Cooling and Heating LOAD CALCULATION MANUAL RRO LB SEH ONLPREFACE ‘The Cooling and Heating Load Calculation Manual, generally known as ASHRAE GRP 158, was originally putlished about 15 years ago under diree- tion of the late William Rudoy. The manual has served the industry well as both a working and teaching documen:; however, as with any manual of this type, experience and research developments have revealed some shortcom- ingsin the procedures developed at that time. Further, the rapid development of the personal computer has made it possible for most designers to aban- don hand calculations in favor of more rigorous automated methods while the method described in the existing manual is constrained to be a manual procedure, With these considerations in mind, this new manual incorporates the latest developments and data for load calculations; has a large empha- sis on computer procedures with appropriate data on magnetic media; and iscomprehensive with respect to all ASHRAE load calculation procedures, except residential. ‘Work leading to the development, review, and publication of this manual ‘was directed by TC 4.1, Load Caleulat.ons. Dr. Edward F. Sowell played an important role in the research leading to the development of new data associated with the Transfer Function Method. He was responsible for the development of the weighting factor database and software to access that data and was the principal author of Appendix A. With any publication of this magnitude, helpful suggestions, comments, and criticisms come from many individuals and sources. Their assistance is. acknowledged and appreciated. Faye C. MeQuiston Jeffrey D. SpitlerTABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter1 Introduction 1.4 Purpose of Design Load Calculations... et 1.2 Types of Heat Transfer Rates . 12 1.3 Load Calculation Methods 13 1.4 Information Required—Input - 13 1.5 Information Required—Output 14 1.6 Suggestion for Manual Calculations 14 Chapter2 Transfer Function Method BA Ovendew! errata erence 2.2 Tiansfer Functions a 2.8 Determination of Heat Gains. 22.01.21) 2.3.4 Solar Radiation Intensity . iene 2.3.2 Determination of Heat Gains through Walls and Roofs. 2.3.3 Determination of Heat Gains through Windows... 2.8.4 Heat Gain through Interior Paritions, Floors, and stings 2.35 Heat Gain through Below-Grade Surfaces 2.4 Conversion of Heat Gains into Cooling Load 2.5 Summation of Hourly Cooling Loads ...... 2.6 Heat Extraction Rate and Room Temperature Chapter3 Weather Data and Design Conditions 81 Indoor Design Conditions : . at 3.2 Outdoor Design Conditions See 34 3.3 WindData ... ‘ 32 3.4 Interpolation between Stations... 33 3.5 Weather-Oriented Design Factors. 33 3.6 Data Related to Underground Structures... a3 3.7 Evaporative Cooling Weather Data... : 33 Chapter4 Heat Transmission Coefficients and Property Data 4.1 Thermal Properties of Building and Insulation Materials... oe 44 42 Surface Conductances and Resistances ....... et 43 Thermal Resistance of Air Spaces a eee 44 44° Ceiling Air Spaces .... 2 42 4.5 Overall Transmission Goeffcie'ts for Doors... 42 4.8 Overall Transmission Coeffcierts for Windows and Skyiigl 42 4.7 Overall Transmission Coefficierts for Below-Grade Walls and Floors ......... 42 4.8 Transmission Coefficients for Slabs on Grade ..... oe 43 49 Examples ae 43 Chapter5 Internal Heat Gain 51 People ..... i cee SA 52 Lighting... a ee ‘ : Bt 5.3 Miscellaneous Equipment 220222222022 a : 53 54 Examples ... ee ae BAChapter 6 Infiltration 61 Infiltration and Outdoor Ventilation Air Loads. 61 6.2 Pressure Difference Due to Stack Effect . 6.2 6.3 Pressure Difference Due to’ Effect 63 G4 Pressure Diference Dusto Bulding Pressuzaion ol Ba 65 Curtain Wall Infiltration per Floor or Room... -2. 65 6.6 Crack Infiltration for Doors and Movable Windows... .- 67 67 Infiltration through Commercialiype Doors i ie 67 6.8 _ Infiltration for Low-Rise Buildings 69 Chapter7 Heating Load 71 Outdoor Design Conditions : ‘ 72 72 Indoor Design Conditions... ‘ : 72 73 Calculation of Heat Losses .- eee eer 7.4 Heat Losses in Air Distribution System... me once. 75 Auxiliary Heat Sources... : ee 73 7.8 Air Required for Space Heating... 73 7.7 Calculations 1 74 78 Examples . i a 74 Chapter 8 CLTD/SCL/CLF Method ae 81 Cooling Load Due to Heat Gain through Walls and Roofs ...... a2 82 Heat Gain through Fenestration : : a3 83 Cooling Load Due to Internal Heat Gain... cee ee ee eeceeeceeeeneee e4 84 Cooling Load Due to Infiltration . eee, &5 Heat Gain in Air Distribution System... eee 7 86 Air Quantities a 88 87 Calculations oe 88 88 Examples ......... Bree 88 Chapter9 _ TETD/TA Method 21 Overview of TETD/TA Method eas 94 8.2 Solar Radiation Calculations . eae 813 Conduction Heat Gain through Walls and Roots . 92 84 Conduction Heat Gain trough Windows, 94 9.5 Internal Heat Gains .... Eee 94 8.6 Time Averaging nt re aes 9.7 Summation of Cooling Loads : SaaS. Chapter 10 Air Systems, Loads, Indoor Air Quality, and i eeccnomeies 10.1 Classical Design Procedures. : 10.2 Off-Design Conditions ...... Appendix A Transfer Function Methods ‘At Overview .. ‘A2_ Usingthe TFMTAB Program... A3 Using the Optional Language Disks... A4 Data Structures Used in Electronic Tables... . AS Correction-of Cooling Loads Due to Nonstandard Radiative/Gonvective Split in Heat Gains :Appendix B Heat Transmission Factors 5.1 Heat Transmission through Opaque Surfaces B.2 Heat Transter from Fluid to Suriace 3 Radiation Heat Transfer - sues sea B4 Overall Coefficients U wT Ba B.5 Basement Walls and Floors BS BG Floor Slabs at Grade Level : BS Appendix C_CLTD/SCL/CLF Method CA Cooling Load Due to External Surfaces ........... cA ©.2 Cooling Load Due to Internal Loads C2 Appendix D Psychrometric Processes—Basic Principles DA Basic Data and Standard Conditions ....... ‘ Da D.2 Basic Moist Air Processes ........... D3 D.3 Processes Involving Work andLost Pressure <=... cose e cesses De D4 Heat Transfer in Air Distribution System D.10 Appendix E Installing Programs to Generate Custom Tables License AgreementChapter 1 INTRODUCTION ‘The objective of this manual sto provide a comprehen- sive source of theory, procedures, and data for cooling and heating load calculations for other than residential buildings. The material herein is based on a comprehensive terature search, ASHRAE Handbooks, special publica- tions, and standards. Procedures are given for both com- puterized and manual calculations to meet the needs ofthe HVAC system designer in an ever-changing world. This manual is intended for use by the experienced prac- ticing engineer as well as a person just entering the field, Further, the procedures should meet the needs of a sophis- ticated computer user as well as someone using manual calculations. Considerable research, referenced in Chapter 2, which has a great impact on load calculations, has recently been ‘completed. This work has provided improved accuracy and ‘ease of use for both computer and manual procedures. All procedures are designed to give a small measure of conser- vatism, but no actual safety factors are included, The Trans- fer Function Method (TFM) is the baseline procedure adopted by ASHRAE and is considered one of the most, accurate methods of calculating loads (see Chapter 2 for details of this method). Most other ASHRAE load calcu- lation methods are simplified approximations of the TFM. ‘fhe manual procedure (CLID/SCL/CL¥) described in ‘Chapter 8is based on this method, and the potential errors with respect to the baseline TFM are given. This is onc of the most important improvements inthis new manual. The ‘Total Equivalent Temperature Difference (TETD) method, which contains updated data for calculation of the TETDs, is described in Chapter 9. ASHRAE Standards 55, 62, and 90.1 related to comfort, indoor air quality, and energy conservationall haveload and energy implications and are referenced at appropriate places. Generally revised every five years, the designer should use the most current version of these standards. ‘The manual is organized to first outline the basic theory, the Transfer Function Method, on which most other ‘methods are totally or partially based (Chapter2). Appen- dix A supplements Chapter 2 and contains information relative to transfer function coefficients for walls, roofs, and zones and the subroutines to access that data. The “TPM has been enhanced with respect to the wall and roof conduction transfer coefficients as well as the room trans- fer coefficients. There arealso updates in other minor areas, such as solar heat gain. The next four chapters (3, 4, 5, and 6) cover data and procedures preliminary to making actual load caleulations. ‘These four chapters are entitled: Weather Data and Design Conditions, Property Data and Transport Coefficients, Internal Heat Gain, and Infiltration, Information in Chap- ters3, 4,5, and 6 applies to all load calculation methods. Chapter 4 isalso supplemented by Appendix B. Chapter 7, wd Heating Load, coversal the factors bearing on heating load calculations and references other chapters as appropriate. Chapter 8, The CLTD/SCL/CLF Method, isan exten- sive chapter covering the well-known manual approach to cooling load calculations. This method has undergone extensive revisions based on recent research; however, there is still a potential for error. Tabular data has been limited toone month and thre latitudes; however, greater emphasis hhas been placed on the makeup and selection of the zone, which leads to greater accuracy. Software has been provided so that tabular data for other months, latitudes, and zone types may be generated if desired. Appendix Csupplements Chapter 8 and provides information relative to the table generating software. ‘Chapter 9, The TETD/TA Method, describes an alter nate cooling load calculation method preferred by some. ‘This method allows the experienced designer greater flex- ity in using judgment in computing cooling loads. The chapter references other parts of the manual. Chapter 10, Air Systems, Loads, IAQ, and Psychromet- rics generally covers calculations relating to system design ‘which are carried out after the heating and cooling loads arecomputed. However, it also has information related to ‘moist ai, which s of general usefulness. This chapter and “Appendix D emphasize the difference between infiltration air, ventilation ai, and outdoor makeup ait. A section di ‘cussing cooling and heating coils has also been included. Examples are used extensively to illustrate the various calculations with emphasis on any necessary corrections or adjustments to tabular data, 1.1 Purpose of Design Load Calculations Outside weather conditions and the sun combine to produce a cooling or heating load through the building ‘envelope, The load depends on: (a) the thermal characteris- tics of the walls, roof, fenestration, floor, interior building furnishings, and construction, and (b) the driving force resulting from the difference between the outside conc tions (including solar) and the inside conditions, For exam- ple, the heat transferred through a roof depends on the ‘temperature of the top surface of the roofing, the temper- ature of the inside surface of the ceiling, how these temper- atures vary with time, and the energy storage characteristics, of the roof construction. The temperature of the outside surface depends on the ever-changing solar radiation absorbed by the surface. A similar analysis of the inside sur- face shows that the surface temperature depends on the amount of heat conducted from above and convected to the inside air, the radiation exchange between the surface and room furnishings, and internal sources. Therefore, the heat,1.2 flow through the roof construction will not be constant. ‘This same phenomenon occurs forall other surfaces sub- jected to radiation effects and variable temperature ‘environments. Under the conditions described above, the amount of insulation and the thermal mass of the roof, wall, or partition are critica in the heat transfer analysis ‘The heat transferred through transparent surfaces such as glass s more a function of the thermal radiation charac- teristics of the glass and less dependent on the thermal storage capacity of such materials due to very low mass and absorptance of the mat ‘The heat gain due to lights, people, and equipment is independent of the outdoor environment and isa function of occupancy and operating schedule. Again, radiation effects are involved, and the thermal storage characteristics of the space are important in estimating the cooling load. Design load calculations provide the basic data for select- {ng an HVAC system and equipment and also provide the basis for sizing the associated ducts and piping. These data should be computed for times of peak load as well as par- tial load. Analysis and study of these conditions may then indicate possibilities for load reduction or other refine- ‘ments of the system. ‘The usefulness of load calculation data can often be ‘enhanced ifthe system types anticipated in advance of the load calculations. It is usually desirable to carry out ex- tensive load calculations (several different hours of theday orall24 hours) ifthe system isto be complex, such asa large variable air volume system. Further, it may benecessary to ‘make calculations for two or more months. On the other hand, asmall building using unitary equipment may require load calculations for only the peak time of day. Other prin- ciples related to load caleulations are discussed below. 1.2 Types of Heat Transfer Rates In air-conditioning design there are three distinct but related heat transfer rates, each of which varies with time: 1, Heat gain or loss 2. Cooling load or heating load 3, Heat extraction or heat addition rate Heat gain, or more correctly, instantaneous rate of heat sain, isthe rate at which heat enters or is generated within space ata given instant of time. Heat gains classified by ‘the manner in which heat enters the space and the type of heat gain. “Heat enters the space through surfaces exposed to the ‘extemal environment; from occupants, lights, and equip- ment in the space, and from infiltrating air. Heat gain is either sensible or latent. Sensible heat gain isthe direct addition of heat to an enclosure, apart from any change in the inoisture content, by any or all of the mechanisms of conduction, conesion, and radiation, Latent heat is associated with the addition of moisture to the pace. The usual sources ate people inflation ais indus trial processes, and miscellaneous sources such as swim- ming pools. ‘Load Calculation Manual ‘The proper design of an air-conditioning system requires the determination of the sensible heat gain for the space, the latent heat gain for the space, and separately, a value for the sensible plus latent load imposed by the outdoor air required for ventilation. Sensible cooling load is defined as the rate at which heat ‘must be removed from the space to maintain the room air temperature at a constant value. The latent load is essen- tially an instantaneous cooling load. That part ofthe sen- sible heat gain which occurs by radiation is partially absorbed by the surfaces and contents of the space and is not felt by the room air until later. Theradiant energy must first be absorbed by the surfaces that enclosethe space, such as walls and floor, and by furniture and other objects. As soon as these surfaces and objects become warmer than the air, some heat will be transferred to the air in the room by convection. The actual total cooling load is generally less than the peak total instantaneous heat gain, thusrequiring smaller equipment than would be indicated by the heat ‘gain. If the design is based on theinstantaneous heat gain, the system will probably be oversized. Heat extraction rate isthe rate at which heatis removed from the conditioned space. Normal control systems oper- conjunction with intermittent operation of the cooling equipment will causea swing in room temperature, Therefore, the room air temperature is constant only at those rare times when the heat extraction rate equals the cooling load. Consequently, the computation of the heat extraction rate gives amore realistic value of energy removal at the cooling equipment than does just the instantaneous value of the cooling load, provided the conérol system is ‘modeled properly. The determination of the heat extraction rate must include the characteristics of the cooling equip- ‘ment and the operating schedule of the equipment, in addi- tion to the various sources of cooling load. Thetheory of load calculations, including the aforemen- tioned subjects i discussed in detail in Chapter 2. Diversity of Cooling Loads Diversity generally relates to internal load suchaslights, equipment, and occupants. Diversity of cooling load results ‘when a portion of the internal load-producing equipment or occupants ate not operating or present. Therefore, diver- sity factors are factors of usage and are applied to the refrigeration capacity of large air-conditioning systems. ‘These factors vary with location, type, and size of applice- tion and are based entirely on the judgment and experience of the engineer. In large buildings, there is seldom 100% occupancy or total lighting at the time of peak solar and transmission loads. The reductions in cooling loads from nonuse of lights and equipment and absence of occupants are real and should be accounted for. However, diversity factors are generally applied to the building block load and not to individual room loads to avoid undersizing at the room level. Additional discussion of diversity is given in Chapter 5.Introduction Supply Air Calculations Calculations for the design supply air quantities, the design refrigeration load, and the reheat capacity, if any, depend on the type of system used. In common use are vari- able air volume systems, doubledduct systems, fan coil sys- tems, and others. However, some generalizations can be made that may assist in the use of cooling load calculations for equipment design and selection. The design supply air quantities required are based on the peak load requitements for each space. The peak load on an air-conditioning unit serving several zones is rarely equal to the sum of the peak loads of each zone. Therefore, if the system selection allows the airflow to each zone to vary, the total volume of air necessary for the system will be only that amount necessary tohandle the maximum coincident load on thesystem. This may require additional load calculations to determine the maximum coincident load. The total load on the unitisthat imposed by the maximum coincident load plus outdoor ‘makeup air, mixing losses, and, perhaps, reheat. These additional loads need to be calculated separately. ‘Chapter 10and Appendix D contain an extensive discus- sion of air quantity calculations and various system types. Peak Load—Times of Day and Month of Year ier dividing the conditioned areas into zones, the fist approximation to be made with manual methods so esti- mate the time of the peak load for each zone and for the ‘entiteconditioned area. For applications where lights, peo- ple, and other internal loads are not dominant, the hour of the peak load generally depends on the relative magnitude and peak hours ofthe solar load through glass, When inter- nal loads are dominant, the hour of peak load usually, ‘occurs during the last hour before the occupantsleave and lights are turned off. This subject is discussed in the calcu lation section of Chapter 8. ‘The month in which the peak load occurs depends on the changes in solar loads each month and the changes in design weather conditions. Possible seasonal variation of internal loads, such as people, isalso important. July isthe month commonly used for manual cooling load calcula- tions due to peak solar and transmission loads, The solar load is lowest in the summer months for southeast through southwest exposures and greatest inthe summer months for west through north toeast exposures. ‘The design outside dry-bulb temperature drops off from the summer months. If the combination of solar load on southern quadrant orientations or a seasonal increase in internal loads is greater than the effects of lower design out- door conditions the peak load may occur in September, October, or the winter months. 1.3 Load Calculation Methods ‘The basic method adopted by ASHRAE is the Transfer Funetion Method. This procedure requires a computer and produces load data for each hour of the day. This method is desirable especially for large buildings with complex HVAC systems. Software implementing this method is. 13 readily available, or a program can be developed using the data and subroutines in Appendix A and the procedures outlined in Chapter, Before purchasing software based on the TFM, the user should thoroughly investigate other aspects of the program such as tht handling of schedules, infiltration, external shade, ete. ‘The CLTD/SCL/CLF method, described in Chapter 8 ‘ancl Appendix, is derived from the TFM methodology for ‘manual use when computer methods cannot be used. The ‘method is limited by the tabular data available in Chapter 8; however, access to a small computer allows other tables ‘and specific data to be generated. The data given in Chap- ter 8 is for July 21 at 24, 36, and 48° north latitude for a variety of walls, roofs, and zones. The accuracy of the method is acceptable for design calculation within the parameters noted. Potential error bands are indicated. The TETD/TA method was one of the first methods developed to account for the transienteffecis of solar radi- ation and thermal storage. The heat gain through external surfaces is handled with a first order response factor ‘method using decrement and delay factors (Chapter 9). The ‘method differs mainly in the way heat gains are handled to obtain cooling load. The procedure is referred to as time averaging and is discussed in Chapter 9. While the method ‘was manual at firs, itis now considered a computer proce- aoe te 8 38 dan B 1275 10 15.00 zie NOE 2:7 oot ReVatee BaSee Decees 2aey is 15.00 to 17.50 ‘RWalue Range R Values (b-f2-°K/Btu) 1S 17,50 to 20.00 ea ena i hae 30 } 3m 8 ati Peer 3 10.00 to 15.00 ; 13 © 39 ; oo 03 é Bo 00 ‘Table 2.6b Principal Wall Materials Layer TEE Desipn Bias Ti Sa al cue fabkorpion cnere tg 2 daar SREY a 3 BT Lin. Wood - 4 BIO 2in, Wood Number_ Code Se eee Eas ¢ Gh t & ee 2 8 Shaw comeen eee 3 theo 2 Gh iRtweoe o & thevente é G ikiverct a eteties eeean $ Ge econ ee ¢ S$ haves: 8 Shaw ences > Gs tbweonce mh eteneae oS Saas a It myans Atl ontnaten 8 gt Ekta, 8 ERED Thaweheeeets Sh aw cone 7 cz 2in. HW Concrete (RTS) B &3 Gkawomene 13 ces 21 rcmnceeto i210 Conte BS Gt Suwanee ny Bas fkuvemct He ccs AMM cmecei Gin HW Cote a Se Savors ‘kt eee eeromay 1 Sid Ain HW Cone to2in HW Conte 23 cls ‘Bin. HW Conerete block (Filled) (RIS) x beLvCecccueasy 16 CCS LIP Con to4n HW Cone 3 thw Comes) i) ‘my 18 co-cit 6ie HW Coe 2i. IW Conete ss Location Parameter (RTS) 9 CGS Git Rr conmetosin HW Cone Ma or a ; a 2) CSCI GARI Conse 6H Cone 2 Det IE elon IEEE 2 nie sce eelioee gic eseme isiane aye.28 Example 2.2 Determination of Wall CTF Coefticients ‘A.wallis composed of din. face brick, Bin, normal weight con- crete block, 3/4, polystyrene insulation with I in. uring strips (Spaced 164n.) and 1/2 in. gypsum wall board. (This wallis ana- lyzed in Example 43 in Chapter 4.) ‘irs, the wall must be categorized. To do this, choose materials from Table 2,5 to make up a similar wall. Based on Table 25, the wall can be described as: ee oe Bm oo i aes i Stes ss Be ncmettck Seer a eeneemene weet tia 1s ore a oa eae El 3/4 in, Plaster or gypsum (closest Os win Pome epeane pemeamest eae is ose ‘For purposes of characterization, the furring strips have been. ‘ignored. ese a ee Resistance range is No. 9, Table 2.6a Primary wall material is the 8 in. HW. concrete block, No.!3, Table 2.66. ‘Secondary wall materials the4in. face brick, No. 3, Table 2.64, ‘When these parameters are passed to the WGETD or WGETM routine a walltype of 17 isreturned withthe following CTF coeff- cients and a U-fector of 0.043 Btu/(hef?-°F). ” bn dy ° 6.000000 7000000, 1 o.000005 ~2.008750 2 6.000134 1.371200 3 0.000836 =01378967 4 0.000300 0.039616 5 0.000051, 0.001647 6 0.000002. 0.000023 Load Calculation Manual Example 2.3 Determination of Roof Conduction ‘Transter Cootticients Aroofis constructed of built-up roofing, Lin. rigid roof deck insulation, 2in, concrete, corrugated metal deck, airspace, and a suspended ceiling (3/4 in. acoustical til) ‘To categorize the roof, an approximate description using materials from Table 2,5 must be developed. Code Tetter R-Value Description 20 033 Outside surface resistance 2 003 1/2in. Slag BR 029 © 3/8in. Feit and membrane B2 333 Lin. Insulation (actual insulation has Revalue of 4.17) cn 017 Bin, HW concrete aS 0.00 Corrugated metal deck Bs 1.00 Ceiling air space ES 179 Acoustic tile Eo 0169 Inside surface resistance 731 Qf2-"RYyBIu ‘The Rvalue of 7.31 corresponds to Rvalue range No. 2, Table 2.7a, Theinsulation son the outside; therefore, the roofs catego~ ‘ized as amass-in ase. The principal material is C12, No.5 from, “Table 2.7b, and there isa suspended celing. From routine RGETD ‘or RGETM, the roof type is No. 8. ‘Amore accurate R-value computed from Tables 4.1 is as follows: Outdoor surface resistance 025 Builtanp mofing, 3/8 in. 033, Rigid roof deck insulation 400 2in, concrete, 140 lb/ft, not dried ous Corrugated metal deck 0.00 Ceiling air space resistance 093 Suspended ceiling 3/4 in. acoustical tile) 1.89 Inside surface resistance si ‘Actual resistance 8.16 (h-ft?-“F)/Beu Now the CTF coefficients must be unnormalized. This requires the actual U-factor for the wal. The value above computed from ‘Table 25 may be used or amore accurate valuemay be found using. ‘Table 4.1. That procedure is detailed in Example 4.3, where the ‘actual U-factor is given as 0.15 Btu/(h-ft2-*F) as compared 10 0.144 computed from Table 2.5. “Transfer Function coefficients are unnormalized by multiply- ing the b coefficient by: Uactest __ OAS Throm waitonpe 0.08 ‘The unnormalized CTF coefficients ae: a On dy ° "0.000000, Tro00800 1 6.000017 2.008750 2 0.000465 1.371200 3 ‘0.001517 0378967 4 0.001041 0.039616 5 0.000178, 0.001647 6 (0.000007 0.000023 Le, = Lo, = 0003237 Note that the principal difference between the resistance ‘obtained from Table 2Sand that computed here is due to adjust- ‘ments in the surface resistances assumed. The data from Table 2.5 is sufficient for most design calculations. ‘The unnormalized roof CTF evefficients for Roof No. 8 are: a bn dy 0 0.000984 7000000 1 onwse4 ~ 1.102350 2 0.020836 0207490 3 0.002189, 0.002865 4 0.000015 0.000000 5 .000000 0.000000 6 0.000000 0.000000 with a factor of 0.4243 Btu/({t?-h-"F). The CTF coetfi- cients are unnormalized by multiplying the b coefficients‘Transfer Function Method ” ay ° 7900000 1 1102350 2 0.207496 3 0.002865 4 0.000000 5 0.000000 6 0.000000 Le, = Lo, = oowsas [should be noted that the R-valuederived from ether Table 2.5 ‘or4.1 may be used to find the R-value rangein the selection proce- ‘dure. In rare cases where the R-value fora wall or roof isvery ow or very high, the WGET or RGET routines may return an error ‘message indicating the wall or roofs not possible withthe given parameters. In such cases, cither increase or decrease the R-value range one step in Table 2.63 or 27a 2.3 Determination of Heat Gains ‘The frst step to calculating cooling loads and heat extrac- tion rates is the determination of heat gains. This section discusses the calculation of heat gains due to conduction through walls, roofs, partitions, etc, and transmission of | solar radiation through fenestration. Heat gains due to occupants, equipment, and lighting are discussed in Chapter 5. 2.3.1 Solar Radiation Intensity ‘The calculation of solar radiation intensity is integral two of the following calculations—calculation of sol-air ‘temperatures and solar heat gain through windows. The fol- Jowingequationscan be used todeterminethesolar radiation ‘onan arbitrarily oriented surface. Cooling load calculations are generally performed on an hourly basis. Therefore, the calculation of solar radiation intensity usually represents a whole hour rather than aspecific time. Typically, the solar radiation intensity is calculated at the average time for the hour, eg., for the 10:00 to 11:00 a.m. hour, the solar radia- tion intensity iscalculated for 10:30 a.m. and considered to be suitably representative. Solar Angles (All angles are in degrees) Solar position is dependent om solar time: Solar Time = Standard Time +4 (Ly — Lig.) +E Q4) where: Ls tandard meridian for local ime zone (Bastern—75° W; Central—90° W; Mouniain—105° W; Pacifie—120°W) Lige™ longitude of location for which calculations are being performed, degrees -E= equation of time, given for the 21st day of each month in Table 2.8, min and s Note that during daylight savings time, ‘Standard Time = Daylight Savings Time—1 h es) 29 ‘The hour angle is calculated as follows in degrees: -H= (minutes of time from local solar noon)/ (4 min/degrees longitude) oo) The solar altitude f is the angle of the sun above the horizon and is calculated with the following equation: sin 8 = cosLcosScosH +sinLsind 2.7) where L titude, degrees ieclination, given by Table 2.8, degrees B= solar altitude, degrees ‘Table 2.8 Solar Data for 2ist Day of Each Month? Equation a 8 © of Time, Declination, Btu (Dimensionless sin, degrees "i ‘Ratios) ja -112—-300 38.2 Oat 0.108 R139 108 3764001108 Mar 7500 360.1. 01149 0.109 ape Ll 16 3583 0.164 0.120 May 33 200 350.7 01? 30, Je = 14 4S MG ORS 01137 jay 62 6.6 0.138 aug 0 240233510 4 Sep 1s 0 360.2 121 oct 14-105 3697 oun Nov Be 98 373 0.106 Dee 16-2345 381.8 0.103, “A,B, Ccoefficints are based on research by Machle and Iqbal (1985) The solar azimuth ¢ is the angle in the horizontal plane between true south and the sun’s position; angles to the cast of south are negative, and angles to the west of south, are positive cos & = (sinB sind ~ sin 5)/(cos 6 cosL) where 9 is the solar azimuth, degrees. ‘The surface-solar azimuth 7 is the angle between the projection of the sun’s rays in a horizontal plane and the projection of the normal to a surface in the horizontal, plane. Both the surface azimuth and the surface-solar, azimuth are measured in degrees from south; angles to the ‘east of south are negative, and angles to the west of south, are positive. @8) @9) where: = surface azimuth, degrees 2y= surface-solar azimuth, degrees ‘The angle of incidence 0 is the angle between the sun's raysand anormal to the surface. Itis calculated by the fol- owing equation; cos @ = cos Beos-ysinE + cosBcos= (2:10) where = is the surface tilt and = 90 for vertical surface). O for horizontal surface2.10 Solar Intensity ‘The direct normal intensity of solar radiation at the ‘earth's surface for a clear day is given by: Ipy = Aexp(~B/sin 8) en where: ‘4,B= solar model coefficients, given by Table 2.8 Toy= dicecs normal (beam) radiation, Bru/h-f The A and B coefficients give values of Ipy that are representative of conditions on average cloudless days. For locations where clear dry skies predominate and at high elevations, Jpy should be corrected as follows: Ipy = ON X Iny where the value of CNis obtained from Figure 2.2. ‘The direct (beam) radiation Jp on the surface is caleu- lated by multiplying the direct normal radiation by the cosine of the incidence angle. bb 12) Ipy cos 8 e313) where cos 9>0. If the incidence angle is less than zero, the beam radia- tion is zero. For vertical surfaces, the ratio between diffuse radiation incident on thesurface and diffuse radiation incident ona horizontal surface Ys given by Y = 0.55 + 0.437 cos @ + 0.313 cos? (2.14) where cor @> 0.2, Otherwise, ¥ = 045 @4a) ‘The diffuse intensity /, is given by: La = lay * May @s) where: ‘a,= diffuse radiation incident on surface from sky, Biu/(h-f?) ag diffuse radiation incident on surface reflected from ground, Btu/(h-f) For vertical surfaces: las = CY low 2169) where C = solar model coefficient, given by Table 2.8. Tug = Iw (C + Sin) pgx05 QI) where p, is ground reflectance (typical value py ~ 0.2) For surfaces other than vertical: Tag = Cll + c0s £)/2 Tay = IDy(C + sinB)p_(1~cos 2/2 The total intensity of solar radiation face is given by: 18) @19) Lap tla Calculation of solar radiation intensity is demonstrated in Example 2.4. Load Calculation Manual Fig. 22 Estimated Atmospheric Clearness Numbers inthe United States for Nonindustrial Localtes ‘The discussion to this point has assumed that the sur- faces in question were not shaded. Portions of surfaces that are shaded are assumed to be exposed only to diffuse radi- ation 1,. Methods for estimating shading due to simple ‘overhangs and side projections are given in Chapter 8. ‘Other methods are available for calculating shading with more complex geometries (ASHRAE 1975, Walton 1979, ‘McCluney 1990). 2.3.2 Determination of Heat Gains through Walls and Roofs Hourly Air Temperatures Hourly air temperatures aro computed by selecting an appropriate design temperature from Table 3.1 or3.2, and. acorresponding daily range. For each hour of theday, the daily rangeis multiplied by the percentage given in Table 2.9 and subtracted from the design temperature to give an hourly temperature. Sol-Air Temperatures ‘The conduction heat flux into an exterior building sur- face can be expressed as a heat balance: QA = ath, + hgltyt,) — BR 21) where: bsorptance of the surface for solar radiation fal solar radiation incident on the surface, Buu/(h-f2) ‘coefficient of heat transfer by long-wave adiation and ‘convection at the outer surface, Btu/h fF) f= outdoor air temperature, F surface temperature, °F hemispherical emittance of surface R= difference between the long-wave radiation incident on the surface from the sky and surroundings and the radiation emitted by a blackbody at outdoor ai tem. perature, Beu/(h-ft2) ‘The sol-air temperatures the temperature of outdoor air that in the absence of sunlight and long-wave radi ‘exchange to temperatures other than the air temperature ‘would give an equivalent convection heat flux: QA = helte ~ 6) (2.22)‘Transfer Function Method Table 2.9 Percentage of Daily Range Ting h % Timgh tT ae > 1 710 2 2 0 36 ee 2% no» om 4 8 ns 2 5 100 Boon a8 6 8 “3 2 8 7 98 sO 2B 6 sw ‘3 “4 @ From Equations (2.21) and (2.22), thesol-air temperature is given as: + adh ~ e5R/hy 2.23) For horizontal surfaces that receive long-wave radiation from the sky only, OR is about 20 Biu/h-ft; therefore if ¢ = Land h = 3.0, the long-wave correction term is about —7°F (Bliss 1961) Because vertical surfaces receive long-wave radiation from the ground and surrounding buildings as well as from the sky, accurate BR values are difficult to determine. When solar radiation intensity is high, surfaces of terrestrial objects usually have a higher temperature than the outdoor air; thus, their long-wave radiation compensates to some extent for the sky’s low emittance. Therefore, itis assumed, that 8X = 0 for vertical surfaces. ‘The ratio a/h, typically is taken as equal to 0.15 for per- ‘manently light-colored surfaces and 0.30 for all other sur- faces. Alternately, specific values of a and A, can be determined and used. Example 2.4 Solar Radiation Intensity and Sol-Air ‘Temperature Calculation for Vertical Wall (Compute the solar radiation intensity for a southwest-facing ‘wall at 36° N latitude, 97° W longitude corresponding to the hour between 2:00 and 3:00 p.m. local solar time on June 21. Assume ‘an outdoor temperature of 97°F, surface absorptance of 09, and anal film coefficient of 4.0 Btu/(h-ft2-"F). The solar radiation intensity at 2:30 will be used to represent the whole hour. Thecal- culation proceeds as follows: 230pm. Je H'= 0.25 deg/min (2 x 60 + 30) = 37.5° (2.6) Declination 8= +23.45% from Table 2.8 Solar altitude = sin~! [cos(36) cos(+23.45) cos(37.5) + sin(36) sin(-23.45)] = 55.42 en 60s B eos L. Angles to the west of south are positive; therefore, 6 = 79.3° ‘all azimuth y = 45° (lacing southwest) Wall solar azimuth y = == 343° e%) Angle of incidence 9 = cos“! cos cos 9} cos! [cos 5.4.08 343) = 617° (210) Direct normal intensity fpy = A exp(~B/sing) (2.1) we 5467.16 28 B= 0.185, Table 28 C= 0137, Table 28 2A Then: Tpyy = 346.7 exp (-0185/sin $5.) = 276.9 Bru{h-M%) (2.12) Direct intensity Ip=Jpy 08 O=131:3 Buy(h?) (2.13) ‘The diffuse radiation is computed as follows: Y © 055 + 0437 e056 + 0.313 cos"8 = 083 ey Diffuseinensity Fy = Loy + Tog 15) C¥Ipy Ion (C + sind)y,05 = (0137 x 083 x 7769) + 3769 (01237 + 0823) x 02 x 05 Jg= 37.9 + 262 = 641 Beu/th-f2) Llp +g 1313 + 641 = 1954 Beu/(-t) Sol-aic temperature fg = fen 2 40 Mor where OR is 0 for a vertical surface, Application of Conduction Transfer Functions to Get Hourly Heat Gains Once the sol-air temperatures have been determined, Equation (2.3) is used to calculate the hourly heat gain through walls, roofs, floors, and partitions, as discussed above. Example 2.5 demonstrates the calculation, procedure. Example2.5 Calculation of Conduction Heat Gain ‘Compute the conduction heat gain fora wall composed of din face brick, in. normal weight concrete block, 3/4in. polystyrene insulation with 1 in, turing strips (spaced 16in.) and 1/2in. eyp~ ‘sum wal board under specified design conditions. As determined ‘in Example 2.2, the appropriate CTF coefficients are: n Oe 4, 0 0.000000 7.000000 1 0.000005 ~2.008750 2 0.000134 1.371200 3 0.000436 0.378967 4 0.000300 0039616, 5 6.000081, 0.001647 6 0.000002 6.000023, Be, 0.003237 ‘The design conditions (Sol-tir temperatures) are specified in ‘Table 2.10. The room temperature is 78°F. Applying the conduc- tion transfer function equation: 6 4 [Beato Beal loca-nQAb ~ te, results in the conduction heat gains shown in Table2.10. The heat flux history terms were initially assumed zero. Equation 2.3) was then calculated for successive 24-h periods and convergence was ‘essentially achieved by the end of the fourth 24-h period,242 2.3.3 Determination of Heat Gains through Windows Solar Heat Gain Factors Solar Heat Gain Factors (SHGF) are the hourly solar heat gains that occur dueto | ft? of double-strength sheet glass (DSA) for a given orientation and time. Previously, the term SHGF combined both transmitted solar heat gain and absorbed solar heat gain conducted into the space. Because of refinements made to the Transfer Function Method, transmitted and absorbed solar heat gain are now treated. separately. The transmitted solar heat gain that occurs due to 1 ft? of DSA glass for a given orientation and time will be referred to as the Transmitted Solar Heat Gain Factor (ISHGF). The absorbed solar heat gain that occurs ducto 1 f2 of DSA glass fora given orientation and time will be referred to as the Absorbed Solar Heat Gain Factor (ASHGR) ‘Solar Heat Gain Factors are calculated with the following, algorithms. Note that the algorithm for calculating the direct solar radiation intensity /p and the diffuse solar radi- ation intensity J, has been given previously. Itis assumed. hhere that these quantities have already been calculated. ‘The transmission coeffi (2.24 70 = B stcos oy ‘Table 2.10 Design Conditions and Results for Example 2.5 SokAir Conduction Heat Time h Temperature, °F Gain, Btu/(h-fe2) T TA 3.80 2 16.1 361 3 153, 3.38 4 87 33 5 mS 287 6 16.6 261 7 80.4 235 8 842 2 9 88.5 188 10 3 169 nL 978 154 2 106.4 144 B 120.5 140 14 BLO 1a 18 136.8 149 16 136.7 1.66, "7 B08 193 18 iat 2:30 19 91.7 an 20 5.1 3.15 a 29 3.54 2 80.9 331 23 93 394 24 A 3.92 Load Calculation Manual ‘Table 2.11 Coetficints for DSA Glass for Calculation of Transmittance and Absorptance r 4 4 ° ‘01154 0.00885 It 0.77674 271235 2 3.94657 0.82062 3 5.5788) 1.07329 4 8.38135 9.15995 3 3.01188 39922 where: 1) transmission coefficients for glass ‘rp= twansmittance of DSA glass to direet (beam) radiation ‘The transmissivity of diffuse radiation i given by: w= Byun ee where rg =transmittance of DSA glass to diffuse ra ‘Note that this calculation procedure, using the coeffi- cients found in Table 2.11, gives a normal transmittance for DSA glass of 0.88, which is slightly higher than values, sometimes used, The TSHGF ithe: ion. TSHGF = ok, a [cosy +2UE Utd 225 ine ‘The absorption coefficients for DSA glass are given in ‘Table 2.11, The absorptivity of direct solar radiation inci dent at angle #8: en = Y :eos oY @2n where: 4, absorption coefficients for glass ip= absorptance of DSA glass to direct (beam) radiation ‘The absorptivity of radiation is given by: ag = 2Y ali + 2) where ay = absorptance of DSA glass to diffuse radiation. The ASHGF Hi then: (2.28) ASHGF = MY gleoel + Dad +2 (2.29) Once the ASHGFs and TSHGEs have been calculated, transmitted solar heat gain and absorbed heat gain can be calculated. The transmitted solar heat gain (TSHG) is given by: TSHG = TSHGRSC)A 2.30) where: shading coefficient ‘A= surface area‘Transfer Function Method ‘Values of the shading coefficient for different fenestra- tion types can be determined from Tables 8.10 through 8.15. (Theshading coefficients are determined experimentally to be the ratio between transmitted and absorbed solar heat gain froma specific fenestration type tothe transmitted and absorbed solar heat gain from DSA glass. Hence, the separate application of SC to the individual componeats is ‘an approximation, used because individual shading coeffi- cients are not available.) ‘The absorbed solar heat gain (ASHG) is given by: ASHG = ASHGF(SO)N;A @3n where Ni, = inward flowing fraction of absorbed solar heat gain. ‘The inward flowing fraction of the absorbed solar heat ‘gain depends on the relative magnitude of the indoor and outdoor heat transfer coefficients and is given approxi- mately by: Ni; = hil, + ig) 2.32) ‘The values of SC in Chapter 8 are based on natural con- vection conditions at the inner surface of the fenestration, and a 7.5 mph wind at the outer surface. For these condi- tions, fis 1.46 Btu/(h-ft2+°F) and his 4.0 Bru/(h-ft?-F), which yields a value of N, equal to 0.267. For significantly different conditions, designers may wish to recalculate N;. Finally, the instantaneous solar heat gain is SHG = TSHG + ASHG. Example 2.6 Solar Heat Gain Factor Calculation Calculate SHGF for230 pam. local solar time, fora southwest- facing window at 36° north latinde. 97° west longitude. The solar radiation intensities were calculated in Example 2.3. Direct intensity /p = 131.3 Buu/(heft?) Diffuse intensity / = 64.1 Buu/(h-f2) SHGF = TSHGF + ASHGF x Nj (SHGF is used for the TETD/TA Method, not for the TEM Method): TSHGE = fp}) , {eos oY + 2a y+ 2D (2.26) (0313 x 0.7835) + (644 x 2 x 0.3995) 154.1 Blu/(h-fe) where c0s0 = cos(61.7) = 0.4741 ASHOF = Ip J) ayleos OV + 214 ay/(J + 2) 2.29) = (131.3 x 0.0556) + (64:1 x 2.x 0272) = 10.8 Btu/(h-fe) SHGF = 154.1 + 108 x 0267 = 157.0 Buu/(h-f?) 2.3.4 Heat Gain through Interior Partitions, Floors, and Ceilings ‘Whenever a conditioned spaceis adjacent to other spaces at different temperatures, the transfer of heat through the partition can be calculated by Equation (2.3), substituting ‘hear temperature of the adjacent space for the sol-airtem- perature. When the adjacent air temperatures constant or 2.13 ‘when the variationsin the adjacent air temperature ate small compared tothe difference between the two space air tem- Deratures, dp is given by the simplesteady-stateexpression: yn = UAlty ~ te) 2.33) where: temperature of adjacent space air temperature of space for which load is being calcu lated, °F 2.3.6 Heat Gain through Below-Grade Surfaces Heat gain or loss through below-grade surfaces is gener- ally considered to be negligible for purposes of design cool ing load calculations. However, the thermal mass of such surfaces is taken into account by the weighting factors. 2.4 Conversion of Heat Gains into Cooling Load ‘Wherethe heat gain gy is given at equal time intervals, the corresponding cooling load Q, at time @ can be related to the current value of gy and the preceding values of cooling, Toad and heat gain by: Qs = vos ¥10—54 V2d0—25 ~ W1Q0-3— W2Qh-25 where 5 = 1-h time interval. ‘The coefficients are chosen from the database using the WE routines described in Appendix A. The thermal charac- teristics of the zone are specified as zone parameters for the database ‘The procedure for converting heat gains into cooling load is essentially the same for each type of heat gain. ‘Once the hourly heat gains have been determined, and the ‘zone parameters have been specified, four sets of weighting factors are returned by the WF routines: 1. Solar—applied to transmitted solar heat gain. 2 Conduction—applied to conduction loads from exterior surfaces, interior partitions, and absorbed solar heat gains. 3. Lighting—applied to lighting loads. 4, Occupant or equipment—applied to either occupant or equipment loads. All that remainsto be done isto select the correct weight- ing factors for each type of load and apply Equation (2.1). ay Example 2.7 Application of Zone Weighting Factors ‘Consider the storein thestrip shopping mall described in Exam ple2.1. This store has 10,000 Btu/bof Lighting on from I0a.m. to 10 pum. solar time. Using the zone characterization parameters, determined in the example the following WE coefficients for light ing are given in the database:244 Using Equation @2.1 Qs Yoda + Vip 4 V249 24 ~ W1Qs2~ W2Q5—25 en and assuming previous heat gains and cooling loads to be ero, the cooling load profile can be calculated in an iterative manner unlil the results converge. Table 2.12 shows the results af the cool- ing load calculation using the room transfer function coefficients, Equation (2.1), and a heat gain of 10,000 Btu/h from hour 10 through hour 21 (10:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m.). The cooling loads essentially converge by the fifth day. Solar Heat Gains The determination of transmitted and absorbed solar heat gains was described above. The transmitted solar heat gains are converted to cooling loads with the use of v and ‘w coefficients labeled solar. The absorbed solar heat gains are converted to cooling loads with the use of v and w coefficients labeled conduction. (Absorbed solar heat gain is conducted through the window into the space, wher. is convected and radiated in the same manner as heat con- ducted through walls. Therefore, the room responseis very similar and the same WF coefficients are used.) Occupant and Equipment Heat Gains Quantifying heat gains due to people and equipment is ‘dealt with in Chapter 5. For any zone type, the coefficients, apply to both people and equipment. This is due to the fact that the heat gain is assumed to be split 70% radiant 30% ‘convective for both people and equipment. Ifthe splits siz~ nificantly different, the coefficients may be corrected, See Appendix A for the correction method, ‘Table2.12 Results from WE Calculation Example ‘Hour Load Hour Load Hour Load Hour Load Hour Load 1025 2066 49 2243 73 2258 97 2259 2 026 i848 50 2007 74 2021 98 2022 3 0.27 1663 51 1807 75 1820 99 1821 4 028 1501 521681 76 1682 100 1643, 5 029 1355 53 1472-77 1483: 1011483, 6 030 1223 54 1330 78 1339 102 1340 7 031 110555 3201 79 1209 103 1210 8 032-998 56 1085 80 1092 104 1093, 9 033901 57 980 81 986 105.987 10034 814 58 8S BPI 105891 11 6112 35 6847 59 6911 $3 6916 107 6917 12. 6702 36 7365 60 7423 84 7428 108 7429 13, 7084 37 7683. 617736 85 7740 109 7740 14 7385 38 7926 62 7973 86 7977 110 7978, 15 7643 398132 63 817S_-87 8179 11 —B179 16 7873 408315 G4 8353. 888357 112 8357 17 8079 41 8479 GS 8513 89 8516 113 R516 18 8266 42 8626 66 8657 90 8660 114 8660 19 8434 438759 67 8787 91 8790 1158790 20 8585 44 8879 68 8905 92 8907 116 $907 21 8722 45-8988 G9 9011 93 9013 117 9013 22 8846 46 ©9086 70 9107 94 9108 118 9109 23 2846 47 3063 71 3081 95 3083 119 3083 24 2357 48 2553 72_2570_96 2571 1202571 Load Calculation Manual Lighting ‘Quantifying heat gains duc to lighting is dealt with in Chapter 5. The heat gain of the lighting is assumed to be split 59% radiant 418% convective. This corresponds to a recessed fluorescent troffer. If the split is significantly different, the coefficients may be corrected. See Appendix A for the correction method. 2.5 Summation of Hourly Cooling Loads At this point, hourly cooling loads have been deter- mined for each type of heat gain. Also, heat gain due to infiltration, which is described in Chapter 6, must bbe accounted for here. Heat gain due to infiltration is assumed to instantaneously become a cooling load, ie, the cooling load due to infiltration is equal to the heat gain, For many cases, all that remains to be done is to sum the cooling loads for each zone for each hour, and. to determine the peak cooling load for each zone. How- «ver, if zone temperatures are varied significantly, it may be desirable to calculate the heat extraction rate, as, described in the next section. 2.6 Heat Extraction Rate and Room Temperature “The calculation procedures described o this potnt make major assumption that may limit their general appli- cability—room temperature is considered to be constant throughout the day. Room temperature may vary for a least two reasons: 1, Thecooling system cannot maintain exact control, and the room temperature may vary with the cooling load. 2. Night and weekend setback may be employed, so that the temperature inthe space floats when the space is not ‘occupied. For scenarios in which the space temperature may vary significantly, designers may wish to aecount for the effects of varying space temperatures. The cooling loads determined by the TFM serve as input daca for esti- mating the resultant room air temperature and the heat extraction rate with a particular type and size of cool- ing unit and set of operating conditions. These ealcula- ns require the characteristics of the cooling unit iz., heat extraction rate versus room air temperature), the schedule of operation, and a Space Air Transfer Func- tion that relates room air temperature and heat extrac- tion rate, Extraction Rate ‘The heat extraction characteristics of the cooling unit ‘can generally be approximated by a simple linear expres- sion of the form: ER, = Wy + (Sta) 234‘Transfer Function Method where: ERy= rate of heat removal from the space at time, 6 air temperature in the space at time, @ parameters characterizing the performance of cooling equipment ‘This linear relationship is expected to hold over the throttling range of the control system. When the space air temperature lies outside of the throttling range, the extrac- tion rate has a value Of ERinq, OF ERmin. The slope S of the line describing the extraction rate asa function of space air temperature is given by: ERnox ~ ERnin s 2.35) where: FR max maximum extraction rate over throttling range ERin~ tninimsum extraction rate over throttling range Afy-= throttling range ‘The intercept IM) of the line describing the extraction rate asa function of space air temperature Wy = (ER mex + ERpig)/2—(St* 8) 2.36) where £4 is the thermostat set point temperature at time 6. The thermostat set point temperature is taken to be the midpoint of the throttling range. Space Air Transfer Function ‘The heat extraction rate and the room air temperature are related by the Space Air Transfer Function: LPERea — Qo) = Ye 8hlte—tos) 2.37) cocfiicients of Space Air Transfer Function ‘Q= calculated cooling load for room at time , based ‘on an assumed constant room temperature of fg ‘Normalized values of the g and p coefficients are given, in Table 2.13 for light, medium, and heavyweight construc- tion. The method used to obtain these coefficients was described by ASHRAE (1975). ‘Table 2.13 Normalized Coefficients of Space Air Transfer Functions* Roombnvelope "gy" PO 7 Construction Buw/h fF Dimensionless ‘Light 4168 -173_-+005 082 Medium gl 189 to08 10087 Heavy 4185-195 +4010 0-093 For simplified procedure for calealating space ale wansTer Tuaciion pelficens, see ASHRAK (1975). The construction designtions denote the following: Light consiruton. sas famegatriorvall2inconerete Moot sab, approximately 301b of material /f¢ of floor area. ‘Medium consirution: suchas 4n concrete exterior wal, 4 nconcrte ‘oor slab, apprestmately 701b of buliding material of “ea construction: such ws in. conerete exterior val 6 ‘gor sib, approximately 130 Tb of building matera/M of floor sta, 2.15 ‘The values of the g coefficients must be unnormalized with the following equations: Bog = BA + po[UA + 11 (Vy + Vij] @.38a) Big = BVA + py (UA + 1A (Veg + Vipa)] (2.380) Bag = BA (386) where: ‘A= floor area of space, Rt? ‘U= overall U-factor of space, Btu/h-°F Vs flow rate of outdoor ventilation air introduced directly into space, cfm Vim flow rate of infiltration lr, fin 9= current time 0-5~ previous hour Heat Extraction Rate Previous equations for heat extraction rate (2.34) and the Space Air Transfer Funetion (2.37) can be solved simul- ‘taneously to yield: ERy Mego + WSS + 8) (2.39) where: Zisie ton + LpQeie~ LrERow : (2.40) Ifthe value of ER, calculated by Equation (2.39) results ina value greater than ER macy ERs is set qual 10 ERyyag. If the value of ER, calculated by results ina value less than ER pin, ERg is Set equal 0 ERyiy. Then fis calculated from the expressions ha = (ly~ERoV/e09 ean Note that Equation (2.40) requires some prior values of ERg and t, which must be assumed to begin the compu- {ation process. The computation is then repeated until the results for successive days are the same. At that time, the results are independent of the values assumed initially. Example 2.8 Heat Extraction Rate The storein the strip shopping mall considered earlier is open {rom 10am. to 10 p.m, Theair-conditioning system runs from 8 ‘am, to 10 pam. For the rest ofthe time, the temperature in the store isallowed to float. A cooling load calculation has been performed, assuming an interior temperature of 75°F. The infiltration has ‘been estimated a5 0.95 ACH, and the UA has been calculated to bed53 Bu/(hs*F). “The cooling system has 24°F throtling ange, centered around 74°F. The cooling system removes a maximum of 40,000 Btw/b, at 76°F, and 0 Btu/h at 72°F. Caleulate the heat extraction rate and zetual zone temperature for each hour of the day. Firs, the extraction rate parameters must be calculated. 10.000 2.35) 40,000+0 2369, 10,000 x 74 = ~720,0002.16 ‘Table 2.14 Results of Heat Extraction Rate Calculation Example Hour Cooling Heat oom Toad __ExtractionRate Temperature 115280 0 74 2 13520 0 796 3 11910 0 96 410880 0 Ds 3 9330 0 vt 6 8m 0 4 7 92 0 ns 8 1030025646 m6 9 123425132 mS 10 1507025891 16 22870-30283 750 12 26650-32248 52. 13 01034084 a 4 lo 3ssat 56 153479036650 51 16 35660 37043, 57 173557036808 75. 1B 3402035860 Bo 193237034280 Tb 20 © 3010032514 153 21 2190 30764 1s 22 © 2568028973 49 23 19200 0 796 %_17160. 0 97 ‘Then the space air transfer function coefficients must be cal- culated. The dimensionless coefficients are chosen from the ‘medium construction category in Table 2.13. Bag = 80h + polUA +11(%y + VI) 38a) 1.81 x 2100 # 1.0 x [453+1.1% (0+400) = 4694 Bae = BA + PUA H11Meg + Vs) 2.380) = 1.892100 -0.9% [453 + 1.1 (0 +400) 4745.9 fag = 82h 2.380) 0.08 x 2100 =168, ‘Load Calculation Manual (Once the space air transfer function coefficiemts have been ‘unnormalized, Equation (2.39) can be used to determine thehourly hheat extraction rate. Equation (2.41) is used to determine the actual hourly room temperature. Equation (2.39) requires past ‘Values of room temperature, extraction rate, and cooling load. ‘The past values of room temperature were assumed to be 80°F, ‘the past values of heat extraction rate were assumed to be 2210, and the past values of cooling load were taken to be the values at hhours24and 23.’Then, anumber of successive daysaresimulated, ‘nll the values of heat excraction rate andl room temperature have reached convergence. Table 2.14 givestheresuls for the sixthday, ‘where the results have nearly converged. References ASHRAE. 1975. Procedure for determining heating and cool- ‘ing loads for computerizing energy calculations, algorithms for building heat transfer subroutines. Biss, RW. 1961. Atmospheric radiation near the surface of the ‘ground. Solar Energy 5(3):108. Brown, W.C. 1991. Final report or ASHRA S15-RP, Dynamic hheat transmission characteristics of seven generic wall types ‘and dynamicheat transmission characteristics of a homogene- ‘ous wall specimen. National Research Council, Ottawa, Canada, Harris, S.M. and F.C. MeQuiston. 1988. A study to categorize Walls and roofs on the basis of thermal response, ASHRAB ‘Transactions 94(2):688-715. ‘tte, D.C. 1981. Calculating building heating and cooling loads using the frequency response of multilayered slabs. Depart- ‘ment of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Mlinois at Urbana-Champaign. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. 1981. DOE-2 Reference manual, LBL Report LBL-8706, Berkeley, CA. Machler, M.A. and M. Iqbal. 1985. A modification ofthe ASH- ‘RAL clear sky model, ASHAAL Transactions ¥1():108-13. MeCluney, R- 1990. Awning shading algorithm update. ‘ASHRAE Transactions 96(1). ‘Sowell, E.F. 1988. Classification of 200,640 parametric zones for cooling load calculations. ASHRAE Transactions 94(2):154-77. Sowell, E.F. 1988. Crose-check and modification of the DOB-2 ‘program for calculation of zone weighting factors. ASHRAE Transactions 94(2):737-53. Sowell, EF. 1988. Load calculations for 200,640 zones. 'ASHRAE Transactions 94(2):716-36. ‘Walton, G.N. 1979. Theapplication of homogenous coordinates to shadowing caiculations. ASHRAE Transactions 84(1):174, York, D.A. and C.C. Cappiello, eds. 1981. DOE-2 Engineers ‘manual. U.S, Depariment of Energy, Washington, D.C.Chapter 3 WEATHER DATA AND DESIGN CONDITIONS ‘The comfort and health of the occupants of an interior space and the nature of the outdoor environment are the ‘most important considerations in system design. Weather data collected over a long period of time forms a basis for ‘nominal outdoor design conditions. These data should be considered as guidelines for the designer in arriving at suita- ble values for a given location and tempered by personal investigation of local experience and conditions. This is specially truc in those regions where weather conditions| are severe. Where thers justification for worst case design conditions, extra attention should be given to the system, design to ensure efficient part-load operation. ‘This chapter presents weather data for the United States, Canada, and other countries and recommends interior and, exterior design conditions. Design temperatures are based ‘onthe assumption that the frequency level of a specific tem- ‘perature over a suitable time period will repeat in the future. ‘The selected summer frequencies of 1%, 2.5%, and 5% and the winter frequencies of 99% and 97.5% enable the engi- neer to match the risk level desired for the problem at hand. ‘At many locations, meteorological evidence indicates that the temperatures at the 1 and 99% levels may vary in the order of 2 to 4°F in any 15-year period from the previous 15-year period, and even more in any single year from the previous one. The proximity ofthe 99% level to the median of the annual extreme minimum temperatures indicates that extremely low temperatures occur in rare extended epi- sodes rather than in long.term summations (Ecodyne Cool- ing Products 1980, Snelling 1985, Crow 1963). 3.1 Indoor Design Conditions ‘The primary purpose of the heating and air-conditioning systemisto maintain the space ina comfortable and healthy ‘condition. To dothis, the system must generally maintain the dry-bulb temperature and the relative humidity within an acceptable range. ASHRAE Standard 55 gives thermal comfort values at selected conditions in the building environment. Physiolog- ical principles, comfort, and health are addressed in the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals. The HVAC Appli- cations Volume of the ASHRAE Handbook gives specific recommendations for indoor design conditions for such applications as hospitals and other special cases. ASHRAE/IES Standard 9.1, Energy Efficient Design off New Buildings, recommends that indoor design temper- ature and humidity conditions be in accordance criteria established in ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55. This ives considerable latitude in selecting desi Experience has shown that, except in cri indoor design temperature and relative hur selected on the high side of the comfort envelope to avoid overdesigning the system. For cooling load calculations, a design dry-bulb temperature of 75 to 78°F with a design relative humidity of approximately 50% is widely used for ‘usual occupied spaces. For heating load, a dry-bulb temper- ature of 70°F with relative humidity less than or equal to, 30% is common. 3.2 Outdoor Design Conditions ‘The recommended design temperatures presented here are based on data from the National Climatic Data Center, of NOAA, US. Air Force, U.S. Navy, Canadian Atmo- spheric Environment Service, and the weather organiza- tions of the countries nated, ‘Values have been statistically analyzed for a recent 15-year period of record and tabulated to the nearest degree Fahrenheit, as shown in Tables 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 Winter Recommended design temperatures are located in Column 5 of Tables 3.1, 32, and 3.3. Two frequency levels ae offered for each station, representing temperatures that hhave been equalled or exceeded by 99% or 97.5% of the (otal in the months of December, January, and February (a ‘otal of 2160 h) in the Northern Hemisphere and in the ‘months of June, July, and Augustin the Southern Hemi- sphere (a total of 2208 h). Ina normal winter, there would ‘be approximately 22 h at or below the 99M value, and 54 hat or below the 97.5% value. Column 9, the prevailing ‘wind direction, is the wind direction occurring most fre- ‘quently and the mean wind speed, which occurs coinciden- tally with the 97.5% dry-bulb winter design temperature, ‘Column 10s the median of the annual extreme minimum, ‘temperature. For Canadian stations, the two design values are based only on the month of January, because the temperature distribution in January in Canada is charac- teristic of an extremely cold month compared to the tem- perature distributions in December and February. The ‘Canadian design temperatures are.a few degrees lower than those based on three winter months (Boyd, Arctic ‘Meteorology Research Group 1960, Boughner 1360). Minimum temperatures usually occur between 6:00 a.m. and 8:00a.m, solar time on clear days when the daily range is greatest. Studies at several stations have found that the duration of extremely cold temperatures can continue below the 99% level for three days and below the 97.5% level for five days or more (Ecodyne Cooling Products 1980, Snelling 1985, Crow 1963). This fact should be care- fully considered in selecting the design temperature. ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 stipulates that design tem- peratures shall not be less than the 99% values given in Column 5 of Tables 3.1,32, and3.3. The median of annual 313.2 extremes, Column 10, may be used under unusual condi- tions to assure the prevention of damage to the building or its contents. It is generally recommended that the 99% values be used and that the median of extremes be reserved for exceptionally harsh cases. Summer Recommended design dry- and wet-bulb temperatures and mean daily range are presented in Columns 6, 7, and, 8 of Tables 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3. Column 6 provides dry'bulb temperatures with their corresponding coincident wet-bulb ‘temperatures. In Table 3.3, the coincident wet-bulb temper- atures are not available, The dry-bulb temperatures ‘epresent values that have been equaled or exceeded by 1%, 2.546, and 5% of the total hours during the months of June ‘through September (a total of 2928 h) in the Northern Hemisphere, and the months of December through March in the Southern Hemisphere (a total of 2904 h). The coin- cident wet-bulb temperature listed with each design dry- bulb temperatureis the mean of all wet-bulb temperatures ‘occurring at the specific dry-bulb temperature. ‘The mean daily range shown in Column 7 of Tables 3.1 ‘and 3.2is the difference between the average daily maxi- mum and average daily minimum temperatures in the ‘warmest month. In Table 3.3, the daily range is the long- term average, In Tables 3.1, 32, and 3.3, wet-bulb temper- aturesin Column 8 represent values that have been cqualed orexceeded by 1%, 2.5%, and 5M% of the hours during the summer months. These wet-bulb values were computed independently ofthe dry-bulb values and are not coincident ‘with the design dry-bulb values in Column 6. Their coin- cident dry-bulb values have not been tabulated. Ecodyne Cooling Products (1980) has examples of the coincident ry-bulb with the extreme wet-bulb temperature. In Column 9, the prevailing wind direction is the wind direction occurring most frequently coincident with the 2.5% dry-bulb summer design temperature, Column 10 ‘gives the median of the annual extreme maximum and minimum temperature. In normal summer, approxi- mately 30h would be at or above the 19 design value and 150 h at or above the 3% design value. For Canadian stations, the 19%, 2.5%, and $% values are ‘based on the month of July only, because the temperature distribution in July in Canada is characteristic of an ‘extremely warm month compared with the temperature dis- tributions of the adjacent months, The Canadian summer design values area few degrees higher than those based on four summer months. ‘Maximum temperatures usually occur between 2:00 p.m. ‘and 4:00 pum. solar time, with deviations on cloudy days when the daily range is less. When calculating building cooling loads, itis advisableto determine whether the struc- ture is most sensitive to dry bulb, eg., extensive exterior ‘exposure, or wet bulb, eg. outside ventilation. Then the appropriate design dry bulb with its coincident wet bulb from Column 6, o the appropriate design wet bulb from ‘Column 8 with its coincident dry bulb (not shown) may be used, As noted previously, the design-dry bulb (Column 6) ‘and design wet-bulb (Column 8) temperatures are not coin- Load Calculation Manual ‘cident. Using the design dry-bulb temperatures in Column 6 with the design wet-bulb temperatures in Column 8 will sive computed loads significantly greater than actual loads. ‘Typically, the design dry-bulb temperatures should be used with the coincident wet-bulb temperatures in Column 6in computing building cooling loads. The design wet-bulb temperatures in Column 8 are primarily intended for evaporative cooling processes but may also be used for computing ventilation loads. Studies at several stations have found that the duration of extremely hot temperatures does not exceed one day (Ecodyne Cooling Products 1980, Snelling 1985, Crow 1963), For applications where occupancy occurs only during hours near the middle of the day, design temperatures below the recommended maximum might apply. In other ceases, the peak occupancy loads may be in months other than the three or four summer months when the maximum ‘outdoor temperature is expected; here design temperatures from other months will apply. Degelman (1985) derived bin data from the Weather Year for Energy Calculations (WYEC) tapes for 51 locations in six time periods during the day. Using this data, Table 3.4 was developed to show design temperatures for October through May for SI loca~ tions in the United States and Canada. Design temperatures for individual months or other periods (not tabulated here) can be roughly approximated from bin data in USAF (1978). Hourly Data Summaries are available for over 120 Canadian stations in AES (1967- 1975), Data summaries for stations throughout the world are also available in Engineering Weather Data (USAF 1978) and Tables of Temperature, Relative Humidity, and Precipitation for the World, Parts I-IV (Meteorological Office 1958). ASHRAB/IES Standard 901 stipulates that design tem- peratures shall not be greater than the 2.5% values in Column 6, Tables 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3. For unusual cases, to assure prevention of damage to the building orits contents, the 1% values may be used. tis generally recommended that the 2.5% values be used; however, the designer must be aware of local condi- tions that may dictate the use of the 1% values. 3.3 Wind Data Winter ‘The prevailing wind direction is the wind direction occur- ring most frequently with the 97.5% dry-bulb winter design, temperature. The mean wind speed (knots) isthe average of those wind speed values occurring coincidentally with the 97.5% dry-bulb winter design temperature (USAF 1978). ‘The wind velocity in miles pec hour (mph) may be obtained by multiplying knots by 1.151. ‘At many stations, particularly in and near mountainous terrain, the prevailing wind direction for winter hours at the {97.5% level is strongly influenced by local terrain features. ‘The wind speeds during this local down-valley drainage flow is generally 7 knots or less.Weather Data and Design Conditions Summer ‘The prevailing wind direction is the wind direction occur- ring most frequently with the 2.5% dry-bulb summer design temperature (USAF 1978). 3.4 Interpolation between Stations Data from many specific weather stations can supply a database for interpolation of expected conditions at nearby locations that lack data. Refer to Crow (1963) for examples of interpolation criteria. Te stations included in Tables 3.1 and 3.2 were primarily selected because of their status as first-order weather stations having available hourly weather data. Additional locations were selected on the basis oF Population, climatic variations, or geographical represen- tation, The design temperatures for stations lacking hourly data have been estimated from nearby stations with an hourly database. ‘The design data in Table 3.3 were compiled using tech- niques described by Ecodyne Cooling Products (1980). In Engineering Weather Data (USAF 1978), adjustments have bbeen made for longer periods of record. ‘The statistics in these tables are presented asa guide only, and they should be used with caution for locations other than those measured. The design values at a building site ‘may differ significantly from the reporting location. A ‘meteorologist experienced in climatology can help interpret and extrapolate the data. An investigation to determine local experience is also recommended. 3.5 Weather-Oriented Design Factors ‘The usual approach in air-conditioning system design involves computation of peak design load at a specifichour of adesign day, using one of the frequency levels of design ns in Tables 3.1, 3.2, or 3.3. While the values enum- erated in this chapter are statistically accurate, certain precautions are recommended concerning their use. These figures are frequency distribution statistics for the ends of the distribution (Ecodyne Cooling Products 1980, Snelling 1985, Crow 1963). Note: The final responsibility for selec- tion of suitable weather-related design conditions lies with the designer. 3.6 Data Related to Underground Structures None of the design temperatures discussed above apply to the calculation of heat loss from walls and floors more than 3 ft below grade. Tests and computer simulation have shown that the surrounding ground surface temperatures the appropriate design temperature. The ground surface temperature is known to fluctuate about a mean value with amplitude Amp, which varies with geographic location and ground cover and reaches a minimum value in late January or February. Mean values of ground surface temperature 3.3 4 — ts FANS. NI Fig. 3.1 Lines of Constant Amplitude of Ground Temperature are not known. Therefore the mean ground surface temper- ature is approximated by assuming that itis equal to the ‘mean annual air temperature f,, which can be determined from meteorological records. Figure 3.1 isa map of North ‘America showing lines of constant amplitude Amp of the ground temperature, and Table 3.5 gives average winter air temperatures for selected cities in the United States and Canada which may be used in place of the mean annual air temperature, Use of the average winter air temperature in- stead of the mean annual air temperature results in slight- ly higher calculated heat losses. The outside design temperature is given by: ~ Amp Ga) where: tg = ground surface temperature, °F verage winter air temperature, Table 3.5, °F amplitude of variation of ground surface temperature, °F Heat loss is then calculated as: UAW ~ 4) 62) where: U = overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu/(h-R2-°F) A = wall or floor surfece area, f 1, = interior design temperature, °F tg. = ground surface temperature, °F 3.7 Evaporative Cooling Weather Data Crow (1972) reports on weather data for the design of evaporative cooling systems in the United States and ‘Canada. Frequency of occurrence of median wet-bulb tem- peratures versus dry-bulb temperature data are available .with design recommendations in the Evaporative Air Cool- ing chapter of the HIVAC Applications Volume of the ASH- RAE Handbook.