10 3390@electronics10111283

electronics
Review
A Review of I–V Tracers for Photovoltaic Modules: Topologies
and Challenges
José Ignacio Morales-Aragonés 1 , Miguel Dávila-Sacoto 2 , Luis G. González 3 , Víctor Alonso-Gómez 1 ,
Sara Gallardo-Saavedra 1 and Luis Hernández-Callejo 1, *
1 Duques de Soria University Campus, University of Valladolid, 42004 Soria, Spain; ziguratt@coit.es (J.I.M.-A.);
victor.alonso.gomez@uva.es (V.A.-G.); sara.gallardo@uva.es (S.G.-S.)
2 Technical Management of Mobility, Air Quality Department, Municipal Public Company of Mobility,
Transit and Transportation of Cuenca EMOV EP, 010104 Cuenca, Ecuador; davilamds@hotmail.com
3 Department of Electrical, Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering (DEET), University of Cuenca,
010107 Cuenca, Ecuador; luis.gonzalez@ucuenca.edu.ec
* Correspondence: luis.hernandez.callejo@uva.es; Tel.: +34-975129418
Abstract: Current–voltage (I–V) curve tracers are used for measuring voltage and current in pho-
tovoltaic (PV) modules. I–V curves allow identifying certain faults in the photovoltaic module, as
well as quantifying the power performance of the device. I–V curve tracers are present in different
topologies and configurations, by means of rheostats, capacitive loads, electronic loads, transistors,
or by means of DC–DC converters. This article focuses on presenting all these configurations. The
paper shows the electrical parameters to which the electronic elements of the equipment are exposed

using LTSpice, facilitating the appropriate topology selection. Additionally, a comparison has been
Citation: Morales-Aragonés, J.I.;
included between the different I–V tracers’ topologies, analyzing their advantages and disadvantages,
Dávila-Sacoto, M.; González, L.G.;
considering different factors such as their flexibility, modularity, cost, precision, speed or rating, as
Alonso-Gómez, V.; Gallardo-Saavedra,
well as the characteristics of the different DC–DC converters.
S.; Hernández-Callejo, L. A Review of
I–V Tracers for Photovoltaic Modules:
Topologies and Challenges.
Keywords: I–V tracer; variable resistor tracer; capacitive charge tracer; electronic load tracer; bipolar
Electronics 2021, 10, 1283. https:// power amplifier tracer; four-quadrant power source tracer; DC–DC converter plotter
doi.org/10.3390/electronics10111283
Academic Editors: Hassan

Haes Alhelou, Amer Al-Hinai and 1. Introduction
Pierluigi Siano Photovoltaic (PV) systems are the most installed renewable energy systems in the last
years [1], therefore, minimizing production losses is essential. Continuously monitoring
Received: 25 April 2021
and testing PV modules are critical and fundamental tasks. This performance is evaluated
Accepted: 24 May 2021
using current–voltage and power–voltage curve tracers (I–V and P–V, respectively), which
Published: 27 May 2021
provide the electrical characteristics of the PV module or string under analysis [2]. This
measured information is compared to that provided by the manufacturer, measured under
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
standard test conditions (STC). Analysis of the I–V curve of a module provides valuable
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
information for the administrator of a PV installation as it allows the timely diagnosis of
published maps and institutional affil-
module failure modes, leading to appropriate measures being taken to mitigate the failure
iations.
or to replace the module.
Globally, the PV power generation market in 2020 has installed 139.4, compared to
114.9 GW in 2019 [3], that is, an increase of 21.32%, which indicates the important growth
of this type of power source (Figure 1). However, PV modules suffer degradation caused
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
by aging, wear and tear, as well as their outdoor exposure [4], which causes their power to
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
decrease, affecting the overall efficiency of the PV installation [5]. Therefore, preventive
This article is an open access article
maintenance is required to know the current status of each module [6], and predictive
distributed under the terms and
maintenance to achieve comprehensive management [7]. In this way, the I–V tracer is a
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
device that allows the extraction of parameters from the PV module to know exactly its
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
current state [8].
4.0/).
Electronics 2021, 10, 1283. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10111283 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2021, 10,
Electronics 2021, 10, x1283
FOR PEER REVIEW 2 2ofof22
21
Figure
Figure1.1.Utility
UtilityScale
ScaleSolar
SolarPrice
Pricevs.
vs.GW
GWinstalled
installedper
peryear.
year.Source
Source[3],
[3],own
ownelaboration.
elaboration.
This study
This study presents
presents aa review
review of
of the
the different
different types
types ofof I–V
I–V tracers
tracers that
that exist
exist in
in the
the
bibliography, including
bibliography, including rheostats,
rheostats, capacitive
capacitive loads,
loads, electronic
electronic loads,
loads, transistors,
transistors, oror by
by
means of DC–DC converters. The physical behavior of each of the strategies
means of DC–DC converters. The physical behavior of each of the strategies presented presented has
been
has explained.
been Possible
explained. challenges
Possible that the
challenges thatoperator may find
the operator mayinfindtheir
in use
theirand design
use and de-are
also analyzed, focusing specifically on the power dissipated by the electronic
sign are also analyzed, focusing specifically on the power dissipated by the electronic components
of the equipment. The paper shows the electrical parameters to which the electronic
components of the equipment. The paper shows the electrical parameters to which the
elements of the equipment are exposed using LTSpice, facilitating the appropriate topology
electronic elements of the equipment are exposed using LTSpice, facilitating the appro-
selection. Additionally, a comparison has been included between the different I–V tracers’
priate topology selection. Additionally, a comparison has been included between the
topologies, analyzing their advantages and disadvantages concerning different factors such
different I–V tracers’ topologies, analyzing their advantages and disadvantages con-
as their flexibility, modularity, cost, precision, speed or rating, as well as the characteristics
cerning different factors such as their flexibility, modularity, cost, precision, speed or
of the different DC–DC converters.
rating, as well as the characteristics of the different DC–DC converters.
2. I–V and P–V Curves Analysis
2. I–V and P–V Curves Analysis
I–V and P–V curves allow characterizing a PV cell or module, giving the electrical
I–V andthat
parameters P–Vdescribe
curves allow characterizing
the operation of thea device
PV cell under
or module,
test. giving
I–V and theP–Velectrical
curve
parameters that describe the operation of the device under test.
analysis is usually an invasive technique to detect the deterioration of PV modules that I–V and P–V curve
analysis
consists isofusually
applying anainvasive
variable technique
load on the tomodule
detect the deterioration
terminals to obtainof PV modules
their current that
and
consists of applying a variable load on the module terminals to obtain
voltage response. In this way, the analysis of the module response curves gives us direct their current and
voltage response.
information on the Inelectrical
this way,"state"
the analysis of the module
of the module, allowingresponse curves gives
the researcher us direct
to obtain data
information
on the expectedon the electrical "state"
performance of the of the module,
module allowing conditions
under different the researcher to obtain
of solar data
irradiation
on
andthe expected
module load.performance
However, it of theanalysis
is an modulethat under
must different conditions
be supported of solar
by other irradia-
deterioration
tion and module
detection techniquesload. to However, it is aanconclusive
be able to give analysis thatanswermust
[9],be supported
because by other
in normal dete-
operating
rioration detection techniques to be able to give a conclusive answer
conditions, PV modules can develop several failure modes at the same time, which implies [9], because in
normal operating conditions, PV modules can develop several failure
that the response of the characteristic curves is an addition of all faults of the module. modes at the same
time, which implies that the response of the characteristic curves is an addition of all
faults of the
2.1. I–V and module.
P–V Curves
The best-known way to characterize a PV cell or module is to obtain its response curve,
2.1. I–Vgives
which and P–V Curves
voltage, current, and power information. These device responses are known
The best-known way
as the I–V curve and to characterize
the P–V curves, as shown a PV cell or module
in Figure is tocharacteristic
2. These obtain its response
curves
curve,
provide which gives information
important voltage, current,
aboutand power
the state of information.
the PV cell orThese
module device
under responses
analysis andare
known as the
are directly I–V curveonand
dependent thethe P–V curves,
temperature andasradiation
shown in Figure by
received 2. These characteristic
the module or cell.
curves provide important information about the state of the PV cell or module under
analysis and are directly dependent on the temperature and radiation received by the
module or cell.
Electronics 2021, 10, 1283 3 of 21
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 22
Figure2.2.I–V
I–Vand
andP–V
P–Vcurves
curvesof
of asolar
solarcell.
cell.Source
Source[10],
[10],own
ownelaboration.
elaboration.
Figure
Figure 2. I–V and P–V curves of aa solar cell. Source [10], own elaboration.
AnI–V
An I–Vcurve
curveindicates
indicatesthetheresponse
responseof
ofthe
thePV
PVmodule
moduleto todifferent
differentload
loadconditions,
conditions,atat
An I–V curve indicates the response of the PV module to different load conditions, at
aaknown
knowntemperature
temperatureandandradiation.
radiation.The
Thedependence
dependenceof ofthe
theP–V
P–Vcurve
curvewith
withradiation
radiationisis
a known temperature and radiation. The dependence of the P–V curve with radiation is
strongerthan
stronger thanthe
thedependence
dependencewith withtemperature,
temperature,thus,
thus,Figure
Figure3a3ashows
showsthetheresponse
responseofofaa
stronger than the dependence with temperature, thus, Figure 3a shows the response of a
PVcell
PV cellto
todifferent
differentlevels
levelsof
ofradiation,
radiation,where
whereititisisobserved
observedthat
thatthe
theshort-circuit
short-circuitcurrent
current
PV cell to different levels of radiation, where it is observed that the short-circuit current
(Isc)changes.
(Isc) changes.Regarding
Regardingitsits temperature
temperature dependence,
dependence, Figure
Figure 3b shows
3b shows the variation
the variation of theof
(Isc) changes. Regarding its temperature dependence, Figure 3b shows the variation of
the open circuit voltage (Voc) at different temperatures.
open circuit voltage (Voc) at different temperatures.
the open circuit voltage (Voc) at different temperatures.
Current [A]
Power [W]
Current [A]
Power [W]
-25 ºC
-25 ºC
25 ºC
25 ºC
50 ºC
50 ºC
Voltage [V]
Voltage [V]
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 3. The I–V curves of a PV module at different levels of solar radiation. Source [11], own elaboration: (a) Irradiation
Figure
Figure 3.
3. The
The I–V
I–V curves
curves of
of aa PV
PV module
module at
at different
different levels
levels of
of solar
solar radiation. Source[11]
radiation. Source [11],, own
own elaboration:
elaboration: (a)
(a) Irradiation
Irradiation
dependence; (b) Temperature dependence.
dependence;
dependence; (b)
(b) Temperature dependence.
Temperature dependence.
2.2. Deviations from the I–V Curve
2.2. Deviationsfrom
2.2. Deviations fromthe
theI–V
I–VCurve
Curve
When a PV module shows deterioration, the I–V curve also presents deviations
When
When aa PV PV module
module shows
shows deterioration,
deterioration, the the I–V
I–V curve
curve also
also presents
presents deviations
deviations
compared to a curve of a faultless module. Deviations in the I–V curves correspond to
compared
compared to to aa curve
curve ofof aa faultless
faultless module.
module. Deviations
Deviations in in the
the I–V
I–V curves
curves correspond
correspond to to
different causes of deterioration and represent a different type of failure in a PV genera-
different
different causes
causes ofof deterioration
deterioration and
and represent
representaadifferent
differenttype
typeofoffailure
failureinina aPVPV genera-
generator.
tor. They can also be caused by errors at the time of the configuration of the curve sam-
tor.
They They
can can
alsoalso be caused
be caused by errors
by errors at time
at the the time of configuration
of the the configuration ofcurve
of the the curve sam-
sampling
pling equipment, connection errors the
between the and
equipment and high
the module, high
pling equipment, connection errors between the equipment and the module, high
equipment, connection errors between equipment the module, cloudiness or
cloudiness or radiation interference when taking the measurement, etc., so when cap-
cloudiness or radiation interference when taking the measurement, etc., so when cap-
radiation interference when taking the measurement, etc., so when capturing the curve,
turingdrawbacks
the curve, should
these drawbacks should be4avoided. Figure 4 shows the possible devia-
turing
these the curve, these drawbacks should
be avoided. Figurebe avoided.
shows theFigure 4 shows
possible the possible
deviations devia-
that can be
tions that can becurve.
found in an I–V curve.
tions
found that canI–V
in an be found in an I–V curve.
Electronics 2021, 10, 1283 4 of 21
Figure4.4.Common
Figure Commondeviations
deviations of
ofan
an I–V
I–Vcurve
curvein
inaaPV
PVgenerator
generatorin
in deterioration
deterioration mode. Source [12],
mode. Source [12],
own
ownelaboration.
elaboration.
The deviations of the I–V curve listed in Figure 4 and established in [12] are the
The deviations of the I–V curve listed in Figure 4 and established in [12] are the fol-
following:
lowing:
•• Steps Stepsor or“ladder”.
"ladder".AAdeviation
deviationobserved
observedasassteps steps orora “ladder”
a “ladder” cancan
be be
caused
caused by by
partial
par-
shading, dust deposit, cracked cells, or a short circuit in
tial shading, dust deposit, cracked cells, or a short circuit in the bypass diode. the bypass diode.
•• Low Lowcurrent.
current.An AnISCISC below
below the the nominal
nominal can can be be caused
caused by bythetheuniform
uniformdeposit
depositof ofdust
dust
or
orthe
thenormal
normaldegradation
degradationof ofthe
themodule.
module.
•• Low Low voltage.
voltage. A A VVOC lowerthan
OClower than nominal
nominal cancan be be caused
caused by by thermal
thermal module
module stress
stress (hot
(hot spot or module temperature above STC), completely
spot or module temperature above STC), completely shaded cells, or bypass diode shaded cells, or bypass
diode
failure.failure.
•• Rounder
Rounder “knee”.
"knee". If If the
the inflection
inflection point
point of of the
the curve
curveor or“knee”
"knee" is is rounder
rounder than thanthatthat
observed in a nominal curve, it may be the cause of aging of the module that can
observed in a nominal curve, it may be the cause of aging of the module that can be
be evidenced by the change in the values of the series and parallel resistances of the
evidenced by the change in the values of the series and parallel resistances of the
model of a diode.
model of a diode.
• Slope reduction. The reduction of the slope on the upper part or “horizontal leg” of
• Slope reduction. The reduction of the slope on the upper part or “horizontal leg” of
the I–V curve can be caused by a dust deposit located on the edge of a cell, due to a
the I–V curve can be caused by a dust deposit located on the edge of a cell, due to a
mismatch between the ISC of the cells of a module (a reference to the quality of the
mismatch between the ISC of the cells of a module (a reference to the quality of the
cells), due to the presence of currents through the parallel branch of the diode model
cells), due to the presence of currents through the parallel branch of the diode model
(which appear as short circuits of cracked cells), or due to hot spots.
(which appear as short circuits of cracked cells), or due to hot spots.
• Increased slope. The increase in the slope in the right side or “vertical leg” of the
• Increased slope. The increase in the slope in the right side or "vertical leg" of the I–V
I–V curve can be caused by the increase in the serial resistance of the module, or by
curve canresistance
excessive be causedofby thethe increase in
connecting the serial
cables between resistance
modules. of the module, or by ex-
cessive resistance of the connecting cables between modules.
2.3. Model of a PV Cell
2.3. Model of a PV Cell
Like any electrical generator, a PV module or cell can be modeled using its electrical
Like any electrical
characteristics, considering generator,
that thisa PV
modelmodule
mustorpredict
cell canthe beelectrical
modeled output
using its ofelectrical
the cell
characteristics,
under different considering that thisconditions.
types of operating model mustNumerous predict themodels electricalhaveoutput
been of the cell
made in
undertodifferent
order simulatetypes of operatingof
the performance conditions.
solar cellsNumerous models havemodel
[13]. The single-diode been is made in or-
the most
der to simulate
widely used. Three the performance
equivalent circuitof solar cells [13].
models can be Theusedsingle-diode
to describe model is the most
a single-diode
widelyThe
model. used.
firstThree
of them equivalent
is the ideal circuit
solar models
cell, alsocan be 1M3P
called used to modeldescribe
(Singlea Mechanism,
single-diode
model.Parameters).
Three The first of them For anis ideal
the ideal
model,solar cell, also
a solar cell called
can be1M3P simply model (Single
modelled byMecha-
a p-n
nism, Three
junction Parameters).
in parallel For an ideal
with a current sourcemodel,
that isa associated
solar cell can be simply
to the modelled
photo carriers by a p-n
generated.
junction
The threein parallel with
parameters are athecurrent source current
illumination that is associated
associatedtotothe thephoto carriers effect,
photoelectric gener-
Iated.
L , the The three
reverse biasparameters
saturation are the
current illumination
for the diode, current
I 0 , andassociated
n, the to
diode the photoelectric
ideality factor.
More
effect,accuracy can be bias
IL, the reverse introduced
saturationto the model
current forbythe adding
diode,a Iseries
0, andresistance.
n, the diode The solar
ideality
cell with
factor. series
More resistance,
accuracy can commonly
be introduced known
to the asmodel
1M4P by model
adding (Single Mechanism,
a series resistance. Four
The
Parameters),
solar cell with takes intoresistance,
series account thecommonly
influence of contacts
known as by 1M4Pmeans modelof a (Single
series resistance
Mechanism, RS .
The
Four unknown parameters
Parameters), of this
takes into model the
account IL , I0 , n, and
are: influence of R S . Theseby
contacts models
means areofnot accurate
a series re-
enough,
sistance as RS.they do not take
The unknown into account
parameters some
of this real are:
model factors IL, Iin
0, n,theandsolar
RS. cells.
TheseFor that,are
models it
isnotnecessary to introduce one more precise and realistic solar
accurate enough, as they do not take into account some real factors in the solar cells. cell model. It is the solar
Electronics 2021, 10, 1283 5 of 21
cells. For that, it is necessary to introduce one more precise and realistic solar cell model.
It is with
cell the solar cell
series with
and series
shunt and shunt1M5P
resistances, resistances,
model 1M5P(Singlemodel
Mechanism,(Single Five
Mechanism, Five
Parameters),
Parameters), shown in Figure
shown in Figure 4. The R Sh , 4. The R Sh , parallel shunt resistor takes into account the
parallel shunt resistor takes into account the leakage currents.
leakage currents. The
The five parameters fivemodel
of this parameters
are: IL ,ofI0 ,this
n, Rmodel
S , and Rare: I L , IThe
Sh [13]. 0 , n,commonly
R S , and Rused
Sh [13]. The
model
commonly used model is the one that represents the cell as a diode in parallel with a
is the one that represents the cell as a diode in parallel with a current source dependent
current
on solarsource dependent
radiation [14] as on solarinradiation
shown Figure 5, [14]
whereas shown in Figure
the current 5, where
delivered bythe
thecurrent
IL PV
generator by
delivered is proportional to the solar
the I L PV generator radiation minus
is proportional to thethe currents
solar radiationflowing
minusthrough the ID
the currents
diode and the R parallel resistance.
flowing through the I D diode and the R SH parallel resistance.
SH
Figure 5. Equivalent model of a PV generator. Source [14], own elaboration.

Figure 5. Equivalent model of a PV generator. Source [14], own elaboration.
The equivalent circuit shown can be used as a single cell, a multi-cell module, or an
arrayThe equivalent
of multiple circuit Considering
modules. shown can be used as a single
temperature cell, a multi-cell
and constant radiation,module, or an
the character-
array of multiple
istic I–V modules.
of the 1M5P model Considering
is expressed temperature
by Equationsand constant
(1) and (2): radiation, the charac-
teristic I–V of the 1M5P model is expressed by equations (1) and (2):
V + IRs V + IRs
I = IL − ID − ISH = IL − Io exp 𝑉𝑉 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 − 1 − 𝑉𝑉 + 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 (1)
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 − 𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷 − 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 − 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 �𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 � a � − 1� − RSH (1)
𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
nNs kT
a = 𝑛𝑛𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (2)
𝑎𝑎 = q
𝑞𝑞
(2)
where:
Where:
I = current
I = current delivered
delivered by thebyPVthegenerator;
PV generator;
I L = current induced by solar
IL = current induced by solar radiation;
radiation;
ID = Idiode
D = diode current;
current;
ISH =I SH
current flowing
= current through
flowing the resistance
through in parallel;
the resistance in parallel;
I0 = reverse saturation diode current;
I 0 = reverse saturation diode current;
V = voltage
V = voltageat PV atgenerator
PV generatorterminals;
terminals;
RS = R series resistance;
S = series resistance;
RSH = parallel
R SH resistance;
= parallel resistance;
a = modified ideality
a = modified ideality factor;
factor;
k = Boltzmann
k = Boltzmann constant (1.381
constant × 10−23-23[J/K]);
(1.381x10 [J/K]);
T = cell
T = temperature
cell temperature in degrees Kelvin;
in degrees Kelvin;
NS =N number of cells connected in series;
S = number of cells connected in series;
q = electron charge
q = electron (1.602
charge × 10−19-19[C]);
(1.602x10 [C]);
n = diode ideality factor (1 for ideal
n = diode ideality factor (1 for ideal diodes and 2and
diodes for2real
for ones).
real ones).
The two-diode model introduces a second diode in parallel which takes into account
The two-diode model introduces a second diode in parallel which takes into ac-
the generation and recombination rates in the transition region of a p-n diode by introduc-
count the generation and recombination rates in the transition region of a p-n diode by
ing another diode in parallel, which may be significant under some thermal or illumination
introducing
conditions inanothera high diode
band in gap parallel, which may
semiconductor. Atbelower
significant
valuesunder some thermal
of irradiance or
and low
illumination conditions in a high band gap semiconductor. At lower
temperatures, the two-diode model gives more accurate curve characteristics than the values of irradiance
and low temperatures,
single-diode the two-diode
model. Nevertheless, the model
number gives more accurate
of equations curve characteristics
and unknown parameters
than the single-diode model. Nevertheless, the number
increases, making calculations more complex, as now there will be two of equations and unknown
unknown pa-
diode
rameters increases,
ideality factors. makingthecalculations
Therefore, more 1M5P
above-explained complex,modelas is
now thereused
widely will[13].
be two un-
known diode ideality factors. Therefore, the above-explained 1M5P model is widely used
[13] . Tracers’ Topologies
3. I–V
The drawing of I–V and P–V curves of a module is carried out using equipment
called a tracer, which is electronic equipment capable of varying the load on the module or
Electronics 2021, 10, 1283 3. I–V Tracers’ Topologies 6 of 21

The drawing of I–V and P–V curves of a module is carried out using equipment
called a tracer, which is electronic equipment capable of varying the load on the module
or string terminals and taking measurements of corresponding voltages and currents.
string terminals and taking measurements of corresponding voltages and currents. The
The equipment normally has a temperature sensor and a ration sensor, so that with these
equipment normally has a temperature sensor and a ration sensor, so that with these data,
data, it is possible to perform the correction of the curve at STC. The correction is made
it is possible to perform the correction of the curve at STC. The correction is made following
following the standard IEC 60891: 2009 [15].
the standard IEC 60891: 2009 [15].
To obtain the I–V curve, different methods differ in their flexibility, fidelity, and
To obtain the I–V curve, different methods differ in their flexibility, fidelity, and
cost. Obtaining the I–V curve is based on the variation of the current consumed at the
cost. Obtaining the I–V curve is based on the variation of the current consumed at the
terminals of the PV generator and its voltage response, so both electrical parameters must
terminals of the PV generator and its voltage response, so both electrical parameters must
be measured either by automatic or manual methods [16].
be measured either by automatic or manual methods [16].
3.1.
3.1.Variable
VariableResistor
ResistorTracer
Tracer or
or Rheostat
Rheostat
AA variable resistor tracerisisaadevice
variable resistor tracer devicethat
thatcan
canchange
changethe
theresistance
resistance in
insteps
stepsfrom
from zero
zero
to
toinfinity
infinity (ideally)
(ideally) to
to capture points on
capture points on the
theI–V
I–Vcurve
curve(Figure
(Figure6).
6).Normally,
Normally,this
thismethod
method is
isapplicable
applicable in low-power PV generators because high-power resistors are rare
in low-power PV generators because high-power resistors are rare in the market. in the
market.
V R
PV
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure6.6.Schematic
Schematicof
ofaa variable
variable resistor
resistor tracer:
tracer: (a)
(a) connection scheme. Source
connection scheme. Source [16],
[16], own
ownelaboration;
elabora-
tion; (b) curve
(b) I–V I–V curve obtained
obtained withwith a variable
a variable resistor
resistor tracer.
tracer. SourceSource
[17], [17],
own own elaboration.
elaboration.
This
Thistopology
topologyisisused usedin in[17]–20],
[17–20], but
but it
it has
has limitations
limitations due due toto the
the quality
quality of of the
the curve
curve
obtained
obtained and and the fact that
the fact that the
thevariation
variationofofresistance
resistanceis is normally
normally done
done manually.
manually. In [9],
In [9], the
the author
author states
states thatthat
the the precision
precision of the
of the method
method is notis not
highhighsincesince
it isitsusceptible
is susceptible to theto fact
the
fact
thatthat
the the
solarsolar radiation
radiation andand the temperature
the temperature varyvary while
while the test
the test is carried
is carried out, out,
and and
that
that the I–V
the I–V curve curve
doesdoes
not not
have have uniformity,
uniformity, andand a high-power
a high-power rheostat
rheostat is not
is not common
common in
in the
the market,
market, makingmaking thisthis method
method only only applicable
applicable to low-power
to low-power PV PV generators
generators (<1 (<1kW).
kW).
To
To improve
improve the the precision
precision and and fluidity
fluidity of of the
the curve
curve in in [17],
[17], aa linear
linear rheostat
rheostat that that is is
manually
manually variedvaried isis used,
used, inin conjunction
conjunction withwith aa microcontroller
microcontroller with with an an external
external 12-bit
12-bit
analog–digital
analog–digital converter.
converter. In Inthis
thisway,
way,thethe capture
capture of current
of current andand voltage
voltage data data is auto-
is automated,
mated, increasing the number of points that can be obtained from the curve.
increasing the number of points that can be obtained from the curve.
To
To improve
improve the the quality
quality of of the
the curve,
curve, inin [21–24],
[21–24], diagrams
diagramsof ofmultiple
multipleresistors
resistorscon-con-
trolled by switches are presented to obtain the I–V curve (Figure 7), where its main limi-
trolled by switches are presented to obtain the I–V curve (Figure 7), where its main limita-
tation
tion isisthe
thenumber
numberofofstepsstepsor orpoints
pointsthat
thatcancan be
be obtained.
obtained. In In [21],
[21], aa current
current andand voltage
voltage
sequencer is proposed, through the connection of resistors in parallel, automated by
sequencer is proposed, through the connection of resistors in parallel, automated by aa
computer, where the resistances must be selected appropriately
computer, where the resistances must be selected appropriately to obtain a well-defined to obtain a well-defined
“knee”. In
“knee”. In [22],
[22], aa similar
similarmethodology
methodologyisisproposed,
proposed,with withthe thedifference
difference that thethe
that switches
switches are
MOSFETs, and the interface with the computer is an Arduino
are MOSFETs, and the interface with the computer is an Arduino with a 12-bit external with a 12-bit external ADC.
To increase
ADC. the number
To increase of stepsofofsteps
the number this type of tracer,
of this type ofintracer,
[23], a in binary
[23], scheme
a binaryisscheme
proposed, is
where the resistors are in series and their activation depends
proposed, where the resistors are in series and their activation depends on normally on normally closed relays.
Thus, in
closed the case
relays. of aintracer
Thus, withofeight
the case resistors,
a tracer with 255 eightdifferent
resistors, resistance valuesresistance
255 different could be
obtained for the elaboration of the I–V curve. In [24], LabView
values could be obtained for the elaboration of the I–V curve. In [24], LabView is used is used to capture the curveto
and carry out previous analyses.
capture the curve and carry out previous analyses.
Electronics2021,
Electronics 10,x 1283
2021,10, FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of
7 of 2221
V
PV
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure7. 7.
Variable Resistor
Variable Tracer
Resistor Scheme:
Tracer (a) Conventional
Scheme: Scheme;
(a) Conventional (b) Binary
Scheme; TracerTracer
(b) Binary Scheme.
Scheme.
Source
Source[23],
[23],own
ownelaboration.
elaboration.
The
Theuse
useofofvariable
variableresistors
resistorsplaced
placedasasa aload
loadinina aPV PVgenerator
generatortotoobtain
obtainI–V
I–Vcurves
curves
isisnot
notrecommended
recommendedbecause becausewith
withthis
thismethod,
method,the theI scIscisisnot
notexactly
exactlyreached,
reached,and
andthe
the
manual
manualchange
changeofofresistors
resistorstakes
takesconsiderable
considerabletime,time,sosothe thesolar
solarradiation
radiationand
andthermal
thermal
conditions
conditionsmay
maychange
changeduring
duringmeasurement
measurement[16]. [16].However,
However,the thecost
costadvantages
advantagesandandease
ease
of implementation and measurement automation of these types of tracers make them a a
of implementation and measurement automation of these types of tracers make them
viable
viablealternative.
alternative.
3.2.
3.2. Capacitive
Capacitive LoadLoad Tracer
Tracer
ItItisisa acapacitor-based
capacitor-basedmethod,
method,where
wherethethecapacitor
capacitorisischarged
chargedby bythe
thePVPVmodule
module
forcing it to go from a short-circuit to an open-circuit condition. It is a widely
forcing it to go from a short-circuit to an open-circuit condition. It is a widely used tracer. used tracer.
In [19], it is stated that the value of the capacitor suitable for this type of
In [19], it is stated that the value of the capacitor suitable for this type of tracer depends tracer depends
directlyon
directly on the
the short-circuit
short-circuit current
currentand
andthetheopen-circuit
open-circuit voltage, andand
voltage, is given by (3),
is given bybased
(3),
on the
based ontime of theofestablishment
the time of theofcapacitor
the establishment (tS ). (t S ).
the capacitor
t𝑡𝑡S𝑆𝑆 𝐼𝐼I𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
SC
C𝐶𝐶== (3)
(3)
22 V 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
OC
InIn[25],
[25],the
the plotting time of
plotting time of the
theI–V I–Vcurve
curveis is indicated
indicated with
with thisthis method,
method, and and it is
it is given
given by (4). The use of the tracer is proposed as part of an MPPT controller
by (4). The use of the tracer is proposed as part of an MPPT controller to identify possible to identify
possible
shadingshading conditions
conditions of the modules,
of the modules, which iswhich is also considered
also considered in [17]. in [17].
𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 · 𝐶𝐶
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 1.261 �VOC ·C � (4)
Tsweep = 1.261 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (4)
ISC
In Figure 8, the schematic of a capacitive tracer is shown, where before the meas-
urement,In Figure 8, the schematic
the capacitor of a capacitive
begins unloaded by S3tracer
and R. is When
shown,thewhere before the is
measurement measure-
to be
ment, the capacitor begins unloaded by S3 and R. When the
started, S3 opens and S1 closes, so the PV generator has a very low load, reaching measurement is to be started,
S3 opens and
short-circuit S1 closes,
condition. Assothe
thecapacitor
PV generator hasthe
charges, a very low decreases
current load, reaching short-circuit
and the voltage
condition. As the capacitor charges, the current decreases and the voltage increases, so
increases, so when the charge ends, the current delivered by the module becomes zero,
when the charge ends, the current delivered by the module becomes zero, reaching the
reaching the open-circuit condition. This scheme also allows starting the measurement
open-circuit condition. This scheme also allows starting the measurement with S2 closed,
with S2 closed, so that the capacitor would be charged to a negative voltage to reach I sc
so that the capacitor would be charged to a negative voltage to reach Isc exactly.
exactly.
There are simpler topologies such as that shown in Figure 9, where only the capacitor
and a discharge resistor are used.
For this type of tracer, the capacitors should be low ESR (equivalent series resistance)
and low losses. The capacitance value depends on the required measurement time and
has an impact on the measured voltage [26]. In this way, if short measurement times
are required due to low capacitance values, the tracer design should consider voltage
Electronics 2021, 10, 1283 8 of 21

and current sensors that reach the necessary speed that may be in the order of millisec-
onds. Furthermore, depending on the current and voltage of the tracer, the use of IGBTs
may be required for the proper triggering of the measurement stages, which increases
I costs.
implementation
S1 S3
S2
V I C R
PV S1 S3
S2
C Vb
V R
PV
Vb
Figure 8. Schematic of a capacitive load tracer. Source [16], own elaboration.
There are simpler topologies such as that shown in Figure 9, where only the capac-
Figure8.8.Schematic
Figure Schematicof
ofaacapacitive
capacitiveload
loadtracer.
tracer.Source
Source[16],
[16],own
ownelaboration.
elaboration.
itor and a discharge resistor are used.
There are simpler topologies such as that shown in Figure 9, where only the capac-
I
itor and a discharge resistor are used.
S1 S3
I C R
V S1 S3
PV
C Vb
V R
PV
Vb
Schematicofof
Figure9.9.Schematic
Figure a simpler
a simpler capacitive
capacitive loadload
tracer.tracer.
SourceSource [11]elaboration.
[11], own , own elaboration.
For
In thisthe
[27], type of of
effect tracer,
the arc theproduced
capacitors by should be low of
the connection ESRthe(equivalent
capacitor isseries re-
studied,
Figure 9. Schematic of a simpler capacitive load tracer. Source [11], own elaboration.
sistance)
which must andbe low losses. The
considered by the capacitance value depends
system converter. In [28], aon the required
genetic algorithm measurement
based on a
timecolony
bee and this
For has an
is used
typeimpact
to obtainon the
of tracer,
the measured
parametersvoltage
the capacitors
of a PV[26].
should beInlow thisplotting
cell after way, (equivalent
ESR ifits
short
I–V measurement
curve with a
series re-
times
capacitiveare required
tracer. due
In [29–32], to low
the capacitance
operation values,
of this type the tracer
of tracer,
sistance) and low losses. The capacitance value depends on the required measurement design
and should
different consider
methods of
voltage
connecting andthecurrent sensors
capacitor, that reach
are discussed. the necessary speed
time and has an impact on the measured voltage [26]. In this way, if short measurement that may be in the order of
milliseconds.
The low-cost
times are required Furthermore,
due to depending
advantage of this on the values,
tracer
low capacitance
has current the
made and tracer
it voltagedesign
quite popular of the tracer,
in
shouldthe
the market, use of
and
consider
itIGBTs
is evenmayusedbe required
in on-line for the
tracers proper
[33], that triggering of the
is, it is installed measurement
directly in the stages, which
junction in-
boxes
voltage and current sensors that reach the necessary speed that may be in the order
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW of
9 of 22
ofcreases implementation
PV modules to measure costs.
their I–V curve regularly in a PV installation, constituting
milliseconds. Furthermore, depending on the current and voltage of the tracer, the use of
a
In [27],
semi-invasive the effect
measurement of the arc
method produced
as shown by the
in connection
Figure 10.
IGBTs may be required for the proper triggering of the measurement stages, which in- of the capacitor is studied,
which must
creases be considered
implementation by the system converter. In [28], a genetic algorithm based on
costs.
a beeIn colony is used
[27], the effectto of
obtain
the arctheproduced
parameters byofthea PV cell after of
connection plotting its I–V curve
the capacitor with
is studied,
awhich
capacitive
must be considered by the system converter. In [28], a genetic algorithm basedand
tracer. In [29], [30], [31], and [32], the operation of this type of tracer, on
different
a bee colony methods
is used ofto connecting
obtain thethe capacitor,ofare
parameters discussed.
a PV cell after plotting its I–V curve with
The low-cost
a capacitive tracer.advantage
In [29], [30],of this tracer
[31], and has [32],made it quite popular
the operation of thisintypethe market,
of tracer, and
andit
is even used in on-line tracers [33], that is,
different methods of connecting the capacitor, are discussed. it is installed directly in the junction boxes of
PV modules
The low-cost to measure
advantage theirof I–V curve has
this tracer regularly
made itinquite
a PVpopular
installation,
in the constituting
market, and it a
semi-invasive measurement method as shown in Figure 10.
is even used in on-line tracers [33], that is, it is installed directly in the junction boxes of
PV modules to measure their I–V curve regularly in a PV installation, constituting a
semi-invasive measurement method as shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10.
Figure Electronic “semi-invasive”
10. Electronic or or
"semi-invasive" “on-line” tracer
"on-line" installed
tracer in a junction
installed box of box
in a junction a string
of aof PV
modules.
string Source
of PV [33], own
modules. elaboration.
Source [33], own elaboration.
3.3. Electronic Load Tracer

An electronic load tracer is a device that uses a transistor (MOSFET or IGBT) as a
controlled load (Figure 11). It takes advantage of the resistance variation between the
transistor terminals by modulating its gate voltage. Since the transistor could operate in
Electronics 2021, 10, 1283 Figure 10. Electronic "semi-invasive" or "on-line" tracer installed in a junction box of 9aof 21
string of PV modules. Source [33], own elaboration.

any section of its characteristic curve, even in the ohmic region, it could be considered as
any section of its characteristic curve, even in the ohmic region, it could be considered as
an electronic variable resistance tracer.
an electronic variable resistance tracer.
Figure11.
Figure Schematic
11.Schematic of electronic
of an an electronic loadwith
load tracer tracer with a MOSFET
a MOSFET transistor.
transistor. Source Source
[16], own [16],
elaboration.
own elaboration.
These types of tracers use control circuits based on constant current loads and high-
speedThese types of tracers
analog–digital use control
converters. They have circuits based on constant
the advantage of being current
cheaperloads and
than the
high-speed
capacitive analog–digital
load converters.
for low voltages, with theThey have the
limiting advantage
power that theoftransistors
being cheaper
used than the
in their
capacitive load for low voltages, with the limiting power that the transistors used in their
design can handle, and they normally have noise in their measurement due to the transistor
design can
switching handle,
[34]. and
In [35], thethey
use normally
of a PWMhave noise
control in their
for the measurement
management of thedue to theortran-
MOSFET an
sistor switching [34]. In [35], the use of a PWM control for the management of the
IGBT is proposed, and a structure for the galvanic isolation of the control circuit is exposed.
MOSFET
In [36], thisorconcept
an IGBT is is proposed,
extended, and aa DAQ
using structure for generation
for the the galvanic ofisolation of the
a triangular control
signal as
acircuit
control of the MOSFET. In [37], the characteristics of the MOSFET for
is exposed. In [36], this concept is extended, using a DAQ for the generation of a its use in a tracer
are studied.
triangular signal as a control of the MOSFET. In [37], the characteristics of the MOSFET
Inuse
for its [38],inthe application
a tracer of conventional tracers is extended, adding a MQTT com-
are studied.
munication
In [38], the application ofcapacitive
for the control of conventionaltracers. In [39],
tracers a low-cost
is extended, tracera is
adding designed,
MQTT com-
and information is gathered from studies to determine the characteristics
munication for the control of capacitive tracers. In [39], a low-cost tracer is designed, of the MOSFET, and
specifically
information itsischaracteristic
gathered from curves, to properly
studies select the
to determine thetransistor to be used
characteristics based
of the on the
MOSFET,
characteristics of the MOSFET (Figure 12) and the PV module. In [40–42], tracer designs
specifically its characteristic curves, to properly select the transistor to be used based
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 ofon22
with computer interfaces are carried out, both for the characterization of modules and for
the characteristics of the MOSFET (Figure 12) and the PV module. In [40], [41], and [42],
their use in solar plants.
tracer designs with computer interfaces are carried out, both for the characterization of
modules and for their use in solar plants.
Figure12.
Figure 12.Characteristics
CharacteristicsofofaaPV
PVmodule
moduleand
andaaMOSFET.
MOSFET.Source
Source[39],
[39],own
ownelaboration.
elaboration.
3.4.
3.4.Bipolar
BipolarPower
PowerAmplifier
AmplifierTracer
Tracer
ItItisisaatype
type of tracer thatuses
of tracer that usesaaconfiguration
configurationofofbipolar
bipolartransistors
transistorsas
asclass
classBBpower
power
amplifiers
amplifiers (Figure 13) to allow the reversal of current and voltage for measurementofof
(Figure 13) to allow the reversal of current and voltage for measurement
“dark”
“dark”I–V I–Vcurves
curves(simulation
(simulation of of
ananI–VI–V
curve of aofmodule
curve in conditions
a module without
in conditions lighting).
without light-
In [42], this type of tracer is used as a reference for the design of a solar simulator.
ing). In [42], this type of tracer is used as a reference for the design of a solar simulator.
Figure 12. Characteristics of a PV module and a MOSFET. Source [39], own elaboration.
3.4. Bipolar Power Amplifier Tracer

It is a type of tracer that uses a configuration of bipolar transistors as class B power
Electronics 2021, 10, 1283
amplifiers (Figure 13) to allow the reversal of current and voltage for measurement of
10 of 21
“dark” I–V curves (simulation of an I–V curve of a module in conditions without light-
ing). In [42], this type of tracer is used as a reference for the design of a solar simulator.
Figure
Figure 13.
13. Bipolar
BipolarPower
PowerAmplifier
Amplifier tracer.
tracer. Source
Source [16],
[16], own
own elaboration.
elaboration.
These tracers
These tracers have
have the
thelimitation
limitationofofthe
theuse of of
use BJTBJT
transistors in the
transistors linear
in the area,area,
linear so they
so
are limited to low powers.
they are limited to low powers.
3.5. Four Quadrant Power Supply Tracer
3.5. Four Quadrant Power Supply Tracer
It is a tracer based on a power source and transistors in H-bridge configuration that
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEWIt is a tracer based on a power source and transistors in H-bridge configuration 11 that
of 22
allows to deliver and consume energy from the PV generator to evaluate its performance
allows to deliver and consume energy from the
in the four quadrants of an I–V curve (Figure 14).PV generator to evaluate its performance
in the four quadrants of an I–V curve (Figure 14).
I
Quadrant II Quadrant I
S1 V S2
+
I PV
-
V
S3 S4
Quadrant III Quadrant IV
(a) (b)
Figure14.
Figure FourQuadrant
14.Four Quadrant Power
Power Supply
Supply tracer.
tracer. Source
Source [16]elaboration.
[16], own , own elaboration.
Investigationofofthe
Investigation theoperation
operationofof four
four quadrants
quadrants on aonsolar
a solar module
module allows
allows the diag-
the diagnosis
nosis of mismatches in partially shaded cells connected in series and is used for
of mismatches in partially shaded cells connected in series and is used for the the gen-
generation
eration
of of dark(dark
dark curves curves
I–V(dark I–VThe
curve). curve).
dark The dark I–V
I–V curve curve
is the is of
curve thethe
curve of the
module module
when it is
when it is non-illuminated,
non-illuminated, and specifically
and specifically the current
the current and voltage and voltage are
are measured measured
when when
the module
isthe moduleby
powered is powered bysource.
an external an external source.
Figure Figure
15 shows 15dark
the showsIV the
curvedark
of IV curvemodule,
a solar of a so-
lar module, from which the values of the series and parallel resistances and the ideality
from which the values of the series and parallel resistances and the ideality factors for the
factors for the diode model can be obtained as well as the I–V curve correction methods
diode model can be obtained as well as the I–V curve correction methods to STC. In [43,44],
methods
to STC. Infor[43]
evaluating electrical
and [44], methods module parameters
for evaluating with this
electrical type ofparameters
module curve are reviewed.
with this
type of curve are reviewed.
eration of dark curves (dark I–V curve). The dark I–V curve is the curve of the module
when it is non-illuminated, and specifically the current and voltage are measured when
the module is powered by an external source. Figure 15 shows the dark IV curve of a so-
lar module, from which the values of the series and parallel resistances and the ideality
Electronics 2021, 10, 1283 factors for the diode model can be obtained as well as the I–V curve correction methods
11 of 21
to STC. In [43] and [44], methods for evaluating electrical module parameters with this
type of curve are reviewed.
Figure 15. Dark I–V curve of a solar cell. Source [45], own elaboration.
Figure 15. Dark I–V curve of a solar cell. Source [45], own elaboration.
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW In [46], an experimental procedure is used to synchronize the measurement 12 ofof22two
In [46], antoexperimental
multimeters, procedureofisthe
increase the precision used to synchronize
measurement the measurement
and reduce the uncertaintyof twoof
multimeters,
this method. to In increase
[47], suchthe precision
a tracer is usedof the measurement
to analyze moduleand reduceextraction
parameter the uncertainty
methods;of
this method.
in [48], it is In [47],for
used such a tracer is used
high-efficiency toanalysis;
cell analyze module
and in parameter
[49], it is used extraction methods;
to characterize
bidirectional
in [48], it DC–DC
is used converters
for are used
high-efficiency to
cell obtain
analysis;the I–V
and curves
in [49], and
modules and shading effects. Being a very precise method, in [50], it is used to verifyit is to
usedemulateto the re- the
characterize
al-time behavior
modules
effect of series ofresistances
and shading a PV effects.
generator,
Beingand
introduced in the
a very
by [55], theymethod,
precise
internal are applied to
in [50],
connection MPPT
it
bars isinused (Maximum
a PV to verify the
cell.
Power
effect of series resistances introduced by the internal connection bars in a PV cell. as a
Point Tracking). In [56], the applications of DC–DC converters are analyzed
variable electronic
3.6. DC–DC load. Tracer
Converter In [57], the control of DC–DC converters is studied using
3.6. DC–DC
Switching-Frequency Converter
It is a tracer basedTracer
Modulation Scheme
on the ability of (SFMS)
DC–DCand its application
converters to emulate in MPPTs.
a resistor by varying
Asduty
for the Buck-boost converters, they need canto be of the
thisI–V
topology ofsincePVthe Buck in
its It is a tracer based on the ability of DC–DC converters to emulate
cycle (Figure 16). A DC–DC converter plot curve aa resistor by var-
generator
structures do not allow the drawing of points of the curve close to I sc and the Boost
ying its dutyCuk,
Buck-boost, cycleor(Figure 16). A DC–DC
Single-Ended Primaryconverter can plot the
Inductor Converter I–V curve
(SEPIC) of a PV gen-
configuration [11].
structures cannot reach points close to Voc [16].
erator in Buck-boost, Cuk, or Single-Ended Primary Inductor Converter (SEPIC) config-
uration [11].
In [51], the use of DC–DC converters as I–V curve tracers is proposed and in [52],
this concept is extended by an automatic capture system with LabView. In [53] and [54],
bidirectional DC–DC converters are used to obtain the I–V curves and to emulate the re-
Figure 16. DC
Figure DC converter
16.–DC–DC tracer.
converter tracer.Source
Source[16]
[16],, own elaboration.
own elaboration.
In [51], the
Buck-boost use of DC–DC
converters have theconverters as I–V curve
disadvantage tracers is proposed
of introducing noise intoand
theinmeas-
[52], this
concept is extended by an automatic capture system with LabView.
urement due to the commutation of their internal elements (transistor and inductor), In [53,54], bidirectional
whichDC–DC
is why converters
leads fromarethis
used to obtain
circuit the I–V
are used curves17),
(Figure andknown
to emulate
as Cuktheconverters
real-time behavior
and
SEPICof a[58].
PV generator,
They haveand in [55],frequency
a better they are applied
responseto MPPT
and can (Maximum
be used Power PointasTracking).
as MPPTs con-
In [56],
trollers thepower
for PV applications of DC–DC
generation. converters
In [59], are analyzed
they use Cuk and SEPIC as converters
a variable electronic
to decreaseload.
In [57],ofthe
the ripple thecontrol of DC–DC
I–V curve caused converters is studied using
by the commutation, andSwitching-Frequency
to reach the limits ofModulation
Isc and
Voc. Scheme (SFMS) and its application in MPPTs.
As for the Buck-boost converters, they need to be of this topology since the Buck
structures do not allow the drawing of points of the curve close to Isc and the Boost
structures cannot reach points close to Voc [16].
Buck-boost converters have the disadvantage of introducing noise into the measure-
ment due to the commutation of their internal elements (transistor and inductor), which is
why leads from this circuit are used (Figure 17), known as Cuk converters and SEPIC [58].
They have a better frequency response and can be used as MPPTs as controllers for PV
power generation. In [59], they use Cuk and SEPIC converters to decrease the ripple of the
I–V curve caused by the commutation, and to reach the limits of Isc and Voc .
(a)
Buck-boost converters have the disadvantage of introducing noise into the meas-
urement due to the commutation of their internal elements (transistor and inductor),
which is why leads from this circuit are used (Figure 17), known as Cuk converters and
Electronics 2021, 10, 1283 SEPIC [58]. They have a better frequency response and can be used as MPPTs as controllers
12 of 21
for PV power generation. In [59], they use Cuk and SEPIC converters to decrease the ripple
of the I–V curve caused by the commutation, and to reach the limits of Isc and Voc.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 17. Derived DC–DC converters: (a) Buck-boost; (b) SEPIC; (c) Cuk. Source [60], own elaboration.
In [60], a SEPIC converter is used, with PWM control to generate the curve, and with
Hall effect sensor for current measurement, and it is indicated that a four quadrant source
can be used with this configuration. In [61], an adaptive control system is proposed, to
ensure an optimal sampling rate.
In [62], two new methodologies are proposed, a voltage-controlled sweep to obtain
more information on the “flat” part of I–V curve, and a current-controlled sweep for the rest
of the curve: that is, a hybrid sweep. In [63], converters are used to obtain characteristics
of PV generation systems by analyzing their frequency response, and Nyquist diagrams.
In [64], the authors propose the use of SEPIC converters installed in line with strings for
automatic I–V curve tracing within a PV installation.
The application of a Cuk converter and a control method for plotting curves and
MPPT is discussed in [65]. In [66], the mathematical analysis of the Cuk converter and the
details of its design are detailed. In [67], a digital control scheme of a Cuk converter is
proposed for power factor correction, and its response to load variations.
4. Electrical Considerations in I–V Tracers

To select the appropriate topology when facing the design of an I–V tracer, it is of
great importance to know the electrical parameters to which the electronic elements of the
equipment are exposed. Therefore, this section will analyze the main types of topologies
and the power, current, voltage, and temperature of the electronic components.
The simulation is carried out by controlling the switching element of the tracers,
analyzing the electrical parameters of the elements of the different circuits. The results
of powers, voltages, currents, and temperatures of the elements are compared to observe
their maximum and minimum values in order to analyze electrical stress. To normalize
the circuits, each type of tracer was designed to ensure equal power output, and the
the equipment are exposed. Therefore, this section will analyze the main types of topol-
ogies and the power, current, voltage, and temperature of the electronic components.
The simulation is carried out by controlling the switching element of the tracers,
analyzing the electrical parameters of the elements of the different circuits. The results of
Electronics 2021, 10, 1283 powers, voltages, currents, and temperatures of the elements are compared to observe 13 of 21
their maximum and minimum values in order to analyze electrical stress. To normalize
the circuits, each type of tracer was designed to ensure equal power output, and the
values
values were
were converted
converted toto per
per unit
unit for
for percentage
percentage comparison.
comparison. Real Real models
models ofof the
the circuit
circuit
components
components were used; however, the limitations of the simulation such as variations in
were used; however, the limitations of the simulation such as variations in
ambient
ambienttemperature
temperature or or leakage
leakage currents
currents were
were not
not considered.
considered.
With
Withthis
thisaim,
aim,the
themodel
modelofofone diode
one diodeof aofPV cellcell
a PV (Figure 18a)18a)
(Figure is taken as a reference,
is taken as a refer-
in which
ence, an I SCan
in which = 3VAOCand
=3AISCand =0.6239V
VOC =are imposed,
0.6239 V are with an Mwith
imposed, pp =1.476W.
an MppFigure
= 1.47618bW.
shows the I–V and P-V curves of the cell. Because the voltage of a single cell
Figure 18b shows the I–V and P-V curves of the cell. Because the voltage of a single cell is is limited, a
5-cell circuit in series has been used, obtaining an I SC =3A, V OC =3.1195V, and
limited, a 5-cell circuit in series has been used, obtaining an ISC = 3 A, VOC = 3.1195 V, and M pp =7.38W.
Simulations
Mpp = 7.38 W. were performed
Simulations in LTSpice.
were performed in LTSpice.
(a)
660mV 3.0W
600mV 2.85A,517.62mV 2.8W
0A,623.97802mV 2.6W
540mV 2.4W
480mV 2.2W
Voltage [mV]
I-V curve 2.0W

420mV P-V curve
Power [W]
2.85A,1.47W 1.8W
360mV 1.6W
300mV 1.4W
1.2W
240mV
1.0W
180mV 0.8W
120mV 3A 0.6W
0.4W
60mV 0.2W
0mV 0.0W
0.0A 0.3A 0.6A 0.9A 1.2A 1.5A 1.8A 2.1A 2.4A 2.7A 3.0A
Current [A]
(b)
Figure18.
Figure 18. Simulation
Simulation model
model of
of aa PV
PV cell:
cell: (a)
(a)diode
diodemodel
modelcircuit;
circuit;(b)
(b)I–V
I–Vand
andP–V
P–Vcurves.
curves.
4.1.
4.1. Variable
Variable Resistance, Electronic Load,
Resistance, Electronic Load, and
andCapacitive
CapacitiveLoadLoadTracers
Tracers
These
Thesethree
threetracers
tracersareareanalyzed
analyzedininthisthissubsection
subsectionforfor their similarity
their similarityin in
their operating
their oper-
principle. Both the variable resistance and the switching element
ating principle. Both the variable resistance and the switching element in an electronic in an electronic load
dissipate all the energy when drawing the I–V curve. Additionally,
load dissipate all the energy when drawing the I–V curve. Additionally, the capacitive the capacitive load
load tracer, in the same way, has a single element (resistor) that dissipates the total powerof
tracer, in the same way, has a single element (resistor) that dissipates the total power
of the
the circuit.
circuit.
For the
For thevariable
variableresistance
resistancetracer
tracer(Figure
(Figure19a),
19a),it it
is is observed
observed thatthat
thethe power
power dissi-
dissipated
pated by the resistance is the total power of the cells, that is, their power dissipation
by the resistance is the total power of the cells, that is, their power dissipation is 1isp.u.
1
p.u. compared
compared to the
to the module
module power.
power. Additionally,all
Additionally, allthethe current
current and
and the
the voltage
voltageofofthethe
module is
module is dissipated
dissipated onon the
the resistor,
resistor, meaning
meaning 11 p.u. p.u. for
for those
those parameters.
parameters.Considering
Considering
◦ C reached by a 10 W resistor, with a thermal resistance of
the temperature
the temperature of of 48.59
48.59ºC reached by a 10 W resistor, with a thermal resistance of 3.2
◦ C/W [68], and 25 ◦ C as base ambient temperature, this parameter is 1.94 p.u.
ºC/W
3.2 [68], and 25 ºC as base ambient temperature, this parameter is 1.94 p.u.
Similarly, for the MOSFET-based electronic load tracer (Figure 19b), the power dis-
sipated by the device is the total power of the module. However, in the electronic load,
there is an additional resistor for the current measurement, and the internal resistance of
the MOSFET, which causes the device to dissipate 7.3 W, that is, 0.98 p.u. for a short time.
Regarding voltage and current at the electronic load, both parameters peak at 1 p.u., but
the temperature rises up to 50.55 ºC, which is 2.02 p.u.
In the case of the capacitive load tracer (Figure 19c), the resistor dissipates all the
power, i.e., 1 p.u., during the charging time of the capacitor. Current and voltage are 1
p.u, and the temperature peaks at 2.02 p.u., the same that the temperature is shown as in
the electronic load tracer, but in this case, the temperature remains high for a longer time.
Electronics 2021,
Electronics 10, 1283
2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15
14 of 22
of 21
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure
Figure 19.
19. Electrical
Electrical parameters
parameters inin elements of aa tracer:
elements of tracer: (a)
(a) variable
variable resistance tracer; (b)
resistance tracer; (b) MOSFET
MOSFET in
in
electronic load tracer;
electronic load tracer; (c)
(c) capacitive
capacitive load
load tracer.
tracer.
4.2. DC–DC Converter

Similarly, for the Tracers
MOSFET-based electronic load tracer (Figure 19b), the power dis-
sipated by the device
Regarding the DC–DC is the total power of thetracers,
converter-based module. However, SEPIC,
Buck-boost, in the electronic
and Cuk load,
con-
there is are
verters an additional
analyzed in resistor for the current
this subsection. measurement,
For all these types and the internal
of converters, resistance
elements of
with
the MOSFET, which causes the device to dissipate 7.3 W, that is, 0.98 p.u. for a short
values that ensure an output voltage of 1 p.u were used of the set of cells, to find only the time.
Regardingin
difference voltage
powerand current
in each one at the electronic
(Figure 20). load, both parameters peak at 1 p.u., but
the temperature rises up to 50.55 ◦ C, which is 2.02 p.u.
In the case of the capacitive load tracer (Figure 19c), the resistor dissipates all the
power, i.e., 1 p.u., during the charging time of the capacitor. Current and voltage are 1 p.u,
and the temperature peaks at 2.02 p.u., the same that the temperature is shown as in the
electronic load tracer, but in this case, the temperature remains high for a longer time.
Electronics 2021, 10, 1283 15 of 21
4.2. DC–DC Converter Tracers

Regarding the DC–DC converter-based tracers, Buck-boost, SEPIC, and Cuk converters
Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
are analyzed
in this subsection. For all these types of converters, elements with values16 of 22
that
ensure an output voltage of 1 p.u were used of the set of cells, to find only the difference in
power in each one (Figure 20).
Figure 20. Circuit for simulating tracers based on DC–DC

DC–DC converters.
converters.
Figure
Figure 20.
20. Circuit
Circuit for
for simulating
simulating tracers
tracers based
based on
on DC–DC converters.
Thus,
Thus,
Thus, inin the
in the Buck-boost converter,
the Buck-boost
Buck-boost converter,
converter, ititit is
is obtained
is obtained that
obtained that the
that the power
the power in
power in the
in the resistance
the resistance is
resistance is
is
0.13
0.13 p.u.,
0.13 p.u., the
p.u., the diode 0.16
the diode
diode 0.16 p.u.,
0.16 p.u., the
p.u., the inductor
the inductor 0.92
inductor 0.92 p.u.
0.92 p.u. and
p.u. and the
and the switching
the switching element
switching element 1.29
element 1.29 p.u.
1.29 p.u.
p.u.
The greater current, voltage, power, and temperature was found in
The greater current, voltage, power, and temperature was found in the switching element
The greater current, voltage, power, and temperature was found in the
the switching
switching element
element
(Figure 21a).
(Figure
(Figure 21a).
21a).
In
In the
the Cuk converter
Cuk
In the Cuk converter (Figure
converter (Figure 21b),
(Figure 21b), itit
21b), it is
is observed
is observed that
observed that the
that the element
the element that
element that dissipates
that dissipates the
dissipates the
the
most power
most power
most power is is the
is the switch
the switch with
switch with 0.98
with 0.98 p.u.,
0.98 p.u.,
p.u., andand
and inin the
in the case
the case of
case of SEPIC
of SEPIC (Figure
SEPIC (Figure 21c),
(Figure 21c), likewise,
21c), likewise,
likewise,
the
the switch
switch is
is the
the element
element that
that dissipates
dissipates moremore power,
power, in in this
this case,
case, 1.2
the switch is the element that dissipates more power, in this case, 1.2 p.u., and inductor1.2 p.u.,
p.u., andand inductor
inductor L1
L1
withwith
0.360.36
p.u.
L1 with 0.36 p.u. p.u.
(a)
(a)
Figure 21. Cont.
Electronics 2021,
Electronics 10, 1283
2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17
16 of 22
of 21
(b)
(c)
Figure
Figure 21.
21. Electrical
Electrical parameters
parameters in
in elements
elements of
of aa tracer:
tracer: (a)
(a) Buck-boost
Buck-boost converter;
converter; (b)
(b) Cuk
Cuk converter;
converter;
(c) SEPIC
(c) SEPIC converter.
converter.
5.
5. Discussion
Discussion
The topologies of
The topologies ofthe
theI–V
I–Vtracers
tracersanalyzed
analyzed inin this
this study
study areare
thethe most
most widely
widely usedused in
in the
the industry and they have evolved over the past 15 years. However, each has and
industry and they have evolved over the past 15 years. However, each has advantages ad-
vantages and disadvantages
disadvantages that make themthat make
unique for them unique
specific for specific
applications and forapplications
studies thatand for
require
obtaining certain electrical characteristics from PV generators (Table 1). To analyze
studies that require obtaining certain electrical characteristics from PV generators (Table the
advantages
1). and
To analyze thedisadvantages
advantages andof each topology, aofstudy
disadvantages eachistopology,
carried out on the
a study is parameters
carried out
that must be considered when choosing each topology.
on the parameters that must be considered when choosing each topology.
1. Comparison
Table 1.
Table Comparison of
of the
the advantages
advantages and
and disadvantages
disadvantages of
of the
the analyzed
analyzed I–V
I–V tracers’
tracers’ topologies.
topologies.
I–VTracer
Tracer Method Flexibility Modularity
Modularity Fidelity Cost Accuracy Sweep
Sweep Maximum Resolution
Maximum
I–V Method Flexibility Fidelity Cost Accuracy Speed Rating Resolution
Speed Rating
Resistive load
Resistive load Medium
Medium Medium
Medium Medium
Medium Low
Low Low
Low Low
Low Low
Low Low
Low
Capacitive load Low Low Medium High Medium Medium High Medium
Capacitive load
Electronic load
Low
High
Low
High
Medium
Medium
High
High
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
High
Low
Medium
Medium
Electronic
Bipolarload High High Medium High Medium Medium Low Medium
High High High High Medium Medium Low Medium
Bipolar
powerpower am-
amplifier
High High High High Medium Medium Low Medium
plifier
4-Quadrant
Low Low High High High High Low High
power supply
4-Quadrant power
DC–DC converter Low
High Low
High High
High High
Low High
High High
Medium Low
High High
High
supply
DC–DC converter High High High Low High Medium High High
One of the parameters that must be considered to analyze the application of the types
of tracers
One studied is the flexibility
of the parameters that for the be
must expansion of the
considered toequipment
analyze the or its design, because
application of the
types of tracers studied is the flexibility for the expansion of the equipmentthe
the variation of its configuration allows coupling to different conditions of orPV
its system.
design,
In this aspect,
because the DC–DC
the variation of itsconverters allowallows
configuration the greatest flexibility
coupling since conditions
to different its control can be
of the
Electronics 2021, 10, 1283 17 of 21
modified with different trip signals, their duty cycle, and power direction, with which most
of the I–V curve areas can be addressed. On the other hand, the capacitive load tracer is the
one that allows the least flexibility, since only the sweep time of the curve can be modified
according to the capacitance value used.
Another parameter is modularity, which allows the tracer to be expanded. In this
aspect, the electronic loads, the bipolar amplifier, and the DC–DC converters stand out,
because more channels can be added, and the constituent elements can be modified.
In this regard, the capacitive load and the four-quadrant source present difficulties for
its expansion.
Regarding the fidelity of the analyzed methods, the ones that deliver the most reliable
data are the DC–DC converters, the bipolar amplifier, and the four-quadrant source, because
they are the only ones that can reach real ISC values of the analyzed device.
Cost is also a factor to consider in any tracer. Thus, the resistive load tracer is the least
expensive, but is limited to low powers. On the other hand, both the electronic load and
the DC–DC converter have high costs due to the switching elements and coils that are
required for their operation.
The precision of the measurement is another parameter that must be considered, espe-
cially when working with cells where precise values of voltage and current are required. In
this, the four-quadrant source and the DC–DC converters stand out, due to the control that
they have over their operation and the algorithms existing in the bibliography. Electronic
loads and capacitive loads are less accurate, but this can be improved with the use of
robust ADCs.
Another important parameter is the sweep speed of the curve. In this, the four-
quadrant source stands out for the ease of voltage control. In this aspect, capacitive loads
can be very fast or very slow, depending on the charging time of the capacitor.
The maximum power is another important parameter since the applicability of the
tracer depends on different PV installations. In this, capacitive loads and DC–DC converters
stand out, which can be modified according to the installation requirement easily and
economically compared to other methods.
Finally, it is important to have as many as possible measurement points along the
curve to obtain a proper resolution. A greater number of points allows detailed studies to
be carried out on the state of the PV module. In this regard, the source of four-quadrants
and the DC–DC converter stands out.
Regarding DC–DC converters, it is necessary to analyze them separately, considering
their topologies, for their correct use. For this, [11] Table 2 presents a comparison of the
converter topologies. It is observed that in the case of efficiency, the Cuk and SEPIC
converters are better than the Buck-boost, which is inherent in their topology. In addition,
it is observed that the SEPIC converter uses a lower current MOSFET than other topologies,
which translates into a lower cost of implementation.
Table 2. Characteristics of different DC–DC converter topologies. Source [11], own elaboration.
Topology Inductor Input Capacitor Output Capacitor Power Mosfet Efficiency

Buck-boost High RMS current High capacitance High capacitance High current rating Very low
Cuk Low RMS current Low capacitance Low capacitance High current rating High
SEPIC Low RMS current Low capacitance High capacitance Low current rating High
Table 3 shows the results regarding the analysis carried out of the electrical parameters
in the I–V tracers. It is observed that in the case of the Buck-boost and SEPIC, the power
of the switching element is greater than in the Cuk. Furthermore, it is observed that in
the Buck-boost, the L1 inductance dissipates the highest power, which indicates that this
element must be dimensioned considering this particularly.
Electronics 2021, 10, 1283 18 of 21
Table 3. Per unit electrical parameters of the elements in tracers.
Tracer Element V I P
Variable resistance R 1 1 1
Electronic load MOSFET 1 1 0.98
Capacitive load C 1 1 -
L1 0.81 1 0.92
MOSFET 1.94 1 1.29
Buck-boost
D 1 0.59 0.16
C 0.68 0.53 -
L1 0.2 1 0.17
MOSFET 1.09 1 0.98
Cuk D 0.26 0.24 0.06
L2 0.89 0.01 0.01
C2 0.63 0.01 -
L1 0.38 0.365 0.36
C1 0.23 0.68 -
MOSFET 1.33 1 1.21
SEPIC
D 0.26 0.18 0.01
L2 1.11 0 0.06
C2 0.85 0.04 -
6. Conclusions
A study is presented on the existing topologies of I–V tracers, analyzing parameters
such as their flexibility, modularity, reliability, cost, precision, scanning speed, and res-
olution, as well as their advantages and disadvantages. The physical behavior of each
of the strategies presented has been explained. Additionally, an analysis is performed
on the power that each element dissipates in different topologies, to have a reference for
the selection of the elements within the circuit of a tracer. Possible challenges that the
operator may find in its use and design are also analyzed, focusing specifically on the
power dissipated by the electronic components of the equipment.
It is observed that the tracers based on a capacitive load are widely used in the industry,
due to their low cost and high sweep speed, so several commercial tracers which use this
topology can be found. However, the use of tracers based on DC–DC converters is a trend
due to their modularity, their precision, and the existence of these converters in MPPT
systems integrated in inverters, which is a technical advantage that can be exploited in
the future.
In the analysis of the dissipated power, it was observed that the variable resistance,
electronic load, and capacitive load tracers dissipate all the power of the module under
analysis, so this fact should be considered when it is necessary to carry out the complete
PV module string tracing. Regarding the DC–DC converter-based tracers, it was observed
that the switching element dissipates the greatest amount of power in all the topologies
studied. As for the Buck-boost converter, the second element to consider is the inductor,
which dissipates a 0.92 p.u. module power. The dissipated power has a direct impact on
the tracer design, since it has a relationship with the equipment’s cooling system and it
limits the element’s lifetime.
Authors consider that the trend of actual measurement systems is to advance in three
ways. On the one hand, it is necessary to have low-cost measurement systems. On the
other hand, online measurements are very interesting, since they will allow measurement
without disconnection of PV modules from the string. In addition, the measurements must
be accompanied by low-cost communication systems, which allow data to be transmitted
and synchronized in PV systems.
Electronics 2021, 10, 1283 19 of 21
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.H.-C., J.I.M.-A., and M.D.-S.; methodology, L.H.-C.,

J.I.M.-A., and M.D.-S.; software, J.I.M.-A., S.G.-S. and M.D.-S.; validation, L.H.-C., J.I.M.-A., V.A.-G.,
S.G.-S., L.G.G., and M.D.-S.; investigation, L.H.-C., J.I.M.-A., and M.D.-S.; writing—original draft
preparation, L.H.-C., J.I.M.-A., V.A.-G., S.G.-S., L.G.G., and M.D.-S.; writing—review and editing,
L.H.-C., J.I.M.-A., V.A.-G., S.G.-S., L.G.G., and M.D.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the “Ministerio de Industria, Economía y Competitividad”
grant number “RTC-2017-6712-3” with name “Desarrollo de herramientas Optimizadas de operaCión
y manTenimientO pRedictivo de Plantas fotovoltaicas—DOCTOR-PV”.
Data Availability Statement: The data are confidential.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank the CYTED Thematic Network “INTELLIGENT CITIES
FULLY INTEGRAL, EFFICIENT AND SUSTAINABLE (CITIES)” nº 518RT0558.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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electronics

Academic Editors: Hassan

Electronics 2021, 10, 1283. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10111283 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Figure 5. Equivalent model of a PV generator. Source [14], own elaboration.

Electronics 2021, 10, 1283 3. I–V Tracers’ Topologies 6 of 21

Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 22

3.3. Electronic Load Tracer

3.3. Electronic Load Tracer

3.4. Bipolar Power Amplifier Tracer

Quadrant III Quadrant IV

4. Electrical Considerations in I–V Tracers

Electronics 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22

I-V curve 2.0W

4.2. DC–DC Converter

4.2. DC–DC Converter Tracers

Figure 20. Circuit for simulating tracers based on DC–DC

Topology Inductor Input Capacitor Output Capacitor Power Mosfet Efficiency

Table 3. Per unit electrical parameters of the elements in tracers.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.H.-C., J.I.M.-A., and M.D.-S.; methodology, L.H.-C.,

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