 Name:_______________________________________________

 College: _____________________________________________

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 BOARD OF INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION
SECOND YEAR CHAPTER WISE WEIGHT OF MARKS

VSAQ SAQ LAQ TOTAL

S.NO NAME OF THE CHAPTER
( 2M ) ( 4M ) ( 8M ) MARKS

1. WAVES - 1 8
-

2. RAY OPTICS 1 1 - 6

3. WAVE OPTICS - 1 - 4

4. ELECTRICS CHARGES &FIELDS - 1 - 4

5. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & - 1 - 4

CAPACITANCE

6. CURRENT ELECTRICITY - - 1 8

7. MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM 1 1 - 6

8. MAGNETISM & MATTER 2 - - 4

9. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION - 1 - 4

10. ALTERNATING CURRENT 1 - - 2

11. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 1 - - 2

12. DUALNATURE OF RADIATION & 2 - - 4

MATTER

13. ATOMS - 1 - 4

14. NUCLEI - - 1 8

15. SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS 1 1 - 6

16. COMMUNICATION SYSTEM 1 - - 2

TOTAL NO. OF QUESTIONS 10 8 3 76

 1. WAVES 2. What do understand by the terms ‘focus’ and
1. What does a wave represent? ‘principal focus’ in the convex lenses?
A) A wave represents the transport of energy through a A) Focus (F): In the case of a lens, when an object is
medium from one point to another without placed at infinity, the point at which its image is formed
translation of the medium. is called focus.
2. What are the parameters used to describe a Principal focus: A narrow beam of light incident on a
progressive harmonic wave? lens in a direction parallel to its principal axis, after
A) 1) Amplitude 2) Phase 3) Wave length refraction through the lens, the rays converge to a point
4) Time period 5) Frequency 6) Velocity s on the principal axis. This point is called principal
3. Under what conditions will a wave are reflected? focus.
A) Progressive wave travelling in a medium gets 3. A small angled prism of 40 deviates a ray through
reflected at 2.480. Find the refractive index of the mirror.
1) Rigid boundary 2) Free boundary A. A = 4 , D = 2.48
3) At the interface of two different media D m  A μ  1
4. What is a stationary wave or standing wave? Dm 2 .4 8 0
A) Two progressive waves having same wavelength, μ  1    0 .6 2
A 4
amplitude and frequency travelling in the medium in μ  1   0 .6 2  μ  1  0 .6 2  μ  1 .6 2
the opposite directions superimpose over each other 4. What is myopia? How can it be corrected?
produce stationary wave. A. Myopia (or) Nearsightedness: The light from a distant
5. What is phase difference between incident and object arriving at the eye-lens may be converged at a
reflected waves at point in front of the retina. This type of defect is called
a) Open end b) closed end myopia.
A) a) At an open end is 0 b) at the closed end is  It is corrected by using concave lens.
6. What is the principal of superposition of waves? 5. What is hypermetropia? How can it be corrected?
A) When two or more waves are travelling in the same A. Hypermetropia (or) Farsightedness: The light from a
medium, the resultant displacement of the particles distant object arriving at the eye-lens may be converged
of the medium is algebraic sum of the displacement V
at a point behind the retina. This type of defect is
of individual waves. E called Hypermetropia.
y  y1  y2  y3  ................ N It is corrected by using convex lens.
7. What happens to the fundamental frequency of a K 6. What is ‘dispersion’? Which colour gets relatively
stretched string when its linear density becomes A more dispersed?
1/4th of its initial value? A. Dispersion: The phenomenon of splitting of white light
T
into its constituent colours, on passing through a prism
A) Fundamental frequency n  1 T E is called dispersion of light.
2l  S Violet colour is relatively more dispersed.
1 T H 7. Define ‘power’ of a convex lens. What is its units?
n   2n
2l ( / 4) A. Power of a lens: Reciprocal of the focal length is
Frequency will be doubled. called power of lens.
8. Using dimensional analysis an expression for the Units : Dioptre(D)
speed of transverse waves in a stretched string. 1 10 0
P ow er of co nvex len s (P )  
f  in m etres  f  in cm s 
T M L T 2
  ( L T 1 ) 2  V 8. A concave mirror produces an image of a long
 M L 1
vertical pin, placed 40cm from the mirror, at the
T
V  position of the object. Find the focal length of the
 mirror.
9. Using dimensional analysis obtain an expression A. u = - 40cm, v = - 40cm, = +
for the speed of sound waves in a medium.
2 = − − = − = ⇒ f = - 20cm.
A. P  M LT  ( L T  1 ) 2  V 9. A concave mirror of focal length 10cm, is placed at a
1
 ML
distance 35cm, from the a wall. How far from the
P wall should an object be placed so that its real image
V 
 is formed on the wall?
2. RAY OPTICS A. f = - 10cm, v = -35cm, = +
1. Define focal length and radius of curvature of a = + u = = −14cm
concave lens.
Object distance from the wall = 35 – 14 = 21cm.
A) Focal length (f): The distance between the principal
10. What are the laws of reflection through curved
focus and the optical centre of the lens is called focal
mirrors?
length.
Radius of curvature (R): Radius of curvature is the A. 1. i  r
radius of the sphere from which the curved surface is 2. The incident ray, the normal to the plane of
taken apart. incidence and reflected ray lie in the same plane.

PAGE NO: 1
 3. WAVE OPTICS
1. What is Fresnel distance?
A. Fresnel distance: the distance travelled by a beam
of light it starts to spread out due to diffraction is
called Fresnel distance.
2 multiple of charge of electron (q = ne). Therefore charge
Fresnel distance Z P  a
λ
Where ‘a’ is width of the light beam and
‘ ’ is its wavelength.
2. What is polarization of light?
A. The vibrations of the light confined only one
direction. This phenomenon is called polarization.
3. What is Mauls law?
A. The intensity of the polarized light transmitted
through the analyzer is proportional to square of
cosine of the angle between the plane of
transmission of analyzer and polarizer.
I α cos 2 θ I  I 0 cos 2 θ
4. Explain Brewster’s law.
A. Brewster’s law: The tangent of the polarizing
angle is equal to the refractive index of the medium.
μ  Tan(i B )
Where iB= polarizing angle, μ = refractive index
5. When does a monochromatic beam of light
incident on a reflective surface get completely
transmitted?
A. When a monochromatic beam of light incident
along the normal drawn to the reflective surface
(normal incident i=0) then, it gets completely
transmitted.
6. Give the justification for validity of ray optics.
A. When Z f 
a 2 ,diffraction effect can be neglected
λ S
and condition for ray optics is valid.
PAGE NO: 2
4. ELECTRIC CHARGES & FIELDS
1. What is meant by the statement charge is quantized
A. The minimum charge that can be transferred from one
body to the other is equal to the charge of the electron
(e = 1.62 X 10-19C). A charge always exists an integral
is said to be quantized.
2. Repulsion is the sure test of charging than attraction.
Why.
A. Attraction can be there between a charged body and an
uncharged body and also between opposite charges. But
repulsion exists between two like charges only. Hence,
repulsion is the sure test to confirm the charge on a
body.
3. How many electrons constitute 1C of charge?
A. q = 1C, e = 1.6 X10-19 C, n = ?
q 1
q = ne n = e = = 6.25X1018 electrons.
1.6X10 19
4. What happens to the force between two charges if
the distance between them is a) halved b) doubled?
A. From coulombs law F α
When distance is reduced to half, force increases by
four times.F = . = 4 . ( ) = 4F
πϵ πϵ
When distance is doubled, then force is reduced by four
times. F = .( = . = F
V πϵ ) πϵ ( )
E 5. When will be the electric flux negative and when is it
N positive?
A. The electric flux is positive when it is moving away
K from the surface.
A The electric flux is negative when it is moving in to the
T surface.
E 6. The electric lines of force do not intersect. Why?
A. They do not intersect because if they intersect, at the
point intersection intensity of electric field will act in
H two different directions, which is not possible.
7. Write the expression for electric intensity due to an
infinite plane sheet of charge.
A. The electric intensity due to an infinite plane sheet of
charge E  σ
2ε 0
8. Write the expression for electric intensity due to long
charged wire, at a radial distance r from the wire.
A. The electric intensity at a point due to an infinitely long
charged wire E = λ
2π ε 0r
9. What happens to the weight of a body when it is
charged positively?
A. Weight of the body decreases because it looses electrons
10. The electric field in a region is given by E = ai + bj.
Here a and b are constants. Find the net flux passing
through a square area of side L parallel to Y-Z
plane.
A. Given E = ai + bj, S = L2 I,
∅ = E. S = (ai + bj).L2 i
∅ = aL2 [ i.i = 1 and i.j = o
 5. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
1. Three capacitances 1F, 2F, and 3F, are connected
in parallel.
What is the ratio of charges?
What is the ratio of potential differences?
A. When capacitors are connected in parallel
q ∶ q ∶ q = C V ∶ C V ∶ C V
q ∶ q ∶ q = 1 ∶ 2 ∶ 3
V ∶ V ∶ V = V ∶ V ∶ V = 1 ∶ 1 ∶ 1
2. What happens to the capacitance of parallel plate
capacitor if the area of its plates is doubled?
A. = , C = Given A2 = 2A
= if = 1, A = 1. ⇒ ρ = =
C2 = 2C1
Therefore capacity increases by twice.
3. Can there be electric potential at a point with zero
electric intensity? Give an example.
A. Yes. Inside a charged metal spherical shell, potential
is not zero but electric intensity is zero.
V = , E=0
πε
4. Can there be electric intensity at a point with zero
electric potential? Give an example.
A. Yes. When two charges +q and –q are separated by a
distance, the potential at the midpoint is zero. But
electric intensity at the midpoint is not zero.
5. Three capacitances 1F, 2F, and 3F, are connected
in series.
What is the ratio of charges?
What is the ratio of potential differences?
A. When capacitors are connected in series.
q ∶ q ∶ q = q ∶ q ∶ q = 1 ∶ 1 ∶ 1
q q q 1 1 1
V ∶ V ∶ V = : : = ∶ ∶
C C C 1 2 3
V ∶ V ∶ V = 6 ∶ 3 ∶ 2
PAGE NO: 3
6. CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1. State Ohm’s law and write its mathematical form
A. At constant temperature, the strength of the current (i) in
a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference (V) between its ends. i ∝ V
i = , V = i R (Mathematical form)
Where R is constant, it is called the resistance of
the conductor.
2. Define resistivity or specific resistance.
A. Resistivity or specific resistance( ): The resistance of
a conductor of unit length and unit area of cross-section
is called resistivity.
⇒ ρ = R
3. The sequence of bands marked on a carbon resister
is Red, Red, Red, and Silver. What is its resistance
and tolerance?
A. Resistance Red, Red, Red = 22x102 Ώ = 2200
Tolerance = ±10%
4. What is the colour code of a carbon resistor of
resistance 23Kilo Ohm’s
A. 23 X 103 Ώ = Red, Orange, Orange.
5. Two wires of equal length, of copper and manganin,
have the same resistance. Which wire is thicker?
A. R =
V Since ‘R’ and ‘l’ are same ρ ∝ A
For manganin wire ‘ρ’ is more so it is Thicker.
E
6. Why is house hold appliances connected in parallel?
N A. It is because any electrical device can be turned on or
K off without affecting the operation of other devices.
A
T
E
S
H
 7. MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM 8. MAGNETISM & MATTER
1. What is the importance of Oersted’s experiment? 1. What happens to compass needles at the Earth’s
A. Importance of Oersted’s experiment is every current pole?
carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around A. At the poles, earth field is exactly vertical. So, the
it and which is perpendicular to current carrying compass needles free to rotate in a horizontal plane
conductor. only, it may point out in any direction.
2. What is the force on a charged particle of charge ‘q’ 2. What are the units of magnetic moment, magnetic
moving with a velocity ‘v’ in uniform magnetic field induction and magnetic field?
of induction B? When does it become maximum? A. 1) Magnetic moment : Am2
A. Force on charged particle F = qvB sin θ 2) Magnetic induction : Tesla (or) Wb m-2
if θ = 90 , Force is maximum. F = q v B 3) Magnetic field : Tesla
3. What is the smallest value of current that can be 3. Define magnetic inclination or angle of dip.
measured with a moving coil galvanometer? A. The angle between the direction of earth’s magnetic
A. Moving coil galvanometer is sensitive galvanometer, field(BE) and Horizontal direction in magnetic
it is used to measure very small current upto 10-9A meridian(BH) is called magnetic inclination or angle of
4. How do you convert a moving coil galvanometer dip.
into an ammeter? 4. Classify the following materials with regard to
A. A low resistance is connected in Parallel to the magnetism: Manganese, Cobalt, Nickel, Bismuth,
moving coil galvanometer, and then it converts to Oxygen, and Copper.
Ammeter. A. Dia magnetic: Bismuth, Copper
5. How do you convert a moving coil galvanometer Para magnetic: Manganese, Oxygen
into a voltmeter? Ferro magnetic: Nickel, Cobalt
A. A high resistance is connected in Series to the 5. Magnetic lines form continuous closed loops. Why?
moving coil galvanometer, and then it converts to A. Since, isolated magnetic poles do not exists.
voltmeter. 6. Define magnetic declination.
6. Distinguish between ammeter and voltmeter. A. The angle between magnetic meridian and geographical
Ammeter Voltmeter V meridian is called angle of declination
It used to measure It is used measure P.D E 7. What is the magnetic moment associated with a
current Between two points. N solenoid?
Resistance of an ideal Resistance of an ideal K A. M = N i A
Ammeter is zero. Voltmeter is infinity M = (Total no.of turns)(current)(cross-sectional area)
A 2
It is connected in series It is connected in M = M  (2l  n)(i )(r )
in the circuits. parallel in the circuit T
8. What do you understand by the ‘magnetization’ of a
7. A circular coil of radius ‘r’ having N turns carries E
sample?
a current ‘i’. What is its magnetic moment? S A. The magnetic moment per unit volume is called
A. Magnetic moment (M) = N i A (A = πr ) H
(M) = N i (πr ) magnetization. M ag n etizatio n I  M .M
8. What is the force on a conductor of length ‘l’ V
carrying current ‘i’ when it is situated in a magnetic S.I Units magnetization is A/m.
field of induction ‘B’ when is it maximum? Due to magnetization a sample placed in a magnetic
A. We have F = i ( x B) field gets a net magnetic moment.
F = i B sin θ , if θ = 90 , force is max F = Bi 9. Do you find the two magnetic field lines intersecting?
9. Write the expression for the magnetic induction Why?
at any point on the axis of a circular current A. No. Because, if magnetic lines of force intersects. Then
carrying coil. Hence, obtain an expression for at the point of intersection, field has two directions
magnetic induction at the centre of the circular which is impossible.
coil. 10. Define Curie temperature.
μ0 n ir 2
1 . O n th e a x is o f c irc u la r c o il(B ) 
2 3 A. The temperature at which a ferromagnetic substance
r 2
+x 2
 2

converts into a paramagnetic substance is Curie

μ ni
2 . A t th e c e n tre x = 0 , th e n B  0 temperature (or) Curie point.
2 r
11. State Gauss law for Magnetism.
10. What is the relation between the permittivity of
A. The number of magnetic field lines leaving the surface
free space  0 , the permeability of free space 0 is balanced by the number of lines entering it. The net
and the speed of light in vaccum? magnetic flux is zero for both the surfaces.
1
C 
 0
, w h ere C  3  1 08 m / s B   B .Δ s  0
all
0

11. What is principle of moving coil galvanometer. 12. Current in a circuit falls from 5.0A to 0.0A in 0.1sec.
A. Deflection produced in current carrying coil placed if an average emf of 200V is induced, give an
in uniform magnetic field is directly proportional to estimate of the self-inductance of the circuit.
current. A. di = 5.0 – 0.0 = 5A, dt = 0.1sec, emf e = 200V L = ?
( Deflection angle)  (Current in the Coil ) e  L
di
 L  e
dt  0 .1 
 L  200 
dt di   4H
 5 

PAGE NO: 4
 9. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
1. State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
A. First law: - when the magnetic flux linked with a
coil changes an emf induced in it.
Second law: - The magnitude of the induced e.m.f
is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux
through the circuit.
d∅
ε = −
dt
∅ 3. What is the phenomenon involved in the working of a
In case of a coil has an ‘N’ turn, ε = −N
2. What are Eddy currents?
A. When large pieces of conductors are subjected to
changing magnetic fluxes, induced currents are
produced in them. Such induced currents are called
eddy currents.
Eddy currents are used in magnetic brakes of trains
in which braking effect is smooth.
3. Define ‘inductance’.
A. The magnetic flux is directly proportional to the
current.
∅ ∝ i ⇒ ∅ = Li voltage and current is zero.
The constant proportionality in this is called
inductance,
Defination of Inductance: the ratio of magnetic flux
to current is called inductance.
4. What do you understand by ‘self inductance'?
A. Self Inductance: when the current passing though a
coil changes, an emf is induced in the coil which
tends to oppose the change of current this property of
a coil is called self induction. ∅ ∝ i ⇒
∅ = Li A
From Faraday’s law of induced emf,
∅
ε = − ,(∅ = Li )
ε = −L Where ‘L’ is called self inductance
Defination of Self Induction: the ratio of induced
emf to rate of change of current is called self
inductance
L = − average pewer(p).
Its SI units is Henry(H)
5. State Lenzs law.
A. The direction of the induced emf is always such that
it tends to oppose the change in magnetic flux that
has caused it.
6. What did experiments of Faraday and Henry
show?
A. When the magnetic flux linked with a conductor
charges, an emf is induced in it.
7. Define magnetic flux.
A. The total number of magnetic lines of force crossing
the surface normally is called magnetic flux.
8. In choosing material for transformer cores, what
criteria is taken for the material in the case of its
material and area of hysteresis curve to decrease
eddy current losses?
A. For transformer core material substances with low
resistivity and low area hysteresis curve is used.
PAGE NO: 5
10. ALTERNATING CURRENT
1. A transformer converts 200V ac into 2000V ac.
Calculate the number of turns in the secondary if the
primary has 10 turns.(IMP)
A. V = 200V, V = 2000V, N = 10, N = ?
N = X N = X 10 N = 100.
2. What type of transformer is used in a 6V bed lamp?
A. Step down transformer is used in 6V bed lamp.
transformer?
A. Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction.
4. Write the expression for the reactance of i) an
inductor and ii) a capacitor.
A. Inductive reactance (X ) = ωL
The capacitive reactance (X ) =
5. What is the phase difference A.C emf and current in
the following Pure resistor, pure inductor and pure
capacitor.
A. For pure resistance, the phase difference between AC
For pure Inductor, the current lags behind the voltage
by an angle of radians (or)90 .
For pure capacitance, the current leads ahead voltage
by an angle of radians (or)90 .
V 6. What is meant by wattles component of current?
E A. The component of current which does not useful work in
an A.C circuit is called wattles current
N
K 7. Define power factor. On which factors does power
factor depend?(IMP)
A. Power Factor: The ratio of the true power to the
T apparent power of an A.C circuit it is equal to cosine of
E the angle between current and voltage in A.C circuit it is
S given by
H cos ∅ = =
P = VI cos ∅
Power factor depends on r.m.s voltage, r.m.s current and
7. What is transformer ratio?
A. The ratio of Number of turns in secondary coil to
Number of turns in primary coil is called transformer
ratio.
No. turns in Secondary coil
Transformer ratio 
No. of turns in Primary coil
8. When does a LCR series circuit have minimum
impedance?
A. At resonance XL=XC and Z minimum.
9. What is the phase difference between voltage and
current when the power factor in LCR series circuit is
unity?
A. P o w e r fa c to r c o s   1 , P h a se d iffe re n c e   0 0
10. In a transformer the primary to secondary turns ratio
is 1:2. If an A.C current of 4 ampere is flowing
through the primary coil, what is the current in
secondary?
A. NP : NS =1 : 2, IP = 4amp, IS =?
N   1 
I S   P   I P   I S     4   2 am p
N
 S   2 
 11. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 12. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER
1. If the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is 1. What are “cathode rays”?
doubled, what happens to the energy of photon? A. A stream of fast moving negatively charged particles are
A. Photon energy(E) = hϑ = called cathode rays
2. What is “work function”
E ∝ , Given = , = 2 , E = E A. The minimum energy required by an electron to escape
E E 2 E from the metal surface is called work function.
= , = , E = It is denoted by W , W = hϑ
E E 2
The energy of photon reduce to half of its initial 3. What is “photoelectric effect”?
value. A. The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal
2. Give any two uses of infrared rays. surface when radiation of suitable frequency light falls
A. These are used in on it is called photo electric effect.
1) Solar water heaters. 4. Write down Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
2) To take Photo in fog conditions. A. Einstein’s photoelectric equation is given by
3. What are the applications of microwaves? 1
A. 1) Micro wave ovens hν  W0  mv2
2
2) Aircraft navigation. 5. Write down deBroglie’s relation and explain the
3) Automobiles. terms therein.
4. Microwaves are used in Radars, why? A. The debroglie wavelength associated with a material
A. As microwaves are of short wavelengths,
microwaves easily penetrate the earth’s atmosphere. particle is given by = = where ‘h’ is plank’s
Hence they are used in radars for space vehicle constant.
communication P : momentum, m : mass of the electron, v: velocity
5. What is the principle of production of 6. State Heisenberg’ Uncertainty Principle.
electromagnetic waves? A. It is impossible to measure the both the position and
A. An accelerating charged particle produces an momentum of a particle simultaneously to any desire
electromagnetic wave. V degree of accuracy. ∆ ∆ ≈ ℎ
6. What is the average wavelength of X – rays? E 7. Give an example of photo sensitive substances. Why
A. Range 10nm to 10-4nm. N they are called so?
(10+10-4 ) K A. Example :- Alkali metals such as Li, Na, K, Zn, Cd, Mg
Average  nm  5.00005nm. etc They are called so because their work function is low
2 A
and they emit the photo electrons
7. What is the ratio of speed of infrared rays and T 8. What is important fact did Millikan’s experiment
ultraviolet rays in vacuum? E establish?
A. The ratio of speed is 1:1 S A. Millikan’s experiment verifies the Einstein’s photo
All electromagnetic waves travels with speed electric equation.
3x108m/s in vacuum.
H
9. What is the de-Broglie’s wavelength of a ball of mass
0.12Kg moving with a speed of 20m/s?
A. Mass (m) = 0.12Kg. Speed (v) = 20m/s, h = 6.63x 10-34J.
h h
de  Broglie Wavelength  λ   
p mv
6 .6 3  1 0  3 4 6 .6 3  1 0  3 4
λ     2 .7 6 2  1 0  3 4 m e t
0 .1 2  2 0 2 .4
10. What is the de-Broglie wavelength associated with an
electron, accelerated through a potential difference of
100volt?
A. Applied potential (V) = 100V,
h 1 .2 2 7 1 .2 2 7
W a ve le n g th  λ      0 .1 2 2 7 n m
p 100 10
11. An electron, an α particle and a proton have the same
kinetic energy. Which of these particles has the
shortest de-Broglie wavelength?
h P2
W a v e le n g th λ   , but K E   P  2 m K .E
p 2m
h
W h e n K .E is s a m e m o m e n tu m P α m .S o λ  
m
For α Particle ‘m’ is more than given other particles. So
de-Broglie wavelength of α-particle is less.

PAGE NO: 6
 13. ATOMS 14. NUCLEI
1. What is the angular momentum of electron in the 1. What are isotopes and isobars?
second orbit of Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom? A. Isotopes: The nuclei having the same atomic number (Z)
A. Angular momentum of electron L = but different mass numbers (A) are called isotopes.
Eg: O, O,
Second orbit n = 2, Hence L = Isobars: The nuclei having the same mass number (N)
2. What is the expression for fine structure constant but different atomic number (Z) is called isobars.
and what is its value? Eg: C, N,
A. Formula for fine structure constant 2. What are isotones and isomers?
α= ; value of α = A. Isotones: The nuclei having same neutron number (N)
but different atomic numbers (Z) are called isotones.
3. What is the physical meaning of ‘negative of an Eg: Hg, Au,
electron’ Isomers: Nuclei having the same atomic number (Z) and
A. The negative energy of an electron indicates that the mass number (A) but with different nuclear properties
electron bound to the nucleus due to force of such as radioactive decay and magnetic moments are
attraction. called isomers.
4. What is the difference between − particle Eg: Br , Br ,
helium atom 3. Neutrons cannot produce ionization. Why?
Alpha particle Helium atom A. Because neutrons are uncharged particles and cannot
It is a +2e charged It has no charge. produce ionization.
Helium nucleus. 4. What are thermal neutrons? What is their
It contains 2 protons It contains 2 protons, 2 importance?
and 2 neutrons. electrons and 2 A. Neutrons having kinetic energies approximately 0.025eV
neutrons. are called as slow neutrons or thermal neutrons.
5. How is impact parameter related to angle of Importance: 235 undergoes fission only when
scattering? bombarded with thermal neutrons.
A. The impact parameter related to angle of scattering is V
5. What are delayed neutrons?
given by b = x cot E A. Neutrons are emitted in fission products after sometime
N are called delayed neutrons.
6. The Lyman series of hydrogen spectrum lies in K 6. What is the value of neutron multiplication factor in a
the ultraviolet region. Why? controlled reaction and in an uncontrolled chain
A. The calculated values of wavelengths lie in the A
reaction?
ultraviolet region of the spectrum well agree with the T
A. In controlled chain reaction K = 1
value wavelengths observed experimentally be E In uncontrolled chain reaction K > 1
Lyman S 7. Why nuclear fusion reactions are called thermo
7. Give two drawbacks of Rutherford’s atomic H nuclear reactions?
model. A. Nuclear fusion occurs at very high temperature. So it is
A. As the revolving electron loses energy continuously, called thermo nuclear reaction.
it must spiral inwards and eventually fall into the 8. A nucleus contains no electrons but can emit them.
nucleus. But matter is stable. We cannot expect the How?
atom collapse. A. When the nucleus disintegrates and radiates –rays, it is
The atoms should emit continuous spectrum, but said to be –decay. – Particles are nothing but
what we observe is only a line spectrum. electrons. So nucleus eject e-
8. The wavelength of the first member of Lyman
series 1216A0. Calculate the wavelength of second
member of Balmer series.
A. 1st member of Lyman series n1 = 1 and n2 = 2
= R − = R 1 − = (or) λ = … . . (1)
nd
2 member of Bamer series n1 = 2 and n2 = 4
= R − = R − = (or) λ = … . . (2)
Dividing (2) by (1) we get
= X = 4
λ = 4 (λ ) = 4 (1216 A ) = 4864A

PAGE NO: 7
 15. SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
1. What is a p-type semi conductor? What is the
majority and minority charged carriers in it?
A. If a trivalent impurity is added to a tetravalent
semiconductor, it is called p-type semiconductor.
In p-type semiconductor majority charge carriers are
holes and minority charge carriers are electrons.
2. What is an n-type semi conductor? What is the
majority and minority charged carriers in it?
A. If a pentavalent impurity is added to a tetravalent
semiconductor, it is called n-type semiconductor.
In n-type semiconductor majority charge carriers are
electrons and minority charge carriers are holes.
3. What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?
A. Pure form of semiconductors is called intrinsic
semiconductors.
When impure atoms are added to increase their
conductivity, they are called extrinsic
semiconductors.
4. What is a p-n junction diode? Define depletion
layer.
A. When an intrinsic semiconductor crystal is grown
with one side doped with trivalent element and on
the other side doped with pentavalent element, a
junction is formed in the crystal. It is called p-n
junction diode.
A thin narrow region is formed on either side of the
p-n junction, which is free from charge carriers is
called depletion layer.
5. Which gates are called universal gates?
A. NAND gates and NOR gates are called universal
gates.
6. What is Zener voltage (VZ) and how will a Zener
diode be connected in circuits generally?
A. When Zener diode is in reverse biased, at particular
voltage current increases suddenly is called Zener
(or) break down Voltage.
Zener diode always connected in reverse bias.
7. Define amplifier and amplification factor.
A. Amplifier:- The device used for raising the strength
of a weak signal is known as amplifier.
Amplification factor: - The ratio of output power to
input power is called amplification factor.
7. Draw the circuit symbols for p-n-p and n-p-n
transistors.
PAGE NO: 8
16. COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
1. What are the basic blocks of a communication
system?
A. Basic blocks in communication system are
1) Transmitter. 2) Receiver. 3) Channel.
2. What is “World Wide Web” (WWW)?
A. Tern Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web.
It is an encyclopedia of knowledge accessible to
everyone round the clock throughout the year.
3. Mention the Frequency range of speech signals.
A. Speech signals frequency range is 300Hz to 3100Hz.
4. What is sky wave propagation?
A. In the frequency range from a1 MHz up to about 30
MHz, long distance communication can be achieved by
ionosphere reflection of radio waves back towards the
earth. This mode of propagation is called sky wave
propagation.
5. Mention various parts of the ionosphere?
A. Parts of ionosphere are
D (Part of stratosphere 65 – 70km day only).
E (Part of stratosphere 100 km day only).
F1 (Part of mesosphere 170 – 190km).
F2 (Part of thermosphere 300km at night 250 – 400
during the day).
6. Define modulation. Why is it necessary?
A. Modulation: The process of combining low frequency
V audio signal with high frequency electromagnetic signals
E is called modulation
N Necessary of Modulation:
Low frequency signals cannot be transmitted to long
K
distances.
A
To reduce size of the antenna.
T Power radiated by antenna is less with low frequency.
E To avoid mixing signal from different transmitter’s.
S 7. Mention Basic methods of modulation.
H A. The basic methods of modulation are
Amplitude modulation (AM).
Frequency modulation (FM).
Phase modulation (PM).
8. Which type of communication is employed in mobile
phones?
A. Space wave mode of propagation is employed in mobile
phones
1. Define focal length of a concave mirror. Prove 3. Define critical angle. Explain total internal reflection
that the radius of curvature of a concave mirror is using a neat diagram.
double its focal length. A. Critical angle: when light ray travels from denser
A. Define focal length of a concave mirror: The medium to rarer medium, the angle of incidence, for
distance between the focus(F) and the pole(P) of the which angle of refraction is 900 is called critical angle.
mirror is called the focal length of the concave mi 1
μ 
s in (C )
Total internal reflection: when a light ray travels from
denser to rarer medium, the angle of incidence is greater
than the critical angle, then it reflects into the same
medium is called total internal reflection.
Consider a ray parallel to the principal axis striking Explanation: Consider an object in the denser medium.
the mirror at M get reflected passing through the A ray incident on XY surface bends away from the
focus (F). The line CM is perpendicular to the mirror perpendicular. As the angle of incidence is increased, the
Let ‘ θ ’ be the angle of incidence,∠AMC = ∠MCP angle of refraction goes on increasing. For certain angle
Draw MD⊥ CP of incidence, the refracted ray parallel to XY surface (900)
In right angled ∆ MCD
MD
T an θ         (1)
CD
From ∆ MFD
MD
Tan2θ         (2)
FD
Dividing eq(2) by eq(1)
 M D 
 
T an2 θ FD   C D      (3)
 
T an θ  M D  FD V
  When the angle of incidence is further increased, the ray
 CD  E
If is ‘ θ ’very small, Tanθ  θ and Tan2θ  2θ is not refracted but is totally reflected back into the same
N medium. This phenomenon is called total internal
Since the aperture of the lens is small the point M K reflection.
lies very close to p
A 4. Explain the formation of rainbow.
CD = CP and FD = FP
T A. Rainbow: The multicolored arc that appears in the sky,
From eq(3), 2θ  CP  R 2
R
E opposite to sun on a rainy day is called rainbow.
θ FP f f Rainbow is the combined effect of Dispersion, Refraction
S and total internal reflection of sunlight by spherical water
R  2f
H droplets of rain in atmosphere.
Radius of curvature is equal to double of its focal
The water drops in atmosphere act as small prisms and
length.
cause of dispersion and total internal reflection of
2. Why does the setting sun appear red?
sunlight to form rainbow.
A. Sunlight passes through the atmosphere before it
reaches us. Sun light is composed of seven colors
(VIBGYOR) in the evenings, where the sun is near
the horizon. The rays have to travel longer path in
the atmosphere to reach us.

The primary rainbow is a 3 step process.

1) The sunlight is first refracted as it enters a rain drop,
which causes different colors.
2) These refracted rays strike the inner surface of the
drop and get internally reflected
3) These internally reflected rays again get refracted at
the opposite surface and come out.
The dust, smoke and water vapor present in the As red is deviated less, it comes from upper level
atmosphere deviate away these colors differently drops and appears at top. As violet is deviated more,
depending in their wavelengths. As red has longer it comes from lower level drops and appears at
wavelength, it is less deviated. Thus the red comes to bottom.
straight while other colors get deviated into space. The secondary rainbow is also formed due to double
internal reflection of sunlight in the rain drops.
That’s why setting sun appears red.

PAGE NO: 9
5. With a neat labeled diagram explain the 7. Define Snell’s Law. Using a neat labeled diagram
formation of image in a simple microscope. derive an expression for the refractive index of the
A. Simple Microscope: A simple microscope consists material of an equilateral prism.
A. Snell’s Law: the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to
of only one convex lens of small focal length. It is
the sine of angle of refraction is constant,
also called as magnifying glass. 1
μ 
sin (C )
Let ABC be the glass prism. Its angle of prism is A. The
refractive index of the material of the prism i μ. Let AB
and AC be the two refracting surfaces
PQ = incident ray, RS = emergent ray,
Let angle of incidence = i1 angle of emergence = i2
In this, the object is placed between the principal Angle of refraction = r1 angle of refraction R = r2
After travelling through the prism it falls on AC and
focus F and the optic center of the convex lens. emerges as RS. The D = angle deviation.
Formation of image can be explained by two ray
diagram. The light ray coming from the object
parallel to principal axis refracts at lens and passes
through second principal focus F|. Another light ray
from the object passes through the optic of the lens
un deviated. These two rays meet on the back side of
the object to form the image. Hence, the image
formed is virtual. Erect and magnified as shown in From the triangle QRT
the figure, + + ∠ = ………… (1)
The closest comfortable distance for viewing the From the quadrilateral AQTR
image is the distance of the near point D = 25m. V ∠A + ∠T = 180
6. Explain the formation of a mirage E ∠ = − ∠ ………….. (2)
A. Mirage: Mirage is an optical phenomenon in which N Substitute the equation (2) in equation (1) we get
K r + r + 180 − ∠A = 180
light rays are bent to produce a displaced image of
+ = ∠ ………………. (3)
distant object is called mirage. A From the triangle QUR
T i − r + i − r + 180 − D = 180
E i + i − (r + r ) = D
S i + i − ∠A = D [r + r = ∠A ]
H + = + ………………. (4)
Minimum Deviation: Experimentally it is found that as
the angle of incidence increased the angle of deviation
decreases till it reaches a minimum value and then it
1. Mirage are formed due to total internal reflection increases. This least value of deviation is called angle of
of light. minimum deviation
2. On hot summer days the density of air is less i = i ,
near the ground due to heat. r = r
3. Hotter air is less dense and smaller refractive i = i = i
index than cooler air. r = r = r
4. Of the air is still, the optical density at different
Substituting this in (1) and (2) we get.
layers of air increases with height.
2r = A ⇒ = ( / )
5. Hence the light rays coming from a tall body
2i = A + D ⇒ =
such as tree, bends away from normal and under
goes total internal reflection. According to Snell’s law μ =
6. Therefore, to a distant observer the light appears
= ( / )
to be coming from somewhere below the
ground. A ray of light, after passing through a medium,
7. It seems that light is being reflected from the meets the surface separating the medium from air at
an angle of 450 and is just not refracted. What is the
ground, say, by a pool of water near the tall refractive index of the prism?
object.
μ = ⇒ μ =
8. Due to optical illusion, the observers the
inverted image of distant tall object. μ = = √2
√
9. This phenomenon is called “Mirage” μ = 1.414

PAGE NO: 10
1. Explain Doppler Effect in light. Distinguish 4. Discuss the intensity of transmitted light when a
between red shift and blue shift. Polaroid sheet is rotated between two crossed
A. Doppler Effect in light: the change in the apparent Polaroid’s.
frequency of light, due to relative motion between A. Let I0 be the intensity of polarized light after passing
source of light and observer. This phenomenon is through the first polarizer P1. Then the intensity of
called Doppler shift in light. light after passing through second polarizer P2 will be
The apparent frequency of light increases when the I = I cos θ
distance between observer and source of light is
decreasing and the apparent frequency of light
decreases, if the distance between source of light and
observer increasing. Where is the angle between passing axes P1 and
∆ P2since P1 and P2 are crossed the angle between the
Doppler shift can be expressed as = −
Red shift: When source and observer away from pass axes of P2 and P3 will be −
each other apparent frequency decreases or apparent Hence the intensity of light emerging from P3 will be
wave length increases this is called red shift. I = I cos θ . cos −
Blue shift:, When source and observer approach
each other apparent frequency increases or apparent I = I cos θ . sin θ
wave length decreases this is called blue shift. I
I = sin 2
2. How do you determine the resolving power of 4
your eye? The transmitted intensity will be maximum when
A. Resolving Power of Eye: resolving power of the eye =
is the ability to see the fine details in the objects that 5. Derive an expression for the intensity at a point
are viewed. where interference of light occurs. Arrive at the
We can estimate the resolving power of our eye with conditions for maximum and minimum intensity.
a simple experiment. A. Expression for the Intensity at a point due to
Interference of light: Let us suppose that the wave
V
from two coherent sources S1 and S2 are undergoing
Let us take a pattern of black strips of equal width E interference and forming an interference pattern on the
(each 5mm) separated by white stripes of increasing N screen.
width (0.5mm, 1mm, 1.5 mm…) from the left to K The displacement of the wave produced by S1 is
right as shown in the figure and paste it on a wall of A Y1  A c o s ω t
the room.
T
Now, let us watch the pattern with one eye. By The displacement of the wave produced by S2 is
moving our eye away or closer to the wall, we have E
Y2  A co s ω t + 
to find the position where we can just see some two S
Where ‘A’ is amplitude, ‘ω’ is angular frequency and
black strips as separate strips all the black strips H ‘∅’ is the phase difference between the waves.
would merge into one another and would not be
Resultant displacement at a point on the screen is given
distinguishable.
by principle of superposition. y = y + y
On the other hand, the black stripes on the right of
this would be more and more clearly visible. If ‘d’ is y = A[cos ωt + cos(ωt + ∅)]
A+B A−B
the width of the white stripe which is separates to the cos A + cos B = 2 cos . cos
2 2
two regions and ‘D’ is the distance between the eye ∅ ∅
and the wall, the resolving power of the eye is given y = 2 A cos . cos ωt +
2 2
by d/D. ∅
Here, 2 A cos represent the amplitude of the
5. Does the principle of conservation of energy hold
resultant wave at the point. Hence, the intensity of
for interference and diffraction phenomena?
resultant wave at a point due to interference is given by
Explain briefly
A. Yes, law of conservation of energy is obeyed.  
I = 4I0 cos2  
In case of constructive interference, intensity  2 
becomes maximum. Hence bright fringes are formed Where I is the intensity of each wave
on the screen where as in the case of destructive Conditions for Maximum Intensities: When
∅
interference, intensity become minimum. Hence dark cos = 1 the maximum value of resultant intensity
fringes are formed on the screen.
This establishes that in the interference and I is I max  4I 0
diffraction pattern, the intensity of light is simply Thus, the condition for maximum intensity at the point
being redistributed energy is being transferred from is ∅ = 0, ±2 , ±4 … ….
dark fringe to bright fringe. No energy is being Conditions for Minimum Intensities: When
created (or) destroyed in the process. Hence energy cos
∅
= 0 the minimum value of resultant intensity
is redistributed. Thus the principle of conservation of
energy is being obeyed in the process of interference I is I min  0
and diffraction. Thus, the condition for minimum intensity at the point
is ∅ = ±π, ±3π, ±5π … …
PAGE NO: 11
1. Derive the equation for the couple acting on a 3. State Gauss’s law in electrostatics and explain its
electric dipole in a uniform electric field. importance.
A. Dipole: A pair of equal and opposite charges Gauss’ law: The total electric flux through any closed
separated by a distance (2a) is called dipole. surface is equal to times the net charge enclosed by
It is placed in a uniform electric field E. making an
the surface.
angle with field direction as shown in the figure.
q
T o t a l e le c tr ic f lu x  E .d s 
s
ε0
Importance of Gauss’ Law:
1) Gauss’ law is true for any closer surface or any
shape or size.
2) The charge q in the law is the sum of all charges
Due to electric field forces on positive charge (+q) is present inside the Gaussian surface.
F = +qE and force on negative charge F = -qE. These 3) Symmetric considerations in many problems make
two equal and opposite charges constitute torque (or) the application of Gauss’s law much easier.
moment of couple. 4. Derive an expression for the intensity of the electric
Torque = Force X Perpendicular distance field at a point on the equatorial line of an electric
= (qE)(2a sin θ) dipole.
= 2aq. E sin θ A. Electric field at an equatorial point of an electric
Dipole moment P = q X 2a = 2aq dipole. As shown in figure. Consider an electric dipole
= PE sin θ consisting of charge –q and +q separated by distance
In vector form = P X E 2a and placed in vacuum. Let P be a point on the
2. Derive an expression for the intensity of the V equatorial line at distance r from the center O
electric field at a point on the axial line of an E
electric dipole. N
A. Electric field at an axial point of an electric dipole. K
As shown in figure. Consider an electric dipole A
consisting of charge –q and +q separated by distance T
2a and placed in vacuum. Let P be a point on the E
axial line at distance r from the center O S
H Electric field due to charge –q at a point P is
1 −q
E =
4πε r + a
Electric field due to charge +q at a point P is
1 +q
E =
Electric field due to charge –q at a point P is 4πε r + a
1 −q Clearly the magnitude ofE and E perpendicular to
E =
4πε (r + a)
the dipole axis will cancel out. The components
Electric field due to charge +q at a point P is
parallel to the dipole axis will add up. The total electric
E = ( ) field is opposite to
Hence the resultant electric field at a point P is E = − E cos θ + E cos θ
E = E +E = −2E cos θ
= − ( = −2.
. Here (P = q x 2a)
( ) ) √

( ) ( ) = − ( ) /
=
( ) If r >> a, a can be neglected compared to r2
2

= Here (P = q x2a)  1  p 
( ) E equa     3 
 4πε0   r 
=
( ) The electric field in a region is given by E = ai + bj.
If r >> a, a can be neglected compared to r2
2
Here a and b are constants. Find the net flux passing
 1   2p 
through a square area of side L parallel to Y-Z
E a x ia l    3  plane.
 4πε0   r  Given E = ai + bj, S = L2 I,
∅ = E. S = (ai + bj).L2 i
∅ = aL2 [ i.i = 1 and i.j = o

PAGE NO: 12
1. Derive an expression for the electric potential due 3. Explain series combination of capacitors. Derive the
to a point charge. formula for equivalent capacitance in each
A. Consider a point charge +Q at point on ‘O’ in free combination.
space. Let us find electric potential at point ‘P’ due A. Series combination: In series combination first
to charge +q. let ‘r’ be the position vector of ‘P’ capacitor second plate is connected to second capacitor
from ‘O’ OP = r,. first plate and second capacitor second plate is
connected to third capacitor first plate and so on first
capacitor first plate and last capacitor second plate is
connected to opposite terminals of a battery
1) Let three capacitors of capacities C1, C2, and C3
Consider point A having distance ‘x’ with respect to are connected in series combination.
the point ‘O’. the electric field intensity at that point 2) In series combination the charge on each
E 
1 Q capacitor will be same but potential is different.
4πε0 x 2
Total amount of work done (W) in bringing unit
positive charge from infinite ∞ to r.
r r
W   dw    E .d x
 
r r
3) Total potential difference across the series
1 Q Q 1 combination is V = V1 + V2 + V3
W   2
.d x    .d x

4πε 0 x 4πε 0 
x2 But V = , V = , and V = ,
r
Q  1 Q 1 1  q q q 1 1 1
W      V = + + = q + +
4 π ε 0  x   4 π ε 0  r   C C C C C C
 1 Q  If ‘C’ represent the equivalent capacity of series
W    
 4 0   r  combination then V =
This is the work done in bringing a unit positive V q  1 1 1 
charge from infinity to the point P. is called electric  q    
E C C
 1 C 2 C 3 
potential.
N 1 1 1 1
 1  Q    
V     K C C1 C2 C3
 4πε 0  r 
A 4) The resultant capacity is always less than the least
2. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a
parallel plate capacitor. T capacity of the capacitors in series.
A. P and Q are two parallel plates of a capacitor E 4. Explain parallel combination of capacitors. Derive
separated by a distance of d. the formula for equivalent capacitance in each
S
combination.
H Parallel combination: If the first plates of all the
capacitors connected to common terminal and second
plates of all the capacitors connected to common
terminal and these terminals are connected to opposite
terminals of the battery.
1) Let three capacitors of capacities C1, C2, and C3
The area of each plate is A. The plate P is charged
and Q is earth connected. are connected in parallel combination.
The charge on P is +q and surface charge density 2) In parallel combination the potential on each
capacitor will be same but charge is different.
= ……….(1)
The electric field due to charge +q is =
The electric field due to charge - q is =-
In the inner region between the charges +q and –q,
the electric field adds up to give the resultant field.
E= + = 2. = ………. (2) 3) Total charge across the parallel combination is
Relation between ‘V’ and ‘E’ q = q + q + q
V = Ed……….(3) But q = C V, q = C V, and q = C V
V = .d = .d But captaincy C = = C V + C V + C V
= V(C + C + C )
Captaincy of the parallel plate capacitor is given by If ‘C’ represent the equivalent capacity of the
C = parallel combination then = V
C V  V C1  C 2  C 3 
C  C1  C 2  C 3
4) The resultant capacity is always greater than the
largest capacity of the capacitors in parallel.

PAGE NO: 13
1. Explain series and parallel combination of
resistors. Derive the formula for equivalent
resistance in each combination.
A. a) Series combination: In series combination first
resistor second end is connected to second resistor
first end and second resistor second end is connected
to third resistor first end and so on first resistor first
end and last resistor second end is connected to
opposite terminals of a battery
1)Let three resistors of capacities R1, R2, and R3 are
connected in series combination.
2)In series combination the current on each resistor
will be same but potential is different.
3)Total potential difference across the series
combination is V = V1 + V2 + V3
But V = iR , V = iR , and V = iR ,
V = iR + iR + iR = i( R + R + R )
If ‘R’ represent the equivalent resistance of series
combination then V = iR
iR  i  R 1  R 2  R 3 
R  R1  R 2  R3
4)The resultant resistance is always greater than the
highest resistance of the resistors in series.
b) Parallel combination: If the all resistors first
ends are connected to common terminal and second
ends of all the resistors connected to common
terminal and these terminals are connected to
opposite terminals of the battery.
1)Let three resistors of resistances R1, R2, and R3 are
connected in parallel combination.
2)In parallel combination the potential on each
capacitor will be same but current is different.
3)Total current difference across the parallel
combination is
i = i1 + i2 + i3
But i = , i = , and i = ,
V V V 1 1 1
i = + + = V + +
R R R R R R
If ‘R’ represent the equivalent resistance of
parallel combination then i = Energy stored U =
V  1 1 1 
 V    
R R
 1 R 2 R 3 
1 1 1 1
  
R R 1 R 2 R 3
4)The resultant resistance is always less than the
least resistance of the resistors in parallel.
PAGE NO: 14
2. Derive an expression for the energy stored in a
capacitor. What is the energy stored when the space
between the plates is filled with a dielectric
(a) With charging battery disconnected?
(b) With charging battery connected in the circuit
A. Expression for the energy stored in a capacitor:
Consider an uncharged capacitor of capacitance ‘C’ and
its initial will be zero. Now it is connected across a
battery for charging then final potential difference
across the capacitor be ‘V’ and final charge on the
capacitor be ‘Q’
Average potential difference V = =
Hence work done to move the charge
Q = W = V Q =
This is stored as electrostatic potential energy U = QV
We know Q = CV then ‘U’ can be written as given
below.
U = QV = CV =
With Battery Disconnected: If the dielectric of
dielectric constant ‘K’ is filled in the capacitor after
disconnecting the battery, then charge Q remains
constant and potential decreases by times.
New charge Q = Q
V New Potential V =
E
N
K
A
T
E
S Energy stored U = Q V = = QV
H
U =
Energy stored in the capacitor decreases by ‘ ’ times.
Keeping Battery connected: If the dielectric of
dielectric constant ‘K’ is filled in the capacitor keeping
the battery connected , then potential remains constant
and charge increases by K times.
New Potential V = V
New charge Q = KQ
Q V = KQ V = K
QV
U = K U
Energy stored in the capacitor increases by ‘K’ times.
1. State the working principle of potentiometer 3. State Kirchhoff’s law for an electrical network.
explains with the help of circuit diagram how the Using these laws deduce the condition for balance in
emf of two primary cells are compared by using a Wheatstone bridge.
the potentiometer. A. Kirchhoff's first law (Junction rule or KCL): The
A. Working principle of potentiometer: The potential sum of the currents flowing towards a junction is equal
difference across a length of the potentiometer wire to the sum of current away from the junction.
is directly proportional to its length (or) when a i + i + i = i + i
steady current is passed through a uniform wire, (or)
potential drop per unit length per potential gradient is The algebraic sum of the currents at any junction is zero
constant. ε ∝ ⇒ ε = ∅ Kirchhoff’s second law (Loop rule or KVL): The
Comparing the emf of two cells and : algebraic sum of potential around any closed is zero.
1) The points marked 1, 2, ∑V = 0
3 form a two way key. Wheatstone bridge: Wheat stone’s bridge circuit
2) Consider first a position consists of four resistances R1, R2, R3 and R4 are
of the key where 1 and 3 connected to form a closed path. A cell of emfε is
are connected so that the connected between the point A and C a galvanometer is
galvanometer is connected between the points B and D as shown in fig.
connected toε the current through the various branches are indicated in
3) The jockey is moved along the wire till at a point the figure. The current through the galvanometer is Ig
N1 at a distance l1 from A, there is no deflection and the resistance of the galvanometer is G.
in the galvanometer. Then ε ∝ ⇒ ε = ∅ Applying Kirchhoff’s first law
4) Similarly, if another emfε is balanced against l2 At the junction D,
(AN2) then ε ∝ (1) ⇒ ε = ∅ (2) i − i − i = 0
( )
= = i = i + i ……….. (1)
( )
At the junction B,
2. State the working principle of potentiometer
explains with the help of circuit diagram how the i + i − i = 0
V
potentiometer is used to determine the internal i + i = i ……….. (2)
E Applying Kirchhoff’s second law
resistance of the given primary cell.
A. Working principle of potentiometer: The potential N to the closed path ADBA,
difference across a length of the potentiometer wire K i R + i G − i R = 0
is directly proportional to its length (or) when a A i R + i G = i R ...... (3)
steady current is passed through a uniform wire, T Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the closed path
potential drop per unit length per potential gradient is E DCBD,
constant. ε ∝ ⇒ ε = ∅ i R − i R − i G = 0
Measurement of internal resistance (r) with S
i R = i R + i G …. (4)
potentiometer: H
When the galvanometer shows zero deflection the points
1) Potentiometer to measure D and B are at the same potential. So i = 0
internal resistance (r) of a
Substituting this value (1), (2), (3) and (4).
cell (ε) is shown in diagram.
i = i ……………. (5)
2) The cell emf whose internal
i = i ……………. (6)
resistance (r) is to be
i R = i R ………... (7)
determined is connected
across a resistance box (R.B) i R = i R ………… (8)
through a key K2 Dividing (7) by (8)
i R i R
3) With key K2 open, the jockey =
is moved along the wire till at i R i R
a point N1 at a distance l1 from A, (i = i , and i = i )
there is no deflection in the galvanometer. R R
=
Then ε ∝ ⇒ ε = ∅ (1) R R
4) When key K2 is closed, the cell sends a current Wheat stone’s bridge principle: R = R X
(i) through the resistance box (R.B).
A wire of resistance 4R is bent in the form of a circle.
5) If V is the terminal potential difference of the
What is the effective resistance between the ends of
cell and balance is obtained at length l2 (AN2).
the diameter?
Then V = ∅ …..(2) If a wire of resistance 4R is bent in the form a circle
(1)
= = ‘AB’ is diameter. The resistance of upper and lower
(2) V part’s becomes2R,2R respectively they are in parallel
6) But ε = I (r + R)and V = iR, this gives R = 2R, R = 2R
( )
7) = ⇒ = + 1 = + , = +
8) = −1 r = R −1 = = ,
R = R Ώ

PAGE NO: 15
1. State and explain Biot-Savart law. 3. Find the magnetic induction due to a current
A. Consider a very small element of length dl of a carrying conductor.
conductor carrying current (i). Magnetic induction A. Consider a long straight conductor carrying a current ‘i’.
due to small element at a point P distance r form the Let P be a point at a distance ‘r’ from the conductor. Let
element. ‘r’ be the radius of the circle passing through point P,
Magnetic field is same at all points on the circle.
Consider a small element of length dl.
   
∮Bdl ∮Bd l cos θ
B is parallel to 'dl' θ  00
cos  00   1
   
Magnetic induction dB is directly proportional to ∮Bd l  B∮dl
current (i).
∝ ( )………… (1)
Magnetic induction dB is directly proportional to   
Length of the element (dl).
∮Bd l  B  2πr       1 ∮d l  2πr 
∝ ………… (2) According to Ampere’s law
 
Magnetic induction dB is directly proportional to ∮Bdl  μ0i       2
sine angle between r and dl and.
From equation (1) and (2), B  2πr   μ 0 i
∝ …….. (3)
Magnetic induction dB is inversely proportional to μ 0 .i
the square of the distance from small element to B
V 2πr
point P
E 4. Derive an expression for the magnetic field at the
∝ ………… (4)
N center of a current carrying circular coil using Biot-
From (1), (2), (3) and (4) K Savart law.
(i)(d )(sin θ)
dB ∝ A A. Consider a circular coil of radius ‘r’ and carry a current
r ‘i’. Consider a small element ‘dl’. Let ‘O’ is the center
μ (i)(d )(sin θ) T
dB = E of the coil. By using Biot-Savart Law.
4π r
: Permeability in free space. S μ i.dl.sinθ
From Biot-savart law dB  0
= 10 Wb m-1 A-1 H 4π r 2
  As dl is perpendicular to 'r' θ  900 sin900  1

μ i.d l d l  r
In V e c to r fo rm d B  0

4π r3 μ 0 i.d l
dB 
2. State and explain Ampere’s law. 4π r2
A. Ampere’s law: The line integral of the intensity of μ0 i.dl
Now  dB  
magnet field around closed path is equal to times 4π r 2
the net current enclosed by the path. μ0 i
B
4π r 2 
dl
B⃗ d⃗ = μ i
μ0 i
Proof: Consider a long straight conductor carrying B
4π r 2

2π r    dl  2πr 
current ‘i’. Magnetic field at a distance ‘r’ from the
conductor is given by. μ0 i
B
=
()
(From Biot- Savart’s Law)
2π r
If the circular coil has ‘N’ turns
The value 'B' is parallel to 'dl' θ  00  cos00  1
   μ 0 Ni
B
∮B.dl  ∮B.dl cos 00 ∮B.dl 2π r

B  dl  B 2 πr   dl  2 πr 
μ 0 i 
 B .dl  x  2 πr 
2π r

 B.dl  μ i 0

PAGE NO: 16
1. Deduce an expression for the force on a current
carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field.
Derive an expression for the force per unit length
between two parallel current carrying
conductors.
A. Force on conductor in Magnetic Field: Let us
suppose that a conductor carrying current ‘i’ is
placed in a magnetic field of induction ‘B’ at an
angle θ
The magnetic force on the charge ‘q’ moving in it
with drift velocity Vd is given by.
F = qV B sin θ
But for a conductor of length ‘l’
q = it and V = /t and
qV = i
The magnetic force on the conductor carrying current
is given by =
If vector form is =
Force between Two Parallel Conductors Carrying
Current:
Consider two straight parallel conductors AB and
CD carrying currents i and i and which are
separated by a distance ‘r’

V
E
N
If B and B are magnetic inductions produced by the
K
current carrying conductors AB and CD. Magnetic
induction B at a distance ‘r’ from the conductor AB A
can be written as B = T
If ‘F’ is force acting on CD due to magnetic E
induction B then F = i B S
Where l = length of the conductor. H

F = i ……………………… (1)
Similarly we can find the force on the conductor AB
due to magnetic inductionB .
F = i B

F = i ………………………. (2)
From the equations (1) and (2) is given by
μ i i
F = F =
2πr
Force between two parallel, straight conductors
carrying currents.
μ i i
F =
2πr
Force per unit length
F μ i i
=
2πr
A current of 10A passes through two very long
wires held parallel to each other and separated by
a distance of 1m. What is the force per unit length
between them?
A. i1 = i2 = 10A, d = 1m, L = 1m,
μ ii
P arallel F orce F = 0 1 2 L
2π d
4 π  10  7 10  10
F=  1  2  10  7  10 2  2  10  5 N
2π 1

PAGE NO: 17
1. Compare the properties of Para, Dia and Ferro
magnetic substances.
A. Diamagnetic substances:
1)When these materials placed in a magnetic field,
they are magnetized feebly in the opposite
direction of the magnetic field.
2)When a rod of diamagnetic material is suspended
freely in a uniform magnetic field, it comes to rest
in the perpendicular direction of the magnetic
field.
3)When they kept in a non-uniform magnetic field,
they move from the region of greater field
strength to the region of less field strength.
4)The relative permeability is less than 1. μ < 1 and
Negative.
5)The susceptibility is low and Negative.
Eg: Copper, Silver, Water, Gold, and Quartz.
B. Paramagnetic substances:
1)When these materials placed in a magnetic field,
they are magnetized feebly in the direction of the
magnetic field.
2)When a rod of Paramagnetic material is
suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, it
comes to rest in the direction of the magnetic field.
3)When they kept in a non-uniform magnetic field,
they move from the region of less field strength to
the region of greater field strength.
4)The relative permeability is greater than 1. μ > 1
and Positive.
5)The susceptibility is small and Positive.
Eg: Aluminum, Manganese, Tungsten, and
Platinum.
C. Ferromagnetic substances:
1)When these materials placed in a magnetic field,
they are magnetized strongly in the direction of
the magnetic field.
2)When a rod of ferromagnetic material is
suspended freely in a uniform magnetic field, it
comes to rest in the direction of the magnetic field.
3)When they kept in a non-uniform magnetic field,
they move from the region of lesser field strength
to the region of greater field strength.
4)The relative permeability is much greater than 1.
μ >> 1 and Positive.
5)The susceptibility is high and Positive.
Eg: Iron, Cobalt, Nickel, and Gadolinium.
2. What do you understand by “hysteresis”? How
does this property influence the choice of
materials used in different appliances where
electromagnets are used?
A. Cycle of magnetization: when a ferromagnetic
specimen is slowly magnetized, the intensity of
magnetization varies with magnetic field through a
cycle is called cycle of magnetization.
Hysteresis: The lagging of intensity of
magnetization (I) and magnetic induction (B) behind
magnetic field intensity (H) when a magnetic
specimen is subjected to a cycle of magnetization is
called hysteresis.
Retentivity: The value of I for which H = 0 is called
retentivity or residual magnetism.
PAGE NO: 18
Coercivity: The value of magnetizing force required to
reduce I is zero in reverse direction of H is called
coercive force or coercivity.
Hysteresis curve: The curve represents the relation
between B or I of a ferromagnetic material with
magnetizing force or magnetic intensity H is called
Hysteresis curve.
Explanation of hysteresis curve:
1) A closed curve ABCDEFA in H – I plane, called
hysteresis loop.
2) When ferromagnetic specimen is slowly magnetized,
I increase with H.
3) Part OA of the curve shows that I increase with H.
4) At point A, the value I becomes constant is called
saturation value.
5) At B, I has some value while H is zero.
6)BO represents retentivity and OC represents
coercivity.
Uses: the properties of hysteresis curve, saturation,
retentivity, coercivity and hysteresis loss help us to
V choose the material for specific purpose.
E Permanent magnets: A permanent magnet should
N have both large retentivity and large coercivity.
Permanent magnets are used in galvanometers,
K voltmeters, etc.
A An electromagnet core: the electromagnet core
T material should have maximum induction field B even
E with small fields H, low hysteresis loss and high initial
S permeability.
Transformer cores, Dynamo core, Chokes,
H Telephone diaphragms: The core material should
have high initial permeability, low hysteresis loss and
high specific resistance to reduce eddy currents. Soft
iron is the suited material.
3. Define magnetic susceptibility of a material. Name
two elements one having positive susceptibility and
other having negative susceptibility.
A. Susceptibility: the ratio of the intensity of
magnetization to the intensity of the applied magnetic
field is called its susceptibility.
s u s c e p tib ility χ 
I n t e n s i t y o f m a g n e t i s a t i o n I 
A p p li e d m a g n e tic f ie ld H 
The susceptibility of a material represents its ability to
get magnetism.
Susceptibility is a dimension less quantity.
Relation between and χ:
B I
B = μ H + μ I ⟹ = μ 1 +
H H
μ = μ [1 + χ] ⟹ = 1 + χ
μ = [1 + χ] μ =
Negative susceptibility of diamagnetic elements are
Bismuth (-1.66 x 10-5) and Copper (-9.8 x 10-6).
Positive susceptibility of Ferromagnetic elements are
Aluminum (2.3 x 10-5) and Oxygen (2.1 x 10-6)
Large and positive susceptibility of Ferromagnetic
elements are Cobalt and Nickel.
1. Outline the path-breaking experiments of
Faraday and Henry and highlight the
contributions of these experiments to our
understanding of electromagnetism.
A. Magnet induces current due to relative motion.
1)The apparatus consists of a coil with a
galvanometer G and a bar magnet.
2)When the bar magnet was at rest, the galvanometer
shows no deflection.
3)When North Pole of the bar magnet moved
towards the coil, galvanometer shows the
deflection in one direction indicating the flow of
current in the coil.
4)When North Pole of the bar magnet moved away
from the coil, galvanometer again shows the
deflection but now in the opposite direction.
5)The deflection of the galvanometer was large when
the bar magnet was moved faster towards (or)
away from the coil.
6)When South Pole of the magnet was brought near
the coil (or) moved away from the coil, the
deflections in the galvanometer are opposite to that
observed with the North Pole for similar
movements.
Current induces current due to relative motion of
coils:
1)The bar magnet is replaced by a secondary coil C2
connected to a battery as shown in figure.
2)The current in the coil C2 produces a steady
magnetic field.
3)As coil C2 is moves towards the coil C1, the
galvanometer shows a deflection. This indicates
current is induced in the coil C1
4)When coil C2 is moved away, the galvanometer
shows a deflection again, but opposite’s direction.
5) When the coil C2 is held fixed and C1 is moved,
the same effects are observed,
Charging current, induces current without
relative motion:
1)Faraday showed that this relative motion is not an
absolute.
2)Figure shows two coils C1 and C2 held stationary.
3)Coil C1 is connected to a battery though a tap key
K and coil C2 is connected to a galvanometer (G).
4)It is observed that the galvanometer shows a
momentary deflection when the tap key K is
pressed.
5)The pointer in the galvanometer returns to zero
immediately.
PAGE NO: 19
6)If the key is held pressed continuously, there is no
deflection in the galvanometer.
7)When the key is released, the galvanometer shows
deflection again but in the opposite direction.
8)Deflection of the galvanometer increases a lot when
wooden bar is replaced by iron bar.
2. Describe the ways in which Eddy currents are used
to advantage.
A. Eddy Currents: when large pieces of conductors are
subjected to changing magnetic fluxes, induced
currents are produced in them. Such induced currents
are called eddy currents or Foucault currents.
Advantages of Eddy Currents:
1) Magnetic Brakes to Trains: when the strong
electromagnets are activated, the eddy currents
induced in the rails oppose the motion of the train.
As a result smooth braking effect comes into play.
2) Electromagnetic Damping: In electromagnetic
damping brings the coil to rest quickly. This is done
V with the help of eddy currents produced in the core
E arranged in it.
N 3) Induction Furnace: A high frequency alternating
current is passed through a coil which surrounds the
K metals to be melted. Then the eddy currents
A generated in the metals produce high temperatures.
T 4)Electric Power meters: The shiny metal disc in the
E electric power meter rerates due to eddy currents.
S 3. Obtain an expression for the emf induced across a
conductor which is moved in a uniform magnetic
H field which is perpendicular to the plane of motion.
A. Let us suppose that PQRS is a rectangular conductor. It
is placed in a uniform magnetic field B which is
perpendicular to the plane of the system. The
conductor PQ is free to move. The conductor PQ is
moved towards left with velocity V
Let RQ = x, RS = l. Then the magnetic flux enclosed
by the loop PQRS is ∅ = B
The induced emf is given by
d∅ d
ε = − = − ( B )
dt dt
ε = −B (But = −v )
Thus the induced emf in a conductor moving in a
perpendicular and uniform magnetic field is given by
ε  Blv
1. Obtain an expression for the current through an 3. State the principle on which a transformer working
inductor when an AC emf is applied. of a transformer with necessary theory.
A. Consider a pure inductor of inductance L. Let an A. Transformer is a device to convert a low alternating
alternating emf of instantaneous value,V = V sin ωt current of high voltage into high alternating current of
be applied to the inductor. If the instantaneous low voltage and vice versa.
current (i) at any time‘t’ the back emf developed in Principle: It works in the principle of mutual induction
the inductor L opposes the applied emf. The between two coils.
Construction: A transformer consists of two insulated
applied emf must be at least equal to this back emf in
mutually coupled coils of wire wound on a continuous
order that a current may just flow through the circuit.
iron. One of the coils is called primary coil and the other
one secondary coil. The primary ‘P’ is connected to a
V = V sin ωt (1)
source of emf and the secondary to a load.
V=L (2)
From (1) and (2) we get
L = V sin ωt , = sin ωt ,
di = sin ωt dt
Integrating on both sides, we get Working: When an alternating emf is applied across the
∫ di = ∫ sin ωt dt , ∫ di = ∫ sin ωt dt Primary coil, the input Voltage changes with time.
V − cos ωt
Hence the magnetic flux through the Primary also
i = changes with time. This changing magnetic flux will be
L ω
V π linked with secondary through the core. An emf is
i = sin ωt −
ωL 2 induced in the secondary.
The quantity is the maximum current or peak Theory: Let N and N be the number of turns in the
primary and secondary. Let V and V be the emf’s
current, im i = i sin ωt −
across the primary and secondary.
The current lags behind the emf by radian or 900 V
∅

= = ∅ =
Inductive reactance (XL): ωL is the effective AC E
resistance of an inductor which is called inductive N Transformer = =
reactance denoted by the symbol K
X = ωL Efficiency of a transformer: It is the ratio of output
A power to the input power is called efficiency of
2. Obtain an expression for the current in a
capacitor when an AC emf is applied. T transformer.

A. Consider a capacitor of capacitance C. Let an E η = x 100

alternating emf of instantaneous value, V = S For an ideal transformer η = 100%
V sin ωt be applied to the capacitor, If the H 4. State and explain Coulomb’s inverse square law in
instantaneous current (i) at any time ‘t’ through the electricity.
capacitor. The potential difference across the A. Coulomb’s law : The force of attraction or repulsion
capacitor V = which is equal to the applied emf. between two electric charges is directly proportional to
V = V sin ωt (1) product of their charges and is inversely proportional to
V= (2) the square of distance between them and acts along the
From (1) and (2) we get line joining the charges.
Explanation: The force between two chargesq and
q are separated by a distance ‘r’ is given by
= V sin ωt , q = V C sin ωt
F ∝ q q ……. (1)
Differentiating it w.r.t. time
F ∝ …………. (2)
= (V C sin ωt) , = V C (sin ωt)
From (1) and (2) we get F ∝
= V Cω (cos ωt) = i
V
F=
i = (cos ωt)
1
ωC Whereε is the permittivity of free space and
π
i = i sin ωt +
2
= 9X10 N C F = (9X10 )
The quantity is the maximum current or peak The vector form of the law is expressed as

current, im i = i sin ωt + 1 q q
0 F = r
The current Leads the emf by radian or 90 4πε r
Capacitive reactance (XC): is the effective AC
resistance of an inductor which is called capacitor
reactance denoted by the symbol
1
X =
ωC

PAGE NO: 20
1. What is the effect of (i) intensity (ii) potential on
photoelectric current.
A. (a) effect of intensity of light on photoelectric
current:
When the intensity (I) of
incident light , with
frequency greater than the
threshold frequency is increased then the number of
photoelectrons emitted increases. The value of
photoelectric current (i) increases. i∝ I
(b) The effect of potential on photoelectric
current:
1)On increasing the positive potential on collecting
electrode, the photoelectric current increases. At a
particular positive potential, the photocurrent
becomes maximum this is known as saturated
current.
2)On increasing the negative potential on collecting
electrode, the photoelectric current gradually goes
on decreasing. At a particular negative potential
the value of photocurrent becomes minimum. this
is known as stopping potential.
3)Stopping potential does not depend on the intensity
of incident light. On increasing intensity, the value
of saturated current increases, where as the
stopping potential remains unchanged.
2. Describe an experiment to study the effect
frequency of incident radiation on stopping
potential.
A. Frequency of incident radiation on stopping
potential.
1)Monochromatic light of sufficient energy from
source is incident on photosensitive plate ‘C’
(emitter), electrons are emitted by it. this electrons
are collected by the plate A (collector), by the
electric field created by the battery.
3) How did Einstein’s photoelectric equation explain the
effect of intensity and potential on photoelectric
current? How did this equation account for the effect
of frequency of incident light on stopping potential.
A. Einstein postulated that a beam of light consists of small
energy packets called photons or quanta.
The energy of photon is E = h where ‘h’ is Plank’s
constant, is frequency of incident light. If emitted with
maximum kinetic energy hϑ = W + mv . This
equation is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
(a) effect of intensity of light on photoelectric current:
When the intensity (I) of incident light , with frequency
greater than the threshold frequency is increased then the
number of photoelectrons emitted increases. The value of
photoelectric current (i) increases. i∝ I
(b) The effect of potential on photoelectric current:
1) On increasing the positive potential on collecting
electrode, the photoelectric current increases. At a
particular positive potential, the photocurrent becomes
maximum this is known as saturated current.
V
E
N 2) On increasing the negative potential on collecting
K electrode, the photoelectric current gradually goes on
A decreasing. At a particular negative potential the value
of photocurrent becomes minimum. this is known as
T stopping potential.
E 3) Stopping potential does not depend on the intensity of
S incident light. On increasing intensity, the value of
H saturated current increases, where as the stopping
potential remains unchanged.
Frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential.
On increasing the frequency of incident light, the value
of stopping potential goes on increasing gradually as
shown fig

2)The polarity of the plates C and A can be reversed

by a commentator.
From graph, we note that.
3)For a particular frequency of incident radiation, the
a) The values of stopping potentials are different for
minimum negative potential given to the plate A
different frequencies.
for which the photo current stops or becomes zero
b)The value of stopping potential is more negative for
is called stopping potential.
radiation of higher incident frequency.
4)The experiment is repeated with different
frequencies, and their different stopping potential
are measured with voltmeter.
From graph, we note that.
a)The values of stopping potentials are different for
different frequencies.
c) From above experiments, it is found that, if the
b)The value of stopping potential is more negative
incident radiation is of higher frequency than that of
for radiation of higher incident frequency.
threshold frequency, the photoelectric emission is
c) The value of saturation current depends on the
possible.
intensity of incident radiation but it is independent
of the frequency of the incident radiation.

PAGE NO: 21
1. What is impact parameter and angle of 4. Describe Rutherford atom model. What are the draw
scattering? How are they related to each other? backs of this model ?
A. Impact parameter (b): The perpendicular distance A. Rutherford model of Atom:
of the initial velocity of the alpha-particle from the 1) Rutherford discovered nucleus of atom. Nucleus
centre of the nucleus is called “impact parameter” contains almost all the mass of the atom.
1 Ze 2 θ 2) Outside the nucleus, there are electrons which move
b x cot around nucleus like planets revolve around the sun.
4 πε 0  1 2  2
 mv  3) The space between the nucleus and the electrons id
2 
empty.
Scattering angle (θ): The scattering angle (θ) is the Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model of Atom:
angle between the asymptotic direction of approach 1) As the electron revolving around nucleus is
of the alpha particle and the asymptotic direction in accelerating, radius of its orbit should decrease
which it recedes. continuously and finally should merge with nucleus.
The relation between impact parameter and Thus there no stability of atom.
scattering angle 2) As there is continuous radiation of energy from the
2. What are the limitations of Bohr’s theory of electron. Rutherford model of atom should emit
hydrogen atom? continuous spectrum. But an atom emits line spectrum
A. Limitations of Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom: in practices.
1. This theory is applicable only to simplest atom like 5. Explain the different types of spectral series.
hydrogen, with Z = 1. The theory fails in case of A. The atomic hydrogen emits a line spectrum consisting of
atoms of other elements for which Z > 1. five series.
2. The theory does not explain why orbits of
electrons are taken as circular, while elliptical
orbits are also possible.
3. Bohr’s theory does not say anything about the
relative intensities of spectral lines.
4. Bohr’s theory does not take into account the wave V
properties of electrons.
E
3. Write a short note on Debroglie’s explanation of 1. Lyman Series: The Lyman series is obtained when
Bohr’s second postulate of quantization. N
electrons jump to first orbit (n1 = 1) from outer orbits
A. Bohr proposed his second postulate as the angular K (n2 = 2, 3, 4 ………) therefore formula for calculating
momentum of electron in a stationary orbit is A the wavelengths of the lines in this series is
quantized. m v r  n h T = R −
r n
2π E This series lies in the Ultraviolet region.
De Broglie argued that the electron in the stationary S 2. Balmer Series: The Balmer series is obtained when
orbit acts like a particle wave. As a result it forms electrons jump to second orbit (n1 = 2) from outer
H
stationary waves in the orbit.
orbits (n2 = 3, 4, 5 ………) therefore formula for
The distance travelled by the
calculating the wavelengths of the lines in this series is
particle wave along
circumference should be equal to = R −
integral multiples of wavelength This series lies in the visible region.
to form stationary waves. 3. Paschen Series: The Paschen series is obtained when
Therefore 2πr = nλ for n = 1, 2, 3……. electrons jump to third orbit (n1 = 3) from outer orbits
Applying De Broglie hypothesis, we have (n2 = 4, 5, 6 ………) therefore formula for calculating
h h the wavelengths of the lines in this series is
λ   (P  m v)
p mvn = R −
h This series lies in the infrared region.
nλ  n (H ere nλ  2 πrn )
mvn 4. Brackett Series: The Brackett series is obtained when
h electrons jump to fourth orbit (n1 = 4) from outer
2πrn  n orbits (n2 = 5, 6, 7 ………) therefore formula for
mv n calculating the wavelengths of the lines in this series is
nh = R −
m v r rn =
2π This series lies in the infrared region.
Thus, De Broglie’s explanation coincides with the 5. Pfund Series: The Pfund series is obtained when
second postulate of Bohr model of atom. electrons jump to fifth orbit (n1 = 5) from outer orbits
3. The radius of the first electron orbit of hydrogen (n2 = 6, 7,8 ………) therefore formula for calculating
atom is 5.3X 10-11 m. What is the radius of the the wavelengths of the lines in this series is
second orbit. = R −
2 r2 n2 r2 22 4
rn  n  22  2   r2  4r1 This series lies in the infrared region.
r1 n1 r1 1 1
r2  4  5 .3X1 0  1 1   2 .2 1X1 0  1 0 m ,

PAGE NO: 22
1. Write a short note on the discovery of neutron.
A. Bothe and Becker found that when beryllium is
bombarded with alpha particles of energy 5MeV,
which emitted a highly penetrating radiation.
1)The equation for above process can be written as 5. Define half life period and decay constant for a
9 4 13
Be  He  C  γ  (radiation energy) radioactive substance. Deduce the relation between
4 2 6
them.
A. Half life period (T): Time taken for the number of
radioactive nuclei to disintegrate to half of its original
number of nuclei is called half life period.
Decay constant ( ): The ratio of the rate of radioactive
decay to the number of nuclei present at that instant.
It is a proportional constant is denoted by ‘ ’
 d N 
 
d t
λ    
N
2)The radiations are not effected by electric and Relation between half life period and decay constant:
magnetic fields. 1) The radioactive decay law N = N e states that the
3)In 1932, James Chadwick, had subjected nitrogen number of radioactive nuclei in a radioactive sample
and argon to the beryllium radiation. He decreases exponentially with time. Here ‘ ’ is called
interpreted the experimental results by assuming decay constant.
that the radiation is of a new kind of particles 2) If N0 is the number of nuclei at t = 0 and N is the
which has no charge and its mass is equal to radioactive nuclei at any instant of time ‘t’.
proton. These neutral particles were named as
3) Substituting N = at t = T in N = N e
‘neutrons’. Thus the neutron was discovered.
4)The experimental results can be represented by the Where ‘T’ is half life of the radioactive substance.
following equation. 4) = N e (or) e = 2
9
V
4 Be  42 He  136 C  01 n  Q E λT  log e log e 2  T 
log e log e 2
T
2.303 log10 log10 2
λ λ
2. What is nuclear fission? Give an example to N ( . )( . ) .
illustrate it. 6) T = ⇒ T =
K
A. Nuclear fission: The process of splitting of heavy 6. Define average life of a radioactive substance. Obtain
nucleus into two smaller and stable nucleus with A the relation between decay constant and average life.
release of high amount of energy is called nuclear T A. Average life ( ): It is equal to the total life time of all the
fission. E N0 nuclei divided by the total number of original nuclei
Example: The fission reaction is S N0. It is denoted by ‘τ’
235
92 U  01 n  144 92 1
56 Ba  36 Kr  3 0 n  216MeV H Relation between decay constant and average life:
1) Let N0 be the radioactive nuclei that are present at t = 0
3. What is nuclear fusion? Write the conditions for
in the radioactive sample. The no’ of nuclei which
nuclear fusion to occur.
decay between ‘t’ and ‘t +dt’ is dN.
A. Nuclear fusion: The process of combining two
2) The total life time of these dN nuclei is t dN. The total
lighter nuclei to form a heavy nucleus with release of
life time of all the nuclei present initially in the sample
high amount of energy is called nuclear fusion.
Example: In sun 4 hydrogen nuclei fuse together to = ∫ t dN
form a helium nucleus. 3) Average life time ‘τ’ is equal to the total life time of all
the N0 nuclei divided by the total number of original
4 11 H  4e   42 He  2e   2  6γ  26.7MeV nuclei N0.
Conditions for nuclear fusion occur: ∫
4) Average life =
1)Nuclear fusion occurs at very high temperatures
such as 107 Kelvin and very high pressures. These But = −λN
are obtained under the explosion of an atom bomb. dN = −λ. N. dt
2)Higher density is also desirable so that collisions
dN = −λ. N e . dt N = N e
between light nuclei occur quite frequently.  λt
4. Compare the radii of the nuclei of mass numbers 5) τ    t λ.N 0 e .d t

 
 t λe  λt d t  λ   te  λt d t
27 and 64. N0 
0 0

A. A1  27;A 2  64 6) Average life =

1/3 1/3
R  A  R  27  3
1
  1
  1
   R :R  3 :4 7) Average life = .
 6 4 
1 2
R 2 A 2  R 2 4

8) Average life =
.
9) From the above equation the reciprocal of the decay
constant gives us the average life of a radioactive
sample.

PAGE NO: 23
1. What is rectification? Explain the working of a
half wave rectifier.
A. Rectification: The process of converting on
alternating current into a direct current is called
rectification.
1) A half wave rectifier can be constructed with a single
diode. The AC input signal is fed to the primary coil
of a transformer. The output signal is taken across
the load resistance RL.
2) During positive half cycle, the diode is forward
biased and current flows through the diode.
3) During negative half cycle, the diode is reverse
biased and no current flows through the diode.
4) This means current flows through the diode only
during positive half cycles and negative half cycles
are blocked. Hence in the output we get only half
cycles.
5) Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of output
dc power to the input ac power.
η 
o u tp u t D .C p o w e r

0 .4 0 6 R L
in p u t A .C p o w e r rf  R L
R : Load Resistance. r : Forward resistance of diode.
Maximum efficiency of half wave rectifier is 40.6%
2. What is rectification? Explain the working of a
full wave rectifier
A. Rectification: The process of converting on
alternating current into a direct current is called
rectification.
1) A full wave rectifier can be constructed with the help
of two diodes D1and D2.
2) The secondary transformer is centre tapped at C and
its ends are connected to the P regions of two diodes
D1 and D2.
3) The output voltage measured across the load
Resistance R
4) During positive half cycles of AC, the diode D1 is
forward biased and current flows through the load
resistance R . At this time D2 will be reverse biased
and will be in switch off position.
5) During Negative half cycles of AC, the diode D2 is
forward biased and current flows through the load
resistance R . At this time D1 will be reverse biased
and will be in switch off position.
6) Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of output
dc power to the input ac power.
output D.C power 0.812R L
η 
input A.C power rf  R L
R : Load Resistance. r : Forward resistance of diode.
Maximum efficiency of full wave rectifier is 81.2%
PAGE NO: 24
3. What is Zener diode? Explain how it is used as a
voltage regulator.
A. Zener diode: Zener diode is a heavily doped germanium
(or) silicon P-N junction diode. It works on reverse bias
break down region.
Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator. In general
zener diode is connected in reverse bias in the circuits.
1) The zener diode is connected to a battery, through a
resistance R. The battery reverse biases the zener
diode.
2) The load resistance RL is connected across the
terminals of the zener diode.
3) The value of R is selected in such away that in the
absence of load RL maximum safe current flows in the
diode.
4) Now consider that load is connected across the diode.
The load draws a current.
5) The current through the diode falls by the same amount
V but the voltage drops across the load remains constant.
6) The series resistance ‘R’ absorbs the output voltage
E
fluctuations, so as to maintain constant voltage across
N
the load.
K 7) The voltage across the zener diode remains constant
A even if the load RL varies.
T 8) If I is the input current, IZ and IL are zener and load
E currents.
Iin = IZ + IL Vin = IR + VZ But Vout = VZ
S
Vout = Vin – IR
H 4. Draw and explain the current-voltage (I – V)
characteristic curves of a junction diode in forward
and reverse bias.
A. A graph is drawn between the applied voltage (V) and
the (I) passing through the p-n junction diode is called
characteristics of a diode.
As forward bias voltage is increased potential barrier
decreases, but initially increases in current is negligible.
This is due to the potential barrier. The voltage at which
the current starts to increase rapidly is called knee
voltage (or) cut in voltage.
On this reverse bias, small current flows in the circuit
due to minority charge carriers. If the reverse voltage is
increased further, after some voltage, there will be a
sudden rise of reverse current. This region is named as
breakdown region.
1. How are stationary waves formed in closed pipes? 2. Explain the formation of stationary waves in an air
Explain the various modes of vibrations and Column enclosed in open pipe. Derive the equation
relations for their frequencies for the frequencies of the harmonics produced.
A. If one end of the organ pipe is closed and the other A. If both ends of the organ pipe is open is known as open
end is open is Known as closed organ pipe organ Pipe
First harmonic (or) fundamental: First harmonic (or) fundamental:
It will have one node and one antinodes It will have one node and two antinodes
λ1 The vibrating length l  λ 1
The vibrating length l  2
4
λ1  4l λ1  2l
Relation between V, ϑ, and
Relation between V, ϑ, and λ
V
V V  λ  0 
V  λ  0  λ1
λ1
V
V
0  0 
4l 2l
This is known as first harmonic (or) fundamental This is known as first harmonic (or) fundamental
Third harmonic (or) first overtone: frequency.
It will have two node and two antinodes Second harmonic (or) first overtone:
3λ3 It will have two node and three antinodes
The vibrating length l  The vibrating length l  2 λ 2
4 2
2l
λ2 
4l 2
λ3  Relation between V, ϑ, and λ
3
V V V
Relation between V, ϑ, and λ V λ  1   1 
E λ2  2l 
V V  
V   λ  1   1   2 
λ3  4l  N
  K 2V 1  20
 3  1 
2l
3V  1  3 0 A
1 
4l This is known as 1st over tone (or) 2nd harmonic
T
This is known as 1st over tone (or) 3rd harmonic Third harmonic (or) second overtone:
E It will have three node and four antinodes
Fifth harmonic (or) Second overtone:
It will have three node and three antinodes S 3λ3
H The vibrating length l 
The vibrating length l  5λ 5 2
4 2l
4l λ3 
λ5  3
5 Relation between V, ϑ, and λ
Relation between V, ϑ, and λ V V
V V V   λ  2   2 
V  λ  2   2  λ3  2l 
λ5  4l   
   3 
 5 
3V 2  30
5V 2  50 2 
2  2l
4l
This is known as 2rd over tone (or) 5th harmonic This is known as 2nd over tone (or) 3rd harmonic
The frequency ratio of the closed pipe is given by The frequency ratio of the open pipe is given by
 V   V   V 
 V   V   V  0 :1 :2  1   :2   :3    1:2 :3
 0 : 1 :  2  1   :3   :5    1:3 :5  2l   2l   2l 
 4l   4l   4l 
A closed organ pipe 70cm long is sounded. If the
A steel wire 0.72m long has a mass of 5.0 X 10-3 velocity of sound is 331m/s , what is the
kg. If the wire is under a tension of 60 N, what is fundamental frequency of vibration of the air
the speed of transverse waves on the wire?
column ?
M = 5.0X10-3 kg L = 0.72m T = 60 N A. l = 70cm = 70 x 10-2 m v = 331m/s
M 5 .0 X 1 0  3
μ    6 .9 X 1 0  3 kg/m V 331
l 0 .7 2     118.2 H z
The speed of the wave on the wire is given by 4l 4  70 X 10  2 
T 60
V    9 3 m /s
μ 6 .9 X 1 0 3

PAGE NO: 25
1. What is Doppler Effect? Derive an expression for 2. What is Doppler Effect? Derive an expression for
the apparent frequency heard when the source is the apparent frequency heard when the observer
in motion and the observer is at rest is in motion and the source is at rest
A. The phenomenon of apparent change in frequency A. The phenomenon of apparent change in frequency
due to relative motion between the source and due to relative motion between the source and
observer is called Doppler effect observer is called Doppler effect
Expression for the apparent frequency heard Expression for the apparent frequency heard
when the Source is in motion and the Observer is when the Observer is in motion and the Source is
at rest at rest
Let us consider a source S producing a sound note Let us consider a source S producing a sound note
the frequency let the velocity of sound in air be’ V’ the frequency let the velocity of sound in air be’ V’
V=ϑ V = ϑλ
Let the source S is moving with a velocity towards Let the observer O is moving with velocity
observer at rest .Then the distance travelled by the towards the source at rest .He will receive more
source in time T is equal to the wave is number of waves each second. The distance travelled
compressed and hence wavelength of the wave is by him in one second is the extra waves received
decrease The apparent wavelength is λ l  λ -V S T by him due to his motion are equal to in second.
V The apparent frequency is given by
T h e a p p a re n t fre q u en c y =
λl ϑ| = ϑ +
V  V 1
l   λ  , T
 λ  VST     
ϑ| = ϑ +
l V
 
 V VS  =ϑ+ ϑ
 
   
 

l V
    |
 V  V S  ϑ = 1 + ϑ
|
Then the apparent frequency is greater than the V
actual frequency E ϑ| = ϑ
Similarly when the source is moving away from the
N Then the apparent frequency | is greater than the
observer The wavelength of the wave increases.
K actual frequency
The apparent wavelength is λ l1  λ  VS T
A Similarly when the observer is moving away from
V
T h e a p p a re n t fre q u en c y = the source at rest with velocity he receive
λl T
V  V 1 
number of waves less in every second
 l1
  λ  , T  E The apparent frequency is given by
λ+ VS T     
S ϑ|| = ϑ −
V
 l1

 V V S 
H ϑ|| = ϑ − = ϑ − ϑ
   
  
||
 l1 
 
V 

ϑ = 1 − ϑ
 V +V S 
||
Then the apparent frequency is less then the
ϑ|| = ϑ
actual frequency
A rocket is moving at speed of 200m/s towards a Then the apparent frequency || is less then the
stationary target. While moving, it emits a wave actual frequency
of frequency 1000Hz. Some of the sound reaching A string has a length of 0.4m and a mass of 0.16g.
the target gets reflected back to the rocket as an if the tension in the string is 70N, what are the
echo. Calculate the frequency of the sound as three lowest frequencies it produces when
detected by the target (330m/s) plucked ?
VS  2 00 m / s ,   10 00 H z, 1  ? A) L= 0.4m; M= 0.16g = 0.16X10-3 kg
.
 V
l 
 
  
33 0   3 30 
 100 0     1 000   2 540 H z
= = .
= 0.4 10 /
 V  VS   33 0  2 00   13 0 
Two organ pipes of length 65 cm and 70cm T = 70N; =
μ
respectively are sounded simultaneously. How
many beats per second will be produced between = = = 523 Hz
μ . .
fundamental frequencies of the two pipes?
(velocity of sound = 330 m/s ) =2 = 2 523 = 1046
n  n1  n 
V

V =3 = 3 523 = 1569
2
2 l1 2 l2
 1 1 
n  330  2
 
 2  65  1 0 2  70  1 0 2 


 330 140  130   3300  100
 18 H z
130  140  18200

PAGE NO: 26
1. Explain the formation of stationary waves in Laws of transverse vibrations:
stretched strings and hence deduce the laws of First law: ( when T and μ are constants )
transverse waves in stretched string? The fundamental frequency of stretched string is
A. Consider a string of length l’ and linear density ’ be inversely proportional to length of the string.
fixed between two supports under a tension T. a 1
stationary wave is formed in the string due to the  α  1 l1   2 l 2
l
superposition of the waves. At the points where the
Second law: ( when l and are constants )
string was fixed rigidly nodes are formed. The The fundamental frequency of stretched string is directly
velocity of transverse vibration in a stretched string proportional to square root of the tension.
is given by V  T
1 T1
μ  α T 
2 T2
1St loop: It will have two nodes and one antinodes
Third law: ( when l and T are constants )
then the vibrating length l  λ
2 The fundamental frequency of stretched string is
λ = 2 l  1  inversely proportional to square root of the linear density
1 1 μ2
T  α 
V   2  μ 2 μ1
μ

Relation between V, , and 2. What are beats? Obtain an expression for the beat
V frequency? Where and how beats are made use of?
V  λ  
λ A. Beats: two sound waves of nearly same frequency are
Substitute eqn (1) and (2) values in eqn (3) we get travelling in the same direction and interfere to produce a
 
1 T regular waxing and waning in the intensity of the
λ μ resultant sound waves at regular intervals of time are
1 T called Beats.
0 
2l μ Beats frequency per second ∆ϑ = ϑ − ϑ
This is known as fundamental frequency Expression for the beat frequency:
2nd loop: It will have three nodes and two antinodes Let the frequencies of the waves be ϑ and ϑ say ϑ is
slightly greater than ϑ
then the vibrating length l  2 λ Let the beat period be T seconds.
2
2l
No. of vibrations, made by the first wave train in T
λ   1  seconds = ϑ T No. of oscillations in 1 sec = ϑ
2
T No. of oscillations in T sec = ϑt
V   2 
μ No. of vibrations, made by the second wave train in T
Relation between V, , and seconds = ϑ T
V During the time interval T, the first wave train would
V λ  
λ have completed one vibration more than the second wave
Substitute eqn (1) and (2) values in eqn (3) we get train.
1 T Hence = ϑ T − ϑ T = 1 (or) = ϑ − ϑ =
 
 2l  μ
 
 2  Since, T is the beat period, per seconds =
2 T Hence the beat frequency = = ϑ − ϑ = ∆ϑ
1  o r   1  2 0
2l μ That is the beat frequency is the difference between
This is known as 1st over tone (or) 2nd harmonic Frequencies of the two wave trains.
3rdloop :It will have four nodes and three antinodes Importance of beats:
then the vibrating length l  3 λ 1) The phenomenon of beats can be applied in
2 determining the frequency of tuning fork.
2l (1) 2) Beats can be used for tuning the musical instruments.
λ   1  3) Beats are used to produce special effects in
3
T cinematography.
V   2 
μ 4) Beats are also used in detecting dangerous.
Relation between V, , and
V
V λ  
λ
Substitute eqn (1) and (2) values in eqn (3) we get
1 T
 
 2l  μ
 
 3 
3 T
2  o r   2  3 0
2l μ
This is known as 2st over tone (or) 3rd harmonic

PAGE NO: 27
1. Obtain an expression for the torque on a current Theory:
carrying loop placed in a uniform magnetic field. Consider a rectangular coil of length l breadth b and
Describe the construction and worming of a carrying ‘i’ suspended in the induction field strength B.
moving coil galvanometer. Deflecting torque( ) = B i A N
A) Torque on a current or coil in a uniform magnetic The restoring torque developed in the suspension = C θ
field. Where C is the couple per unit twist and is the
Let rectangular current loop ABCD of length l = AB deflection made by the coil. When the coil is in
= CD and b = AD = BC carrying a current ‘i’ be equilibrium position.
suspended in a magnetic field of flux density B. Deflecting torque = Restoring torque
The normal on drawn to the plane of the coil makes
an angle with the magnetic field (B). B i A N = C θ
C
i = θ
BAN
Where K = = Galvanometer constant.
i = Kθ
i ∝ θ
Thus deflection of the coil is directly proportional to
Force on arm AD = ibB acting parallel to the plane the current flowing through it.
and Force on arm BC = ibB acting parallel to the The deflection in the coil is measured using lamp and
plane. Hence these two forces cancel. scale arrangement.
1. OR, AND, NOT, NAND, and NOR gates.
Truth Table for OR gate:
A B Y=A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
V 1 0 1
Force on arm AB = i l B acting perpendicular to the E 1 1 1
plane Force on arm CD = i l B acting parallel to the N Truth Table for AND gate:
plane. Hence these two forces constitute a couple on A B Y = A.B
the coil. K
0 0 0
Moment of the couple = (Force)(⊥distance b/w the A
0 1 0
forces) T
1 0 0
Torque ( ) = (i B)(b sin θ) But l x b = Area of E
coil. 1 1 1
S
Torque ( ) = (iAB)(sin θ)
If the loop has ‘n’ turns the torque on the coil.
H Truth Table for NOT gate:
A YA
Torque ( ) = n(iAB)(sin θ)
0 1
If ‘∅’ is the deflection of the coil, that is the angle
1 0
between the plane of the coil and magnetic field B.
Torque ( ) = n(iAB)(cos ∅) Define NAND and NOR gates. Give their truth tables.
Moving coil galvanometer: NAND gate: When the output of an AND gate is
Principle: when a current carrying coil is placed in connected to the in put of a NOT gate, the resultanting gate
the uniform magnetic field, it experiences a torque. is called NAND gate.
Construction: A B Y=A.B = .
1)It consists of a coil wound on a non-metallic 0 0 0 1
frame.
0 1 0 1
2)A rectangular coil is suspended between two
concave shaped magnetic poles with the help of 1 0 0 1
phosphor Bronze wire. 1 1 1 0
3)The lower portion of the coil is connected to a
spring. NOR gate: When the output of an OR gate is connected to
4)A small plane mirror M is fixed to the phosphor the input of a NOT gate, the resultanting gate is called
Bronze wire to measure the deflection of the coil. NAND gate.
5)A small soft iron cylinder is placed with in the coil A B Y= A+B = +
without touching the coil. The soft iron cylinder 0 0 0 1
increases the induction field strength. 0 1 1 0
6)The concave shaped magnetic poles render the 1 0 1 0
field radial. So maximum torque acting on it. 1 1 1 0
7)The whole of the apparatus is kept inside a brass
case provided with a glass window.

PAGE NO: 28
1. What is radioactivity? State the law of radioactive 2. Explain the principle and working of a nuclear
decay. Show that radioactive decay is exponential reactor with the help of a labelled diagram?
in nature. A. Principle: A nuclear reactor works on the principle of
A. Radio activity: The nuclei of certain elements achieving controlled chain reaction in natural Uranium
disintegrate spontaneously by emitting alpha, beta U238 enriched U235, consequently generating large
and gamma rays. This phenomenon is called amounts of heat.
Radioactivity or Natural radioactivity. Law of The nuclear reactor consists of 1) Fuel 2) Moderator.
Radioactivity: The rate of radioactive decay 3) Control rods. 4) Radiation shielding. 5) Coolant.
the number of nuclei decaying per unit time at any
instant, is directly proportional to the number of
nuclei N present at that instant is called law of
radioactivity decay.
Radioactive decay is exponential in nature: Let
‘N’ be the number of radioactive atoms present at a
time ‘t’. Let dN atoms disintegrate in time ‘dt’.
According to law of radioactive decay
1) Fuel: The fissionable material used in the reactor is
dN
∝ N called fuel.
dt Ex: Natural uranium, enriched uranium, plutonium
= − λ N ……… (1) and uranium are used as nuclear fuels.
λ is called decay constant. The negative sign 2) Moderators: The function of the moderator is to slow
indicates the decrease in the number of nuclei. down the fast moving neutrons produced as a result of
nuclear fission.
From equation (1) = − λ dt ………… (2)
Ex: Heavy water, Ordinary water, pure graphite, etc.
Integrating on both sides 3) Control Rods: The function of a control rod is to
∫ = − λ ∫ dt absorb the neutrons and control the nuclear chain
log N = − t + C…….. (3) V reaction.
Where C is called integration constant. E Ex: Cadmium and Boron rods are used for this
At t = 0, N = N0 Substituting in equation (3) N purpose.
We get log N = C 4) Radiation Shielding: during fission reaction beta and
K gamma radiation are emitted along with neutrons.
log N = − t + log N
A Suitable shielding such as steel, lead and concrete
log N − log N = − t
N T walls are provided around the reactor to absorb and
log = − t E reduce the intensity of radiation.
N
S 5) Coolant: heat generated in fuel elements is removed
N = N e
by using a suitable coolant to flow around them.
The equation is known as law of radioactive decay. H Ex: water at high pressure (or) liquid sodium.
The half-life radium is 1600 years. How much
Working: Uranium fuel rods are placed in the
time does 1g of radium take to reduce to 0.125g?
aluminum cylinders. The graphite moderator is placed
Half-life of radium = 1600 years, Initial mass = 1g.
in between the fuel. To control the number of neutrons,
Final mass = 0.125 = = g. a number of control rods of cadmium or boron are
The quantity remaining after ‘n’ half lifes is of the placed in the holes of graphite block. When a few
initial quantity. U235nuclei undergo fission fast neutrons are liberated.
1 F in a l m a ss These neutrons pass through the surrounding graphite

2n In itia l m a ss moderator and lose their energy to become thermal
 1  neutrons. These thermal neutrons are captured by U235.
1  8  1 1 The heat generated here is used for heating suitable
     , n  3
2n  1  8 2 3
coolants which in turn heat water and produce steam.
 
This steam is made to rotate steam turbine and thereby
Time taken = (n)( half-lifes )
drive a generator of production for electric power.
= (3) (1600) = 4800 years.
Uses of nuclear reactors:
To generate electric power.
To prepare the radio isotopes.
Pr: If one microgram of is completely destroyed in
an atom bomb, how much energy will be released?
A. m = 1μg = 1X 10-6 X 10-3 = 10-9 Kg. c = 3X 108m/s
2
E = mc
E = (1X 10-9) X (3X 108) X (3X 108)
E = 9X107J.

PAGE NO: 29
1. Define mass defect binding energy. How does 2. State the basic postulates of Bohr’s theory of
binding energy per nucleon vary with mass atomic spectra. Hence obtain an expression for
number? What is its significance? the radius of orbit and the energy of orbital
A. Mass Defect: The difference between the total mass electron in a hydrogen atom.
of all the nucleons of a nucleus and actual mass of a A. Basic postulates of Bohr’s theory are:
nucleus is called mass defect. 1)The electron revolves round a nucleus is an atom
∆M = Zm + (A − Z)m − [M] in various orbits is called stationary orbits. The
Zm : Total mass of protons. electrons cannot emit radiation when moving in
(A − Z)m : Total mass of neutrons. their own stationary levels.
[M] : Mass of nucleus. 2)The electron can revolve round the nucleus only in
Binding Energy: The mass defect that is occurring allowed orbits whose angular momentum is the
in the formation of nucleus is converted into energy integral multiple of
called binding energy ∆M of the nucleus. mv r = ………………. (1)
Einstein’s mass-energy equivalent relation is
E = ∆MC 3)If an electron jumps from higher energy E2 orbit to
the lower energy E1 orbit, the difference of energy
E = Zm + (A − Z)m − [M] 931.5 MeV
is radiated in the form of radiation.
Binding Energy per Nucleon: The binding energy E = hϑ ⇒ E − E = hϑ
of a nucleus E divided by its mass number (A) is
called binding energy per nucleon E ϑ = …………………. (2)
E Energy emitted radiation: In hydrogen atom, a
E = single electron of charge (-e), revolves around the
A
Variation of binding energy per nucleon with nucleus of charge (e) in a circular orbit of radius rn.
mass number: 1. Radii of Bohr’s stationary orbits: Let us suppose that
At first the curve rises steeply and then more an electron is revolving in nth orbit of hydrogen atom
gradually till it reaches a maximum value of 8.8MeV or radius ‘r’ with a velocity ‘V’
for Fe. After this, the curve drops showily. The Centripetal force = Electrostatic force of attraction
V e2
binding energy curve reveals the following facts: =
E r πε r2
N e2
mv = …………….. (1)
πε r
K nd
From Bohr’s 2 postulate, we have
A
mv r =
T
1)Except for lighter nuclei (A < 30), the average Squaring on both sides above equation we get
binding energy per nucleon is about 8MeV for all
E
m v r = ……………… (2)
nuclei. S
Dividing (2) by (1) we get
2)The nuclei with A = 60 have large binding energy H
per nucleon and are also very stable.
3)The binding energy per nucleon is small for both
= ⇒ = ………. (3)
light nuclei (A < 30) and heavy nuclei (A > 170)
πε
4)The binding energy per nucleon is practically 2. Kinetic energy of electron: For the electron to be in
constant for nuclei of middle mass number (A = circular orbit, centripetal force = The electrostatic force
Between 30 and 170) of attraction between the electron an nucleus.
Importance binding energy curve: 1 e2
1)The binding energy curve is an indicator of the 2
mv = πε
r2 …………….. (4)
stability of the nucleus. The greater binding energy Substituting ‘r’ value in equation (4) we get.
per nucleon of a nucleus, the more stable nucleus 1 e2
mv = ⇒ . =
is and vice-versa. 2 πε ε
e2 m
2)The binding energy per nucleon is smaller for 3. Potential Energy of electron:
heavier nuclei than the middle ones. When a P.E = (Potential) (Charge of electron)
heavier nucleus splits into comparatively lighter e e2
nuclei. The binding energy per nucleon will P. E = πε
r . (−e) ⇒ P. E = − πε
r …… (5)
increase. The greater binding energy of the product Substituting ‘r’ value in equation (5) we get.
nuclei results in the emission of energy. Thus e2
P. E = − ⇒ . = −
energy is released when a heavy nucleus (A = 240) πε ε
breaks into two middle mass number nuclei (A =
4. Total energy = K.E +P.E
240). This process is called nuclear fission.
3)When two light nuclei combine to form a heavier . =
−
nucleus, the binding energy per nucleon will
increase. As a result, energy will be released. This = −
process is called nuclear fusion. This is the energy
source of the sun.

PAGE NO: 30