4.

1 The structure of the atom

Atoms
In Stage B you learnt that atorns are so small that you cannot see them without using
the most powerful microscopes yet invented. The word'atom' comes from a Greek
word that means 'cannot be split'.
AII the atoms in a particular element are the same. Different elements have different
atoms. For example the atoms in sodium are all the same as one another. They are
different from the atoms in potassium.
neutron
';;:l?'t*t i:: art *,,11{,:. t]i1<,*7
electron proton
Scientists har,'e discovered that atoms are made up of even
smaller particles. Atoms are made up ol three kinds of
particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.
These particles are arranged in a similar lr,al- in ever1, 21s-.
The protons and neutrons are grouped closelr'together
in the centre of the atom. They form the nucleus of the empty
atom. (Take care not to conluse the nucleus of a cell with space
the nucleus of an atom!)
n ucleus of
The electrons mo\-e around the nucleus. the atom path that electrons
The three different particles in an atom have follow
different properties. An atom of helium.
. Protons and neutrons have much more mass than electrons.
In fact, electrons have almost no mass at all.
. Protons have a positive electricai charge.
. Neutrons have no electrical charge.
. Electrons have a negatirre electrical charge.
There is a lot of empty space betw'een the parts of the atom. This space realiy is
completelv empty there is nothing in it at all.

Questions
7 \\rhich particle in an atom has a positive electrical charge?
2 \\'hich of the three particles that make up an atom has the smallest mass?
3 \\'hich particles make up the nucleus of an arom?
4 The size of the negative charge of an electron is exactll,the same as the size
ol tl-re positive charge ol a proron. \vhat is the overall charge of thc helium
.rlrrnr shou.n in thc diagram?

How did scientists €ome up with this model of the atom?

Scientists from different parts of the world have worked on a number of different
ideas that have led to the model of the atom which we use today

,'- . a Britrsl'r scientist calledJ.J. Thompson discovered the clectron. His

tbr the arom \\'as that the different parts of the atom were scattered throughout
rcrure.

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 4:-rhe structure of the atom (@

lr:.e of Thompson's research students originalll.came from positively

\err Zealand. His name was Ernest Rutherford. Rutherford charged
-liscor.ered the proton in 1909 and the nucleus in 191 1 .
matter
R-r-rtherford's most famous experiment r,r.as the gold fbil
tsperiment.
L'r this experiment Rutherford fired fast-moving particles
smaller than an atom - at very thin gold foil. NIost of the
particles passed straight through the foil. Onl.v a feu'ol these Thompson's modelof the atom.
particles (about 1 in 8000) r'vere deflected in various directions.
'Deflected' means that their direction r,r'as changed.) This led
Rutherford to harre the idea that gold atoms must be mostlv
empty space, rvith their particles packed into a dense nucleus at
tire centre. This helped to mol'e towards the model of the atom
\\'e use today.
gotd foit
\

particle source 7
rare particle
particles that have
passed through the foit Ernest Rutherford.

bounces back
particle dectector
Rutherford's gold foit experiment.

James Chadwick worked with Rutherford and Thompson. In

1932, he proved that neutrons exist.

The stories of these men show how scientists from all over the
world work together and develop their ideas. Each scientist
buiids on the discoveries of others. These scientists won Nobel
prizes for their work. Their experiments and ideas have helped
us to understand the structure of the atom.

There is still a lot that we do not know about atoms. Scientists

continue to work to improve our understanding of the structure
of the atom. For example, scientists from all over the world
are using the Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland to further Tunnel in the Large
understand the structure of matter. Hadron Co[[ider.

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 .2 I -

More about the structure

-t

Sifferemt ssrts of atorns

In Stage B you learnt about the first 20 elements and their symbols in the Periodic
Table. Now you will learn more about the structure of the atoms of these elements.
metats
tal atomic number 2
T--f- l, He
i non-metats rvoi,ie.n I I mass number
4
helium

) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N o F Ne
lithium beryllium boron carbon n itroge n oxygen fluorine neon
7 9 77 72 14 t6 79 20
77 72 t3 74 75 76 L7 18
Na Mg AI Si P S CI Ar
sod ium si lico n ^L^^^L^ su lfu r chlorine argon
23 24 )-7 28 37 j2 35 4o
79 20
K Ca
rotassi u n calcium
39 4o

. The atoms of the elements increase in mass as you progress from left to right and
downwards in the Periodic Table. For example, an atom of hydrogen has less mass
than an atom of sodium.
. Each element has an atornic nurnber. This tells you how many protons it
contains. The atomic number increases by one with every element.
. Each element has a rnass nurnber. This tells you how many protons and neutrons
each atom in the element has in total.
. Protons have a positive charge. Electrons have a negative charge.
. An atom has no overall charge, because the number of protons is the same as the
number of electrons.
Lct's take lithium as an example. The atomic number
. tells you how many
Atomic number = 3
protons there are.
. NIass number = 7
. Number of protons = 3
. Number ol electrons = 3
. Number of neutrons = ?
The mass number tetls
you how many protons
The mass number tells you that for lithium the number of plus neutrons there are.
protons and neutrons is seven. We knorv there are three protons
so \\re can lr,ork out that there are four neutrons.
first
&:rx*gZ*g t$'r * *&ectror* s. electron
The clectrons are arranged in electron shells or orbits around shell
rhe nucleus. This is the electronic structure. The first shell n ucleus
has onlr room for t-rvo electrons. The second and third shells
racf i have loom for up to eight electrons. A Danish scientist
second
calle c1 -\ie ls Bohr first had the idea that the electrons move irr electron
cliiiire nr .irclls irrolrnd the nucleus. He rvas ar,varded a Nobel shell
prize 1c,r his rr r-rrk. A lithium atom.

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 4.2 More about the structure of the atom (@
L,rok carefullv at the diagrams as the irtoms get bigger.

O Beryllium.
T1're arrangement
Boron. Ca rbon.

of electrons in an atom is often u-r'itten as numbers. For ex;rrlplc.

ihe electron arrangement fbr an atom of boron can bc r,vrittcn as 2,3. This means
rhere are turo electrons in the lirst shell and threc in thc ncxt shell. The {irst shell
ahr.ays {ills up beforc electrons go into the second shell.

Questions
1 How many electrons are there in an atom of carbon?
2 How many protons are there in an atom of beryllium?
You will need to look at the Periodic Table to answer the following questions.
J How many neutrons are there in an atom of boron?
/1 Draw a diagram to show the structure of an atom of magnesium.
! What is the name of the element that has electrons arranged 2,8,2?
6 Draw a labelled atomic diagram of the element fluorine.

In this activiw,vou rvill build a model of an atom of a particular element.

1 Cut a circle olcard about 6cm diameter, this r,vill act as the base fbr the nucleus. string
2 Cut out enoush smail circles of about 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter to represent
tu.ice the number ol protons in red coloured paper or card, and trvice the electron
number o{'neutrons in blue coloured card. Stick these onto both sides of
the nucleus. ca rd

3 Cut out concentric rinss of card to represent the shells ol electrons.

The circles should be about 2 cm rvide. proton
4 Cut out small circles. in green coloured papel to represent tr,vice the
neutron
number ol electrons. Stick these on both sides of the appropriate rine.
Assemble thc model as shorrn in the diagram. N{ake a label for your atom.

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$ffi 4.3 Trends in GrCIup t
{* : * z; * x*. {n ;:,: i r*. 4i t. 7'*,?.*'z;*
! r z ?? z

In Stagc B you iearnt that the columns

Group r
in the Periodic Table are called groups.
(atkali metats)
The first group, also know'n as the alkali
rnetals, includes the elements lithium,
sodium and potassium. These elements
hare some properties in common.
The table belou, contains data about
three of the metals in Group 1.

Element Atomic number Mass number Melting point/oC Boiting point / oC

lithium, Li 317 r8o r35o

sodium, Na 77 23 98 900
i potassium, K 10 i9 6l 777

As you can see, the atomic number increases as you go down the group. The mass
number also increases as you go down the group. These increasing numbers show you
that the size of the atom is increasing.
When you look at the melting points you can see that they go down as you go down
the group. The next metal down in the group is rubidium. We can predict it would
have a melting point lower than 63 oC.

Questions
! Where in the Periodic Table do you find the metals?
2 What is the trend shown in the boiling points of Group I elements?
3 What prediction can you make about the boiling point of rubidium?
4 How many more electrons than lithium does an atom of sodium have?

Your teacher will demonstrate the reactions of lithium, sodium and potassium
lvith rvater. The three elements are stored in a particular way and your teacher
rvill cut a small piece of the metal to react in a trough (bowl) of water. \{atch
carefully and record your obsen ations.

Ar Describe the safety precautions your teacher took.

Az Describe rvhat you sarv happen rvhen each of the metals reacted lvith the water.
A3 \\-rite the r,r,ord equation for each reaction.
A4 \\-hat similarities do vou notice about the reactions of these metais?
A5 \\'hat differences do you notice about the reactions of these metals?
A5 Lr.. .;rt ploperties that these elements share.
A7 \,..i-)' ,,''hr. the nert element in this group) rubidium, is not used in schools.

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 4.3 Trends in Group r

:"::* *?.rt*<.zr:*'* *t LIe. i=iilqilr i *\"*ffi**?"*

Lithium has an atomic number of 3 and a mass numbcr of 7. 'fhis atom contains
.ltree protons, 3 electrons and 4 nelrtrolls. The electrons arc arranged as 2,1. This
.lrlangement of electrons is knor'r,n as the electronic structure.
Sodium has an atomic number of 11 and a mass number of 23. This atom contains
i I protons, 1i electrons and 12 neutrons. The electrons are arranged as 2,8,1.
Potassium has an atomic number of l9
and a mass number of 39.
This atom contains 19 protons, 19 electrons and 20 neutrons.
The electrons are arranged as 2,8,8,1.

Lithium atom. Sodium atom. Potassium atom.

Questions
5 What happens to the size of the atoms as you go dowTr this group?
(G 6 What similarity is there in the structure of these atoms? (Hint: look at the
electron shell arrangements.)
T Suggest why this group of metals is called Group 1.

re 8 What are the trends in the structure and behaviour of these elements in
Group 1?

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 in some other groups

*r*xry z * ??z*?a*9*gx*z
The group you are going to look at next is
Group 7. This group is sometimes called
Group 7
the halogens. The group includes fluorine,
(hatogens)
chlorine and bromine.
The elements in Group 7 have a number of
properties in common. The first two elements
are gases at room temperature and bromine is
a liquid. The most reactive of these elements
is fluorine, then chlorine. Bromine is the least
reactive ol the three.

Atomic number Electronic Colour & Boiling

point / oC
structure
fluorine, F 9 2,7 79 pale yellow -220 -r88
chlorine, Cl 77 2,8,7 35 yetlowish -101 -34
green
bromine, Br 35 2,8,78,7 8o brown -7 59

Questions
1 Are the halogens metals or non-metals?
2 What is the trend (pattern) in melting points of this group?
J !\rhat is the trend in boiling points in this group?

ffi
(B
/1 What is the trend in colour in this group?
J What would you predict about the boiling and melting points of
iodine, the next element in this group?
6 Would you expect iodine to be more or less reactive than bromine?
T** x{r+axl*r* *{ €{x*rZ.** x** **1xr2** *?r*r**.
Fluorine has an atomic number of 9 and a mass number
of 19. This atom contains 9 protons, 9 electrons and 10
neutrons. The electrons are arranged as 2,7 .
Chlorine has an atomic number of 17 and a mass number
of 35. This atom contains l7 protons, l7 electrons and 1B
neutrons. The electrons are arranged as 2,8,7 . Fluorine.

(B 7 \\.hat happens to the size of the atoms as

(B 8
vou go down this group?
\\-hat similariry is there in the structure of
riresc atoms? (Hint: look at the electron
shc11 arrangements.)
C& 9 5.rr'le st rr ln' this group is called Group 7.
Chlorine.

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 4.4 Trends in some other sroups (@

*r*zsp * * t** **b{* €eses Group 8

Group B includes the elements hclium, (noble gases)
neon and argon. They are all uases. They
are inert (unreactive) and do not fbrm
compounds. They are called noble gases.

Element Atomic number Electronic structure Mass number Melting point/"C Boiling point/oC
hetium, He 2 2 4 -270 -269
neon, Ne 10 218 20 -249 -246
argon, Ar r8 2,8,8 4o -189 -r86
Helium has an atomic number of 2
and a mass number of 4. This atom
contains 2 protons, 2 electrons and 2
neutrons. The electrons are arranged
with 2 in the first sheII. The shell is full.
Helium.
Neon has an atomic number of 10 and a
mass number of 20. This atom contains
l0 protons, 10 electrons and 10 neutrons
The electrons are arranged with 2 in the
first shell and B in the second shell. The
outer shell is full.
Argon has an atomic number of 18 Neon.
and a mass number of 40. This atom
contains I B protons, 1B electrons and
22 neutrons. The electrons are arranged
with 2 in the first shell and B in the
second and third shells. The outer shell
is full.
Argon.
Questions
10 What trend in melting points can be seen in Group B?
T+f! 11 What happens to the size of the atoms as you go down Group B?
'+*t{ 12 What similarity is there in the structure of these atoms?
b*r I 1J Suggest why this group is called Group B.

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4.7 The table shows some information about four elements. These elements are
from the same group in the Periodic Table. They are given in the same order
as in the Periodic Table.

oC
Etement Melting point/oC Boiting point /
lithium r8o 7342 Fizzes (gives off bubbtes of
gas) and gives ofl heat

sodium 88t

potassium 6t Fizzes and gives off so much

heat it catches fire
rubidium 39 688 Explodes with such force that
the container cracks

1'here is a trend in the melting and boiling points of these elements. Use the trend
to prcdict thc folior,r,ing:
E the melting point of sodium tll
b the boiling point of potassium. trl
C The elements all react u-ith r'vater to produce a gas.
Name the gas. tll
d Use the information about the reaction rvith $,ater to predict the reaction
betrveen sodium and \\'ater. tll
€ The lollorving are the mass numbers ol the lbur elements in the tablc above.
They represent the relatir.e size ol the atoms.

N,Iatch the numbcrs with the elements. tll

Lithium has 2 clcctron shells. The electronic structure is 2.1. This can be scen
in the diasram belor,ri

Sodiurn has the electronic structure 2,8, i. Draw a similar diagram to shou'
the electronic structure of' sodium. t3l

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 4 End of unit questions (@i

4.2 Many scientists contributed to the model of the atom that is shown in the diagram below.
a Copy the diagram and label it using the following words:
electron nucleus proton neutron

t4l
Name the particle that:
b has a positir-e charse tll
C has no charge
t1l
d has the least mass
l1l
€ is present in the same numbers as the protons in an atorn.
t1l

4.3 d Neon is a noble gas. It has the elecrronic srructlu.e 2.8.

\{hich of the diagrams, A, B, C or D, shor,r,s tire electronic srr-r_rcture ol neon?

tll
b Hor.v manr. prorons does the atom of neon have? t1l

Neon is in Group B of the Periodic Table. other sases in this group are helium
and argon.
c The elements in Group B are sometimes cailed the noble or inert gases.
Helium has oniy one she1l of electrons, neon has two and argon has three.
\Vhat do the shells of this eroup have in common? tll
d How are elements in Group B dill'erent from all other elements in the
Periodic Table? t1l

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