1-L/Lt)
where L = curb opening (m)
E = efficiency of curb opening inlet