Untitled

Kyle Michael Sy Geotechnical Engineering January 29, 2021
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Table of Contents
Soil’s Weight and Volume Relationship 3
Weight-Volume Relationships 3
Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture Content and Specific Gravity Relationships 3
Relative Density 3
Plasticity and Structure of Soil 4
Mechanical Analysis of Soil 4
Consistency of Soils 4
Soil Classification 4
Soil Compaction 4
Laboratory Compaction Test 4
Permeability 4
Head and Pore Water Pressure 4
Darcy’s Law 4
Relationships for Coefficient of Permeability 5
Permeability Tests 5
Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil 5
Seepage 5
Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net 5
Uplift Force Under a Hydraulic Structure 6
Stresses, Strains, and Elastic Deformation of Soils 7
Normal Stresses and Strains 7
Shear Stresses and Strains 7
Uniaxial Loading 7
Shear Stresses and Strains 7
Stresses on Inclined Plane 7
Mohr’s Circle 8
In Situ Stresses: Geostatic Stresses 8
Saturated Soil without Seepage 8
Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage 8
Saturated Soil with Downward Seepage 9
Safety of Hydraulic Structures 9
Piping or Heaving 9
Capillarity 10
Induced Stresses 11
Stress Caused by a Point Load 11
Vertical Stress Caused by a Vertical Line Load 11
Vertical Stress Caused by a Horizontal Line Load 12
Vertical Stress Caused by a Vertical Strip Load 12
Linear Increasing Vertical Loading on an Infinite Strip 15
Vertical Stress due to Embankment Loading 15
1 https://www.facebook.com/CompleteFormulas
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Vertical Stress Below the Center of a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area 16
Vertical Stress at any Point Below a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area 16
Vertical Stress Caused by a Rectangularly Loaded Area 19
Approximate Method for Rectangular Loads 21
Vertical Stress Below Arbitrarily Shaped Areas 21
(Newark Method) 21
Shear Strength 21
Frictional Strength 21
Cohesive Strength 21
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion 21
Laboratory Tests for Determination of Shear Strength Parameters 22
Compressibility 23
Elastic Settlement 23
Consolidation Settlement 29
Time Rate of Consolidation 31
Lateral Earth Pressure 32
At-Rest Lateral Earth Pressure 32
Active Earth Pressure 33
Passive Earth Pressure 34
Factor of Safety 35
Other Tables 35
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Soil’s Weight and Volume Relationship
Weight-Volume Relationships
𝑽𝒔 is the volume of soil solids.
Total Volume of Soil Sample Void Ratio
𝑽𝒗 is the volume of voids.
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑣 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑤 + 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑣 𝑽𝒘 is the volume of water in the voids.
𝑒=
𝑉𝑠 𝑽𝒂 is the volume of air in the voids.
𝑾 is the total weight of the soil sample.
Sample Weight (Negligible air) Porosity
𝑾𝒔 is the weight of soil solids.
𝑊 = 𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑤 𝑉𝑣 𝑾𝒘 is the weight of water.
𝑛=
𝑉 𝜸𝒘 is the unit weight of water.
𝝆𝒘 is the density of water.
Degree of Saturation
𝑴𝒘 is the mass of water.
𝑉𝑤 𝐷𝑟𝑦: 𝑉𝑤 = 0
𝑆= × 100% { 𝑴𝒔 is the mass of soil solids.
𝑉𝑣 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑: 𝑉𝑤 = 𝑉𝑣 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 is the saturated unit weight.
Relationship between e and n Specific Gravity Moisture Content

𝑒 𝑛 𝑊𝑠 𝑀𝑠 𝑊𝑤 𝑀𝑤
𝑛= 𝑒= 𝐺𝑠 = = 𝑤= × 100% = × 100%
1+𝑒 1−𝑛 𝑉𝑠 × 𝛾𝑤 𝑉𝑠 × 𝜌𝑤 𝑊𝑠 𝑀𝑠
Moist/Bulk Unit Weight Dry Unit Weight Submerged (Buoyant) Relationship Between 𝛾,
𝑊 𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑤 𝑊𝑠 Unit Weight 𝛾𝑑 , and 𝑤
𝛾= = 𝛾𝑑 = 𝛾
𝑉 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑣 𝑉 𝛾 ′ = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑑 =
1+𝑤
Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture Content and Specific Gravity Relationships
Solid Weight Water Weight Moist/Bulk Unit Weight
𝑊𝑠 = 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 𝑊𝑤 = 𝑤𝑊𝑠 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 (1 + 𝑤)𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑊 𝛾𝑤 (𝑆𝑒 + 𝐺𝑠 )
𝛾= = = (1 + 𝑤)𝛾𝑑
1+𝑒 1+𝑒
Dry Unit Weight Void Ratio Water Volume Degree of Saturation Saturated Unit Weight
𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 𝑉𝑤 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠 𝑉𝑤 𝑤𝐺𝑠 (𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒)𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑑 = 𝑒= −1 𝑆= = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
1+𝑒 𝛾𝑑 𝑉𝑣 𝑒 1+𝑒
𝑆𝑒 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠
Relative Density
Relative Density Relative Compaction 𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 is the max void ratio (very loose soil).
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒 𝛾𝑑 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒏 is the min void ratio (very dense soil).
𝐷𝑟 = × 100% 𝑅𝑐 = 𝜸𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒙 is the dry unit weight in the densest
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥
condition (at a void ratio of 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒏).
𝜸𝒅𝒎𝒊𝒏 is the dry unit weight in the loosest
In terms of Dry Unit Weight
condition (at a void ratio of 𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙).
𝛾𝑑 − 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛾𝑑
𝐷𝑟 = × 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜸𝒅 is the in-situ dry unit weight (at a void
𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛾𝑑 ratio of 𝒆).
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Plasticity and Structure of Soil
Mechanical Analysis of Soil
Uniformity Coefficient Coefficient of Curvature
𝑫𝟏𝟎 , 𝑫𝟑𝟎 , 𝑫𝟔𝟎 are the diameters in the grain-
𝐷60 (𝐷30 )2 size distribution curve corresponding to 10%
𝐶𝑢 = 𝐶𝑐 =
𝐷10 𝐷60 × 𝐷10 finer, 30% finer, and 60% finer, respectively.
Consistency of Soils
Plasticity Index Activity 𝑳𝑳 is the liquid limit.
𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐼 𝑷𝑳 is the plastic limit.
𝐴= 𝒘 is the in-situ moisture
Liquidity Index
% 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 − 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
content of soil.
𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿 𝑭𝟐𝟎𝟎 is the percentage
𝐿𝐼 = passing through the No.
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿
200 sieve.
Soil Classification 𝑷𝑰 is the plasticity index.
Group Index
𝐺𝐼 = (𝐹200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(𝐿𝐿 − 40)] + 0.01(𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)
Group Index for A-2-6 and A-2-7
𝐺𝐼 = 0.01(𝐹200 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)
Soil Compaction
Laboratory Compaction Test
Moist Unit Weight of Compaction Dry Unit Weight when S = 1
𝑊 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤
𝛾= 𝛾𝑧𝑎𝑣 = 𝑽𝒎 is the volume of the mold.
𝑉𝑚 1 + 𝑤𝐺𝑠
Permeability
Head and Pore Water Pressure 𝑨 is the cross-sectional area.
Flow Rate Total Head Total Head (Soil and Rock) 𝒗 is the discharge velocity.
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣 ℎ = ℎ𝑧 + ℎ𝑝 + ℎ𝑣 ℎ = ℎ𝑧 + ℎ 𝑝 𝒉𝒛 is the elevation head.
𝒉𝒑 is the pressure head.
Hydraulic Gradient Porewater Pressure Hydrostatic Pore 𝒉𝒗 is the velocity head.
𝑑ℎ 𝛥ℎ 𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑝 Water Pressure 𝒅𝒉 is the change in total heads.
𝑖= = 𝒅𝒍 is the distance the water travels.
𝑑𝑙 𝛥𝑙 𝑢ℎ = 𝛾𝑞 𝑧𝑤
𝜸𝒘 is the unit weight of water.
𝒛𝒘 is the depth from groundwater
Darcy’s Law
table to the point being considered.
Discharge Velocity Discharge Seepage Velocity 𝒌 is the hydraulic conductivity.
𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖 𝑞 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 𝑣 𝑘𝑖 𝒏𝒆 is the effective porosity. 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛
𝑣𝑠 = =
𝑛𝑒 𝑛𝑒 for sandy soil. 𝑛𝑒 = 0.1 for clayey
soils (if no test data available).
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Relationships for Coefficient of Permeability
Hydraulic Conductivity of Granular Soils Hydraulic Conductivity of Cohesive Soils
Hazen (1930) Samarasinghe (1982)
𝑐𝑚 𝑒𝑛
𝑘 ( ) = 𝑐 × (𝐷10 )2 𝑘 = 𝐶( )
𝑠 1+𝑒
Chapuis (2004)
0.7825 𝑪 and 𝒏 are constants to be
𝑐𝑚 𝑒 3 × (𝐷10 )2 determined experimentally.
𝑘 ( ) = 2.4622 [ ]
𝑠 1+𝑒
𝒄 is a constant that varies from 1.0 to 1.5.

𝑫𝟏𝟎 is the effective size in mm.
Permeability Tests
Constant-Head Test Falling-Head Test
𝑄𝐿 𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘= 𝑘 = 2.303 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
ℎ𝐴𝑡 𝐴𝑡 ℎ2
𝑸 is the volume of water collected. 𝒂 is the cross-sectional area of the standpipe.
𝑨 is the area of cross-section of the soil specimen. 𝑨 is the area of cross-section of the soil specimen.
𝒕 is the duration of water collection. 𝒕 is the time required for the head to drop from
𝑳 is the length of specimen. 𝒉𝟏 to 𝒉𝟐 .
𝒉 is the difference in head. 𝑳 is the length of specimen.
𝒉 is the difference in head.
Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil
Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity
in the Horizontal Direction in the Vertical Direction
∑ 𝑘ℎ𝑖 𝐻𝑖 ∑ 𝐻𝑖
𝑘ℎ(𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣.) = 𝑘𝑣(𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣.) =
∑ 𝐻𝑖 𝐻
∑( 𝑖 )
𝑘𝑣𝑖
Seepage
Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net
Potential/Head Drop 𝑯 is the head difference between the upstream
𝐻 and downstream sides.
ℎ1 − ℎ2 = ℎ2 − ℎ3 = ℎ3 − ℎ4 = ⋯ = 𝑵𝒅 is the number of potential drops.
𝑁𝑑
𝑵𝒇 is the number of channels in a flow net.
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Flow Rate
Single Flow Channel All Channels (Not Rectangular)
ℎ1 − ℎ2 𝐻 𝐻
𝑞 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 = 𝑘 ( ) 𝑙1 = 𝑘 𝑞=𝑘 𝑁 ∙𝑛
𝑙1 𝑁𝑑 𝑁𝑑 𝑓
All Channels (Rectangular) 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
𝐻 = = =⋯=𝑛
𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3
𝑞=𝑘 𝑁
𝑁𝑑 𝑓
Uplift Force Under a Hydraulic Structure

Calculate Uplift Pressure at any Point J
Total Head at j Procedure
𝐻𝑗 = 𝐻 − (𝑁𝑑 )𝑗 𝛥ℎ 1. Start a convenient datum (example: downstream water level).
2. Determine the total head at j.
Pressure Head 3. Subtract the elevation head at point j from the total head to
(ℎ𝑝 )𝑗 = 𝐻 − (𝑁𝑑 )𝑗 𝛥ℎ − ℎ𝑧 get the pressure head.
If hz is below the datum, hz is negative.
Pore Water Pressure If hz is above the datum, hz is positive.
𝑢𝑗 = (ℎ𝑝 )𝑗 𝛾𝑤 If there is no seepage, hz is the height to the free-water table.
4. Calculate pore water pressure.
Uplift Force 5. Calculate uplift force per unit length due to groundwater
flow.
𝑃𝑤 = ∑ 𝑢𝑗 𝛥𝑥𝑗
𝑯 is the head at the upstream level

𝚫𝒉 is the head loss between each potential drop.
(𝑵𝒅 )𝒋 is the number of potential drops at point j.
𝒉𝒛 is the elevation head.
𝒖𝒋 is the average pore water pressure over an interval 𝚫𝒙𝒋 .
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Stresses, Strains, and Elastic Deformation of Soils
Normal Stresses and Strains Shear Stresses and Uniaxial Loading
Normal Stress Normal Strain Strains Change in Radial Strain
𝑃𝑥 𝛥𝑥 Shear Stress Vertical Stress 𝛥𝑟
𝜎𝑥 = 𝜀𝑥 = 𝛥𝑃 𝛥𝜀𝑟 =
𝑦𝑧 𝑥 𝐹 𝑟𝑜
𝜏= 𝛥𝜎𝑧 =
𝛥𝑦 𝑥𝑦 𝐴
𝑃𝑦 Poisson’s Ratio
𝜎𝑦 = 𝜀𝑦 = Vertical Strain
𝑥𝑧 𝑦 Shear Strain −𝛥𝜀𝑟
𝛥𝑧 𝜈=
𝑃𝑧 𝛥𝑧 𝛥𝑥 𝛥𝜀𝑧 = 𝛥𝜀𝑧
𝜎𝑧 = 𝜀𝑧 = 𝛾𝑧𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝐻𝑜
𝑥𝑦 𝑧 𝑧
Small Shear Strains 𝑯𝒐 is the original length.
𝛥𝑥 𝒓𝒐 is the original radius.
𝛾𝑧𝑥 =
𝑧
Shear Stresses and Strains
Shear Stress Shear Strain Small Shear Strains
𝐹 −1
𝛥𝑥 γzx =
Δx
𝜏= 𝛾𝑧𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 z
𝑥𝑦 𝑧
Stresses on Inclined Plane

Oriented from Horizontal Plane
Normal Stress on a Plane Shear Stress on a Plane
𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥
𝜎𝑛 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 𝜏𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃
2 2 2
Inclination of Plane
2𝜏𝑥𝑧
𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝜃 =
𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥
Maximum Normal/Major Principal Stress Maximum Shear Stress
𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥 2 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥 2
𝜎1 = √
+ ( 2
) + 𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 √
=± ( 2
) + 𝜏𝑥𝑧
2 2 2
Minimum Normal/Minor Principal Stress 𝜎1 − 𝜎3

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ±
2
𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥 2
𝜎3 = − √( 2
) + 𝜏𝑥𝑧
2 2
Oriented from Principal Planes

Normal Stress Shear Stress
𝜎1 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝜎𝑛 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 𝜏𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃
2 2 2
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Mohr’s Circle
Center of the Circle Radius of the Circle Maximum Normal Stress Minimum Normal Stress
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑧 𝜎1 = 𝐶 + 𝑅 𝜎3 = 𝐶 − 𝑅
𝐶= 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥 2
2 √
𝑅= ( 2
) + 𝜏𝑥𝑧
2
In Situ Stresses: Geostatic Stresses

Effective Stress
𝜎′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢
Saturated Soil without Seepage

𝜸𝒘 is the unit weight of
Total Stress at A water.
𝜎 = 𝐻𝛾𝑤 + (𝐻𝐴 − 𝐻)𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 is the saturated unit
weight of soil.
Porewater Pressure at A
𝑯 is the height of water
𝑢 = 𝐻𝐴 𝛾𝑤 table from the top of the
soil column.
Effective Stress at A
𝑯𝑨 is the distance
𝜎 ′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢 = (𝐻𝐴 − 𝐻)(𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 ) between point A and the
water table.
Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage
Critical Hydraulic Gradient
𝛾 ′ 𝐺𝑠 − 1 ′
𝑖𝑐𝑟 = = (𝜎𝑐 = 0)
𝛾𝑤 1+𝑒
At A
Total Stress
𝜎𝐴 = 𝐻1 𝛾𝑤
Porewater Pressure
𝑢𝐴 = 𝐻1 𝛾𝑤
Effective Stress
𝜎𝐴′ = 𝜎𝐴 − 𝑢𝐴 = 0
At B
Total Stress
𝜎𝐵 = 𝐻1 𝛾𝑤 + 𝐻2 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡
Porewater Pressure
𝑢𝐵 = (𝐻1 + 𝐻2 + ℎ)𝛾𝑤
Effective Stress
𝜎𝐵′ = 𝐻2 (𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 ) − ℎ𝛾𝑤
= 𝐻2 𝛾 ′ − ℎ𝛾𝑤
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Saturated Soil with Downward Seepage
Seepage Force
𝑖𝑧𝛾𝑤 𝐴
Seepage Force Per Unit Volume
𝑖𝛾𝑤
At A
Total Stress
𝜎𝐴 = 𝐻1 𝛾𝑤
Porewater Pressure
𝑢𝐴 = 𝐻1 𝛾𝑤
Effective Stress
𝜎𝐴′ = 𝜎𝐴 − 𝑢𝐴 = 0
At B
Total Stress
𝜎𝐵 = 𝐻1 𝛾𝑤 + 𝐻2 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡
Porewater Pressure
𝑢𝐵 = (𝐻1 + 𝐻2 − ℎ)𝛾𝑤
Effective Stress
𝜎𝐵′ = 𝐻2 (𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 ) + ℎ𝛾𝑤
= 𝐻2 𝛾 ′ + ℎ𝛾𝑤
Safety of Hydraulic Structures

Piping or Heaving
Originates When
𝑖 ≥ 𝑖𝑐𝑟
𝑾 is the submerged weight of soil in the
Critical Hydraulic Gradient
heave zone per unit length of sheet pile.
𝛾 ′ 𝐺𝑠 − 1 ′ 𝑼 is the uplifting force caused by seepage
𝑖𝑐𝑟 = = (𝜎𝑐 = 0)
𝛾𝑤 1+𝑒 on the same volume of soil.
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Factor of Safety
Avg. Pressure Head Average Hydraulic Gradient Submerged Weight
ℎ𝑎 + 2ℎ𝑏 ℎ𝑠 𝐷2 𝛾 ′
ℎ1 = 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 𝑊=
3 𝐷 2
ℎ𝑎 = 𝐻𝑇 − (𝛥ℎ)𝑎 Uplifting Force F.S. Against Heaving
2 𝑊
𝐷 𝐷 𝛾𝑤 𝑖𝑎𝑣
ℎ𝑏 = 𝐻𝑇 − (𝛥ℎ)𝑏 𝑈 = 𝐴𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑠 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑠 = 𝐹𝑆 = >3
2 2 𝑈
Actual Seepage
Submerged Weight 𝐷𝛾 ′ 𝛾′ 𝑖𝑐𝑟
Pressure Head 𝐹𝑆 = = =
𝐷2 𝛾 ′ ℎ𝑠 𝛾𝑤 𝑖𝑎𝑣 𝛾𝑤 𝑖𝑎𝑣
ℎ𝑠 = ℎ1 − ℎ2 𝑊=
2
Procedure
1. Estimate the average pressure head 𝒉𝟏 at point P along the base (a-b) of the soil prism of unit
thickness.
2. Determine the actual seepage pressure head 𝒉𝒔 to be dissipated through the soil prism.
3. Estimate the uplifting force, U.
4. Calculate the submerged weight of the soil prism.
5. Calculate the factor of safety.
Terzaghi’s Method D/T 𝐂𝟎 Harza’s Method

Factor of Safety 0.1 0.385 Factor of Safety
′
𝐷𝛾 0.2 0.365 𝑖𝑐𝑟
𝐹𝑆 = 0.3 0.359
𝐹𝑆 =
𝐶𝑜 𝛾𝑤 (𝐻1 − 𝐻2 ) 𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡
0.4 0.353
Variation of 𝐶𝑜 with D/T 0.5 0.347 Maximum Exit Gradient
0.6 0.339
𝛥ℎ 𝐻
𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = =
0.7 0.327 𝐿 𝑁𝑑 𝐿
0.8 0.309 Dams over Homogeneous Deposits
0.9 0.274 𝐶ℎ
𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 =
𝐵
Capillarity
Capillary Rise for Sand & Silt
0.15
ℎ𝑐 =
𝐷10
Porewater Pressure
Fully Saturated Soil
𝑢 = −𝛾𝑤 ℎ
Partial Saturation
𝑆
𝑢 = −( )𝛾 ℎ
100 𝑤
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Induced Stresses
Stress Caused by a Point Load
Boussinesq’s Equation for Stress Increase Variation of 𝐼1 for Various Values of 𝑟/𝑧
𝒓/𝒛 𝑰𝟏 𝒓/𝒛 𝑰𝟏 𝒓/𝒛 𝑰𝟏
𝑃 2 𝑃𝐼1 0 0.4775 0.36 0.3521 1.80 0.0129
𝛥𝜎𝑧 = 5 = 0.02 0.4770 0.38 0.3408 2.00 0.0085
𝑧2 𝑧2
𝑟 2 2 0.04 0.4765 0.40 0.3294 2.20 0.0058
2𝜋 + 1]
{ [(𝑧) } 0.06 0.4723 0.45 0.3011 2.40 0.0040
0.08 0.4699 0.50 0.2733 2.60 0.0029
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 0.10 0.4657 0.55 0.2466 2.80 0.0021
0.12 0.4607 0.60 0.2214 3.00 0.0015
𝐿 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = √𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2
0.14 0.4548 0.65 0.1978 3.20 0.0011
0.16 0.4482 0.70 0.1762 3.40 0.00085
0.18 0.4409 0.75 0.1565 3.60 0.00066
0.20 0.4329 0.80 0.1386 3.80 0.00051
0.22 0.4242 0.85 0.1226 4.00 0.00040
0.24 0.4151 0.90 0.1083 4.20 0.00032
0.26 0.4050 0.95 0.0956 4.40 0.00026
0.28 0.3954 1.00 0.0844 4.60 0.00021
0.30 0.3849 1.20 0.0513 4.80 0.00017
0.32 0.3742 1.40 0.0317 5.00 0.00014
0.34 0.3632 1.60 0.0200
Vertical Stress Caused by a Vertical Line Load
Vertical Stress Increase 𝛥𝜎
Variation of 𝑞⁄𝑧𝑧 with 𝑥/𝑧
2𝑞𝑧 3 2𝑞 𝒙⁄𝒛 𝚫𝝈𝒛 ⁄(𝒒⁄𝒛) 𝒙⁄𝒛 𝚫𝝈𝒛 ⁄(𝒒⁄𝒛)
𝛥𝜎𝑧 = = 2
𝜋(𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 )2 𝑥 2 0 0.637 1.3 0.088
𝜋𝑧 [( 𝑧 ) + 1] 0.1 0.624 1.4 0.073
0.2 0.589 1.5 0.060
𝛥𝜎𝑧 2
= 0.3 0.536 1.6 0.050
𝑞 ⁄𝑧 2
𝑥 2 0.4 0.473 1.7 0.042
𝜋 [( 𝑧 ) + 1]
0.5 0.407 1.8 0.035
0.6 0.344 1.9 0.030
0.7 0.287 2.0 0.025
0.8 0.237 2.2 0.019
0.9 0.194 2.4 0.014
1.0 0.159 2.6 0.011
1.1 0.130 2.8 0.008
1.2 0.107 3.0 0.006
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Vertical Stress Caused by a Horizontal Line Load
Vertical Stress Increase Variation of
𝛥𝜎𝑧
with 𝑥/𝑧
𝑞 ⁄𝑧
2
2𝑞𝑥𝑧 𝒙⁄𝒛 𝚫𝝈𝒛 ⁄(𝒒⁄𝒛) 𝒙⁄𝒛 𝚫𝝈𝒛 ⁄(𝒒⁄𝒛)
𝛥𝜎𝑧 =
𝜋(𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 )2 0 0 0.7 0.201
0.1 0.062 0.8 0.189
𝛥𝜎𝑧 2𝑥𝑧 3
= 0.2 0.118 0.9 0.175
𝑞⁄𝑧 𝜋(𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 )2 0.3 0.161 1.0 0.159
0.4 0.189 1.5 0.090
0.5 0.204 2.0 0.051
0.6 0.207 3.0 0.019
Vertical Stress Caused by a Vertical Strip Load
Vertical Stress Increase
𝐵
2𝑞 2 𝑧3
𝛥𝜎𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝜎𝑧 = ∫ ( ) { } 𝑑𝑟
−
𝐵 𝜋 [(𝑥 − 𝑟)2 + 𝑧 2 ]2
2
2 𝐵22
𝑞 𝑧 𝑧 𝐵𝑧 [𝑥 − 𝑧 − ]
4
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ ] − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ ]−
𝜋 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵2
2
𝑥− 𝑥+ [𝑥 + 𝑧 − 4 ] + 𝐵2 𝑧 2 }
2 2
{ 2 2
Variation of Δ𝜎𝑧 /𝑞 with 2𝑧/𝐵 and 2𝑥/𝐵 (0-1)

𝟐𝒙⁄𝑩
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0.0 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.000
0.1 1.000 1.000 0.999 0.999 0.999 0.998 0.997 0.993 0.980 0.909 0.500
0.2 0.997 0.997 0.996 0.995 0.992 0.988 0.979 0.959 0.909 0.775 0.500
0.3 0.990 0.989 0.987 0.984 0.978 0.967 0.947 0.908 0.833 0.697 0.499
0.4 0.977 0.976 0.973 0.966 0.955 0.937 0.906 0.855 0.773 0.651 0.498
0.5 0.959 0.958 0.953 0.943 0.927 0.902 0.864 0.808 0.727 0.620 0.497
0.6 0.937 0.935 0.928 0.915 0.008 0.866 0.825 0.767 0.691 0.598 0.495
0.7 0.910 0.908 0.899 0.885 0.863 0.831 0.788 0.732 0.662 0.581 0.492
0.8 0.881 0.878 0.869 0.853 0.829 0.797 0.755 0.701 0.638 0.566 0.489
𝟐𝒛 𝑩
0.9 0.850 0.847 0.837 0.821 0.797 0.765 0.724 0.675 0.617 0.552 0.485
⁄
1.0 0.818 0.815 0.805 0.789 0.766 0.735 0.006 0.650 0.598 0.540 0.480
1.1 0.787 0.783 0.774 0.758 0.735 0.706 0.670 0.628 0.580 0.529 0.474
1.2 0.755 0.752 0.743 0.728 0.707 0.679 0.646 0.607 0.564 0.517 0.468
1.3 0.725 0.722 0.714 0.699 0.679 0.654 0.623 0.588 0.548 0.506 0.462
1.4 0.006 0.693 0.685 0.672 0.653 0.630 0.602 0.569 0.534 0.495 0.455
1.5 0.668 0.666 0.658 0.646 0.629 0.607 0.581 0.552 0.519 0.484 0.448
1.6 0.642 0.639 0.633 0.621 0.605 0.586 0.562 0.535 0.506 0.474 0.440
1.7 0.617 0.615 0.608 0.598 0.583 0.565 0.544 0.519 0.492 0.463 0.433
1.8 0.593 0.591 0.585 0.576 0.563 0.546 0.526 0.504 0.479 0.453 0.425
CEGEOEN 4th Update
1.9 0.571 0.569 0.564 0.555 0.543 0.528 0.510 0.489 0.467 0.443 0.417
2.0 0.550 0.548 0.543 0.535 0.524 0.510 0.494 0.475 0.455 0.433 0.409
2.1 0.530 0.529 0.524 0.517 0.507 0.494 0.479 0.462 0.443 0.423 0.401
2.2 0.511 0.510 0.506 0.499 0.490 0.479 0.465 0.449 0.432 0.413 0.393
2.3 0.494 0.493 0.489 0.483 0.474 0.464 0.451 0.437 0.421 0.404 0.385
2.4 0.477 0.476 0.473 0.467 0.460 0.450 0.438 0.425 0.410 0.395 0.378
2.5 0.462 0.461 0.458 0.452 0.445 0.436 0.426 0.414 0.400 0.386 0.370
2.6 0.447 0.446 0.443 0.439 0.432 0.424 0.414 0.403 0.390 0.377 0.363
2.7 0.433 0.432 0.430 0.425 0.419 0.412 0.403 0.393 0.381 0.369 0.355
2.8 0.420 0.419 0.417 0.413 0.407 0.400 0.392 0.383 0.372 0.360 0.348
2.9 0.408 0.407 0.405 0.401 0.396 0.389 0.382 0.373 0.363 0.352 0.341
3.0 0.396 0.395 0.393 0.390 0.385 0.379 0.372 0.364 0.355 0.345 0.334
3.1 0.385 0.384 0.382 0.379 0.375 0.369 0.363 0.355 0.347 0.337 0.327
3.2 0.374 0.373 0.372 0.369 0.365 0.360 0.354 0.347 0.339 0.330 0.321
3.3 0.364 0.363 0.362 0.359 0.355 0.351 0.345 0.339 0.331 0.323 0.315
3.4 0.354 0.354 0.352 0.350 0.346 0.342 0.337 0.331 0.324 0.316 0.308
3.5 0.345 0.345 0.343 0.341 0.338 0.334 0.329 0.323 0.317 0.310 0.302
3.6 0.337 0.336 0.335 0.333 0.330 0.326 0.321 0.316 0.310 0.304 0.297
3.7 0.328 0.328 0.327 0.325 0.322 0.318 0.314 0.309 0.304 0.298 0.291
3.8 0.320 0.320 0.319 0.317 0.315 0.311 0.307 0.303 0.297 0.292 0.285
3.9 0.313 0.313 0.312 0.310 0.307 0.304 0.301 0.002 0.291 0.286 0.280
4.0 0.306 0.305 0.304 0.303 0.301 0.298 0.294 0.290 0.285 0.280 0.275
4.1 0.299 0.299 0.298 0.002 0.294 0.291 0.288 0.284 0.280 0.275 0.270
4.2 0.292 0.292 0.291 0.290 0.288 0.285 0.282 0.278 0.274 0.270 0.265
4.3 0.286 0.286 0.285 0.283 0.282 0.279 0.276 0.273 0.269 0.265 0.260
4.4 0.280 0.280 0.279 0.278 0.276 0.274 0.271 0.268 0.264 0.260 0.256
4.5 0.274 0.274 0.273 0.272 0.270 0.268 0.266 0.263 0.259 0.255 0.251
4.6 0.268 0.268 0.268 0.266 0.265 0.263 0.260 0.258 0.254 0.251 0.247
4.7 0.263 0.263 0.262 0.261 0.260 0.258 0.255 0.253 0.250 0.246 0.243
4.8 0.258 0.258 0.257 0.256 0.255 0.253 0.251 0.248 0.245 0.242 0.239
4.9 0.253 0.253 0.252 0.251 0.250 0.248 0.246 0.244 0.241 0.238 0.235
5.0 0.248 0.248 0.247 0.246 0.245 0.244 0.242 0.239 0.237 0.234 0.231
Variation of Δ𝜎𝑧 /𝑞 with 2𝑧/𝐵 and 2𝑥/𝐵 (1.1-2)

𝟐𝒙⁄𝑩
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
0.0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.1 0.091 0.020 0.007 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000
0.2 0.225 0.091 0.040 0.020 0.011 0.007 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.002
𝟐𝒛 𝑩
⁄
0.3 0.301 0.165 0.090 0.052 0.031 0.020 0.013 0.009 0.007 0.005
0.4 0.346 0.224 0.141 0.090 0.059 0.040 0.027 0.020 0.014 0.011
0.5 0.373 0.267 0.185 0.128 0.089 0.063 0.046 0.034 0.025 0.019
CEGEOEN 4th Update
0.6 0.391 0.298 0.222 0.163 0.120 0.088 0.066 0.050 0.038 0.030
0.7 0.403 0.321 0.250 0.193 0.148 0.113 0.087 0.068 0.053 0.042
0.8 0.411 0.338 0.273 0.218 0.173 0.137 0.108 0.086 0.069 0.056
0.9 0.416 0.351 0.291 0.239 0.195 0.158 0.128 0.104 0.085 0.070
1.0 0.419 0.360 0.305 0.256 0.214 0.177 0.147 0.122 0.101 0.084
1.1 0.420 0.366 0.316 0.271 0.230 0.194 0.164 0.138 0.116 0.098
1.2 0.419 0.371 0.325 0.282 0.243 0.209 0.178 0.152 0.130 0.111
1.3 0.417 0.373 0.331 0.291 0.254 0.221 0.191 0.166 0.143 0.123
1.4 0.414 0.374 0.335 0.298 0.263 0.232 0.203 0.177 0.155 0.135
1.5 0.411 0.374 0.338 0.303 0.271 0.240 0.213 0.188 0.165 0.146
1.6 0.407 0.373 0.339 0.307 0.276 0.248 0.221 0.197 0.175 0.155
1.7 0.402 0.370 0.339 0.309 0.281 0.254 0.228 0.205 0.183 0.164
1.8 0.396 0.368 0.339 0.311 0.284 0.258 0.234 0.212 0.191 0.172
1.9 0.391 0.364 0.338 0.312 0.286 0.262 0.239 0.217 0.197 0.179
2.0 0.385 0.360 0.336 0.311 0.288 0.265 0.243 0.222 0.203 0.185
2.1 0.379 0.356 0.333 0.311 0.288 0.267 0.246 0.226 0.208 0.190
2.2 0.373 0.352 0.330 0.309 0.288 0.268 0.248 0.229 0.212 0.195
2.3 0.366 0.347 0.327 0.307 0.288 0.268 0.250 0.232 0.215 0.199
2.4 0.360 0.342 0.323 0.305 0.287 0.268 0.251 0.234 0.217 0.202
2.5 0.354 0.337 0.320 0.302 0.285 0.268 0.251 0.235 0.220 0.205
2.6 0.347 0.332 0.316 0.299 0.283 0.267 0.251 0.236 0.221 0.207
2.7 0.341 0.327 0.312 0.2% 0.281 0.266 0.251 0.236 0.222 0.208
2.8 0.335 0.321 0.307 0.293 0.279 0.265 0.250 0.236 0.223 0.210
2.9 0.329 0.316 0.303 0.290 0.276 0.263 0.249 0.236 0.223 0.211
3.0 0.323 0.311 0.299 0.286 0.274 0.261 0.248 0.236 0.223 0.211
3.1 0.317 0.306 0.294 0.283 0.271 0.259 0.247 0.235 0.223 0.212
3.2 0.311 0.301 0.290 0.279 0.268 0.256 0.245 0.234 0.223 0.212
3.3 0.305 0.2% 0.286 0.275 0.265 0.254 0.243 0.232 0.222 0.211
3.4 0.300 0.291 0.281 0.271 0.261 0.251 0.241 0.231 0.221 0.211
3.5 0.294 0.286 0.277 0.268 0.258 0.249 0.239 0.229 0.220 0.210
3.6 0.289 0.281 0.273 0.264 0.255 0.246 0.237 0.228 0.218 0.209
3.7 0.284 0.276 0.268 0.260 0.252 0.243 0.235 0.226 0.217 0.208
3.8 0.279 0.272 0.264 0.256 0.249 0.240 0.232 0.224 0.216 0.207
3.9 0.274 0.267 0.260 0.253 0.245 0.238 0.230 0.222 0.214 0.206
4.0 0.269 0.263 0.256 0.249 0.242 0.235 0.227 0.220 0.212 0.205
4.1 0.264 0.258 0.252 0.246 0.239 0.232 0.225 0.218 0.211 0.203
4.2 0.260 0.254 0.248 0.242 0.236 0.229 0.222 0.216 0.209 0.202
4.3 0.255 0.250 0.244 0.239 0.233 0.226 0.220 0.213 0.207 0.200
4.4 0.251 0.246 0.241 0.235 0.229 0.224 0.217 0.211 0.205 0.199
4.5 0.247 0.242 0.237 0.232 0.226 0.221 0.215 0.209 0.203 0.197
4.6 0.243 0.238 0.234 0.229 0.223 0.218 0.212 0.207 0.201 0.195
4.7 0.239 0.235 0.230 0.225 0.220 0.215 0.210 0.205 0.199 0.194
4.8 0.235 0.231 0.227 0.222 0.217 0.213 0.208 0.202 0.197 0.192
CEGEOEN 4th Update
4.9 0.231 0.227 0.223 0.219 0.215 0.210 0.205 0.200 0.195 0.190
5.0 0.227 0.224 0.220 0.216 0.212 0.207 0.203 0.198 0.193 0.188
Linear Increasing Vertical Loading on an Infinite Strip
𝑞 2𝑥
𝛥𝜎𝑧 = ( 𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝛿)
2𝜋 𝐵
Variation of Δ𝜎𝑧 /𝑞 with 2𝑥/𝐵 and 2𝑧/𝐵

𝟐𝒛/𝑩
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0
-3 0 0.0003 0.0018 0.0005 0.0107 0.0170 0.0235 0.0347 0.0422
-2 0 0.0008 0.0053 0.0140 0.0249 0.0356 0.0448 0.0567 0.0616
-1 0 0.0041 0.0217 0.0447 0.0643 0.0777 0.0854 0.0894 0.0858
0 0 0.0748 0.1273 0.1528 0.1592 0.1553 0.1469 0.1273 0.1098
𝟐𝒙/𝑩
1 0.5 0.4797 0.4092 0.3341 0.2749 0.2309 0.1979 0.1735 0.1241

2 0.5 0.4220 0.3524 0.2952 0.2500 0.2148 0.1872 0.1476 0.1211
3 0 0.0152 0.0622 0.1010 0.1206 0.1268 0.1258 0.1154 0.1026
4 0 0.0019 0.0119 0.0285 0.0457 0.0005 0.0691 0.0775 0.0776
5 0 0.0005 0.0035 0.0097 0.0182 0.0274 0.0358 0.0482 0.0546
Vertical Stress due to Embankment Loading Osterberg’s chart
𝜸 is the unit weight of the embankment soil.

𝑯 is the height of the embankment.

𝑞𝑜 𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐵1
𝛥𝜎𝑧 = [( ) (𝛼1 + 𝛼2 ) − 𝛼2 ]
𝜋 𝐵2 𝐵2
𝑞𝑜 = 𝛾𝐻
𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐵1
𝛼1 (𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑧 𝑧
𝐵1
𝛼2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑧
𝛥𝜎𝑧 = 𝑞𝑜 𝐼2
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Vertical Stress Below the Center of a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area
1
𝛥𝜎𝑧 = 𝑞 {1 − 3}
((𝑅⁄𝑧)2 + 1)2
Variation of 𝜎𝑧 /𝑞 with 𝑧/𝑅
𝒛/𝑹 𝝈𝒛 /𝒒 𝒛/𝑹 𝝈𝒛 /𝒒
0 1 1.0 0.6465
0.02 0.9999 1.5 0.4240
0.05 0.9998 2.0 0.2845
0.10 0.9990 2.5 0.1996
0.2 0.9925 3.0 0.1436
0.4 0.9488 4.0 0.0869
0.5 0.9106 5.0 0.0571
0.8 0.7562
Vertical Stress at any Point Below a Uniformly Loaded

Circular Area
𝑨′ and 𝑩′ are functions of 𝑧/𝑅 and 𝑟/𝑅.

𝛥𝜎𝑧 = 𝑞(𝐴′ + 𝐵′ )
Variation of 𝐴′ with 𝑧/𝑅 and 𝑟/𝑅 (0-2)

𝒓/𝑹
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.5 2
0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 0 0 0
0.1 0.90050 0.89748 0.88679 0.86126 0.78797 0.43015 0.09645 0.02787 0.00856
0.2 0.80388 0.79824 0.77884 0.73483 0.63014 0.38269 0.15433 0.05251 0.01680
0.3 0.71265 0.70518 0.68316 0.62690 0.52081 0.34375 0.17964 0.07199 0.02440
0.4 0.62861 0.62015 0.59241 0.53767 0.44329 0.31048 0.18709 0.08593 0.03118
0.5 0.55279 0.54403 0.51622 0.46448 0.38390 0.28156 0.18556 0.09499 0.03701
0.6 0.48550 0.47691 0.45078 0.40427 0.33676 0.25588 0.17952 0.10010
𝒛/𝑹
0.7 0.42654 0.41874 0.39491 0.35428 0.29833 0.21727 0.17124 0.10228 0.04558
0.8 0.37531 0.36832 0.34729 0.31243 0.26581 0.21297 0.16206 0.10236
0.9 0.33104 0.32492 0.30669 0.27707 0.23832 0.19488 0.15253 0.10094
1 0.29289 0.28763 0.27005 0.24697 0.21468 0.17868 0.14329 0.09849 0.05185
1.2 0.23178 0.22795 0.21662 0.19890 0.17626 0.15101 0.12570 0.09192 0.05260
1.5 0.16795 0.16552 0.15877 0.14804 0.13436 0.11892 0.10296 0.08048 0.05116
2 0.10557 0.10453 0.10140 0.09647 0.09011 0.08269 0.07471 0.06275 0.04496
CEGEOEN 4th Update
2.5 0.07152 0.07098 0.06947 0.06698 0.06373 0.05974 0.05555 0.04880 0.03787
3 0.05132 0.05101 0.05022 0.04886 0.04707 0.04487 0.04241 0.03839 0.03150
4 0.02986 0.02976 0.02907 0.02802 0.02832 0.02749 0.02651 0.02490 0.02193
5 0.01942 0.01938 0.01835 0.01573
6 0.01361 0.01307 0.01168
7 0.01005 0.00976 0.00894
8 0.00772 0.00755 0.00703
9 0.00612 0.00600 0.00566
10 0.00477 0.00465
Variation of 𝐴 with 𝑧/𝑅 and 𝑟/𝑅 (3-14)
′
𝒓/𝑹
3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.1 0.00211 0.00084 0.00042
0.2 0.00419 0.00167 0.00083 0.00048 0.00030 0.00020
0.3 0.00622 0.00250
0.4
0.5 0.01013 0.00407 0.00209 0.00118 0.00071 0.00053 0.00025 0.00014 0.00009
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1 0.01742 0.00761 0.00393 0.00226 0.00143 0.00097 0.00050 0.00029 0.00018
𝒛/𝑹
1.2 0.01935 0.00871 0.00459 0.00269 0.00171 0.00115

1.5 0.02142 0.01013 0.00548 0.00325 0.00210 0.00141 0.00073 0.00043 0.00027
2 0.02221 0.01160 0.00659 0.00399 0.00264 0.00180 0.00094 0.00056 0.00036
2.5 0.02143 0.01221 0.00732 0.00463 0.00308 0.00214 0.00115 0.00068 0.00043
3 0.01980 0.01220 0.00770 0.00505 0.00346 0.00242 0.00132 0.00079 0.00051
4 0.01592 0.01109 0.00768 0.00536 0.00384 0.00282 0.00160 0.00099 0.00065
5 0.01249 0.00949 0.00708 0.00527 0.00394 0.00298 0.00179 0.00113 0.00075
6 0.00983 0.00795 0.00628 0.00492 0.00384 0.00299 0.00188 0.00124 0.00084
7 0.00784 0.00661 0.00548 0.00445 0.00360 0.00291 0.00193 0.00130 0.00091
8 0.00635 0.00554 0.00472 0.00398 0.00332 0.00276 0.00189 0.00134 0.00094
9 0.00520 0.00466 0.00409 0.00353 0.03301 0.00256 0.00184 0.00133 0.00096
10 0.00438 0.00397 0.00352 0.00326 0.00273 0.00241
Variation of 𝐵 ′ with 𝑧/𝑅 and 𝑟/𝑅 (0-2)
𝒓/𝑹
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.5 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.1 0.09852 0.10140 0.11138 0.13424 0.18796 0.05388 -0.07899 -0.02672 -0.00845
𝒛/𝑹
0.2 0.18857 0.19306 0.20772 0.23524 0.25983 0.08513 -0.07759 -0.04448 -0.01593
0.3 0.26362 0.26787 0.28018 0.29483 0.27257 0.10757 -0.04316 -0.04999 -0.02166
CEGEOEN 4th Update
0.4 0.32016 0.32259 0.32748 0.32273 0.26925 0.12404 -0.00766 -0.04535 -0.02522
0.5 0.35777 0.35752 0.35323 0.33106 0.26236 0.13591 0.02165 -0.03455 -0.02651
0.6 0.37831 0.37531 0.36308 0.32822 0.25411 0.14440 0.04457 -0.02101
0.7 0.38487 0.37962 0.36072 0.31929 0.24638 0.14986 0.06209 -0.00702 -0.02329
0.8 0.38091 0.37408 0.35133 0.30699 0.23779 0.15292 0.07530 0.00614
0.9 0.36962 0.36275 0.33734 0.29299 0.22891 0.15404 0.08507 0.01795
1 0.35355 0.34553 0.32075 0.27819 0.21978 0.15355 0.09210 0.02814 -0.01005
1.2 0.31485 0.30730 0.28481 0.24836 0.20113 0.14915 0.10002 0.04378 0.00023
1.5 0.25602 0.25025 0.23338 0.20694 0.17368 0.13732 0.10193 0.05745 0.01385
2 0.17889 0.18144 0.16644 0.15198 0.13375 0.11331 0.09254 0.06371 0.02836
2.5 0.12807 0.12633 0.12126 0.11327 0.10298 0.09130 0.07869 0.06022 0.03429
3 0.09487 0.09394 0.09099 0.08635 0.08033 0.07325 0.06551 0.05354 0.03511
4 0.05707 0.05666 0.05562 0.05383 0.05145 0.04773 0.04532 0.03995 0.03066
5 0.03772 0.03760 0.03384 0.02474
6 0.02666 0.02468 0.01968
7 0.01980 0.01868 0.01577
8 0.01526 0.01459 0.01279
9 0.01212 0.01170 0.01054
10 0.00924 0.00879
Variation of 𝐵 ′ with 𝑧/𝑅 and 𝑟/𝑅 (3-14)
𝒓/𝑹
3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.1 -0.00210 -0.00084 -0.00042
0.2 -0.00412 -0.00166 -0.00083 -0.00024 -0.00015 -0.00010
0.3 -0.00599 -0.00245
0.4
0.5 -0.00991 -0.00388 -0.00199 -0.00116 -0.00073 -0.00049 -0.00025 -0.00014 -0.00009
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
𝒛/𝑹
1 -0.01115 -0.00608 -0.00344 -0.00210 -0.00135 -0.00092 -0.00048 -0.00028 -0.00018

1.2 -0.00995 -0.00632 -0.00378 -0.00236 -0.00156 -0.00107
1.5 -0.00669 -0.00600 -0.00401 -0.00265 -0.00181 -0.00126 -0.00068 -0.00040 -0.00026
2 0.00028 -0.00410 -0.00371 -0.00278 -0.00202 -0.00148 -0.00084 -0.00050 -0.00033
2.5 0.00661 -0.00130 -0.00271 -0.00250 -0.00201 -0.00156 -0.00094 -0.00059 -0.00039
3 0.01112 0.00157 -0.00134 -0.00192 -0.00179 -0.00151 -0.00099 -0.00065 -0.00046
4 0.01515 0.00595 0.00155 -0.00029 -0.00094 -0.00109 -0.00094 -0.00068 -0.00050
5 0.01522 0.00810 0.00371 0.00132 0.00013 -0.00043 -0.00070 -0.00061 -0.00049
6 0.01380 0.00867 0.00496 0.00254 0.00110 0.00028 -0.00037 -0.00047 -0.00045
7 0.01204 0.00842 0.00547 0.00332 0.00185 0.00093 -0.00002 -0.00029 -0.00037
8 0.01034 0.00779 0.00554 0.00372 0.00236 0.00141 0.00035 -0.00008 -0.00025
CEGEOEN 4th Update
9 0.00888 0.00705 0.00533 0.00386 0.00265 0.00178 0.00066 0.00012 -0.00012
10 0.00764 0.00631 0.00501 0.00382 0.00281 0.00199
Vertical Stress Caused by a Rectangularly Loaded Area
Vertical Stress below the Corner of a Uniformly Loaded Flexible Rectangular Area
𝐵 𝐿
3𝑞𝑧 3 (𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦)
𝛥𝜎𝑧 = ∫ 𝑑𝜎𝑧 = ∫ ∫ 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )5⁄2
= 𝑞𝐼3
𝑦=0 𝑥=0 2𝜋(𝑥
1 2𝑚𝑛√𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 1 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 2 −1
2𝑚𝑛√𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 1
𝐼3 = [ ( ) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 2 )]
4𝜋 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 𝑚2 𝑛2 + 1 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 1 𝑚 + 𝑛2 − 𝑚2 𝑛2 + 1
𝐵 𝐿
𝑚= 𝑛=
𝑧 𝑧
Variation of 𝐼3 with 𝑚 and 𝑛 (0-1)
m
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0.1 0.0047 0.0092 0.0132 0.0168 0.0198 0.0222 0.0242 0.0258 0.0270 0.0279
0.2 0.0092 0.0179 0.0259 0.0328 0.0387 0.0435 0.0474 0.0504 0.0528 0.0547
0.3 0.0132 0.0259 0.0374 0.0474 0.0559 0.0629 0.0686 0.0731 0.0766 0.0794
0.4 0.0168 0.0328 0.0474 0.0602 0.0711 0.0801 0.0873 0.0931 0.0977 0.1013
0.5 0.0198 0.0387 0.0559 0.0711 0.0840 0.0947 0.1034 0.1104 0.1158 0.1202
0.6 0.0222 0.0435 0.0629 0.0801 0.0947 0.1069 0.1168 0.1247 0.1311 0.1361
0.7 0.0242 0.0474 0.0686 0.0873 0.1034 0.1169 0.1277 0.1365 0.1436 0.1491
0.8 0.0258 0.0504 0.0731 0.0931 0.1104 0.1247 0.1365 0.1461 0.1537 0.1598
0.9 0.0270 0.0528 0.0766 0.0977 0.1158 0.1311 0.1436 0.1537 0.1619 0.1684
1.0 0.0279 0.0547 0.0794 0.1013 0.1202 0.1361 0.1491 0.1598 0.1684 0.1752
n
1.2 0.0293 0.0573 0.0832 0.1063 0.1263 0.1431 0.1570 0.1684 0.1777 0.1851
1.4 0.0301 0.0589 0.0856 0.1094 0.1300 0.1475 0.1620 0.1739 0.1836 0.1914
1.6 0.0306 0.0599 0.0871 0.1114 0.1324 0.1503 0.1652 0.1774 0.1874 0.1955
1.8 0.0309 0.0606 0.0880 0.1126 0.1340 0.1521 0.1672 0.1797 0.1899 0.1981
2.0 0.0311 0.0610 0.0887 0.1134 0.1350 0.1533 0.1686 0.1812 0.1915 0.1999
2.5 0.0314 0.0616 0.0895 0.1145 0.1363 0.1548 0.1704 0.1832 0.1938 0.2024
3.0 0.0315 0.0618 0.0898 0.1150 0.1368 0.1555 0.1711 0.1841 0.1947 0.2034
4.0 0.0316 0.0619 0.0901 0.1153 0.1372 0.1560 0.1717 0.1847 0.1954 0.2042
5.0 0.0316 0.0620 0.0901 0.1154 0.1374 0.1561 0.1719 0.1849 0.1956 0.2044
6.0 0.0316 0.0620 0.0902 0.1154 0.1374 0.1562 0.1719 0.1850 0.1957 0.2045
Variation of 𝐼3 with 𝑚 and 𝑛 (1.2-6)
m
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
0.1 0.0293 0.0301 0.0306 0.0309 0.0311 0.0314 0.0315 0.0316 0.0316 0.0316
0.2 0.0573 0.0589 0.0599 0.0606 0.0610 0.0616 0.0618 0.0619 0.0620 0.0620
n
0.3 0.0832 0.0856 0.0871 0.0880 0.0887 0.0895 0.0898 0.0901 0.0901 0.0902
CEGEOEN 4th Update
0.4 0.1063 0.1094 0.1114 0.1126 0.1134 0.1145 0.1150 0.1153 0.1154 0.1154
0.5 0.1263 0.1300 0.1324 0.1340 0.1350 0.1363 0.1368 0.1372 0.1374 0.1374
0.6 0.1431 0.1475 0.1503 0.1521 0.1533 0.1548 0.1555 0.1560 0.1561 0.1562
0.7 0.1570 0.1620 0.1652 0.1672 0.1686 0.1704 0.1711 0.1717 0.1719 0.1719
0.8 0.1684 0.1739 0.1774 0.1797 0.1812 0.1832 0.1841 0.1847 0.1849 0.1850
0.9 0.1777 0.1836 0.1874 0.1899 0.1915 0.1938 0.1947 0.1954 0.1956 0.1957
1.0 0.1851 0.1914 0.1955 0.1981 0.1999 0.2024 0.2034 0.2042 0.2044 0.2045
1.2 0.1958 0.2028 0.2073 0.2103 0.2124 0.2151 0.2163 0.2172 0.2175 0.2176
1.4 0.2028 0.2102 0.2151 0.2184 0.2206 0.2236 0.2250 0.2260 0.2263 0.2264
1.6 0.2073 0.2151 0.2203 0.2237 0.2261 0.2294 0.2309 0.2320 0.2323 0.2325
1.8 0.2103 0.2183 0.2237 0.2274 0.2299 0.2333 0.2350 0.2362 0.2366 0.2367
2.0 0.2124 0.2206 0.2261 0.2299 0.2325 0.2361 0.2378 0.2391 0.2395 0.2397
2.5 0.2151 0.2236 0.2294 0.2333 0.2361 0.2401 0.2420 0.2434 0.2439 0.2441
3.0 0.2163 0.2250 0.2309 0.2350 0.2378 0.2420 0.2439 0.2455 0.2461 0.2463
4.0 0.2172 0.2260 0.2320 0.2362 0.2391 0.2434 0.2455 0.2472 0.2479 0.2481
5.0 0.2175 0.2263 0.2324 0.2366 0.2395 0.2439 0.2460 0.2479 0.2486 0.2489
6.0 0.2176 0.2264 0.2325 0.2367 0.2397 0.2441 0.2463 0.2482 0.2489 0.2492
Vertical Stress below the Center of a Rectangular Area
𝛥𝜎𝑧 = 𝑞𝐼4
2 𝑚𝑛 1 + 𝑚2 + 2𝑛2 −1
𝑚
𝐼4 = [ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ]
𝜋 √1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 (1 + 𝑛2 )(𝑚2 + 𝑛2 ) √𝑚2 + 𝑛2 √1 + 𝑛2
𝐿 𝑧 𝐵
𝑚= 𝑛= 𝑏 =
𝐵 𝑏 2
Variation of 𝐼4 with 𝑚1 and 𝑛1
𝑚1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.20 0.994 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997
0.40 0.960 0.976 0.977 0.977 0.977 0.977 0.977 0.977 0.977 0.977
0.60 0.892 0.932 0.936 0.936 0.937 0.937 0.937 0.937 0.937 0.937
0.80 0.800 0.870 0.878 0.880 0.881 0.881 0.881 0.881 0.881 0.881
1.00 0.701 0.800 0.814 0.817 0.818 0.818 0.818 0.818 0.818 0.818
1.20 0.606 0.727 0.748 0.753 0.754 0.755 0.755 0.755 0.755 0.755
1.40 0.522 0.658 0.685 0.692 0.694 0.695 0.695 0.696 0.696 0.696
𝑛1
1.60 0.449 0.593 0.627 0.636 0.639 0.640 0.641 0.641 0.641 0.642
1.80 0.388 0.534 0.573 0.585 0.590 0.591 0.592 0.592 0.593 0.593
2.00 0.336 0.481 0.525 0.540 0.545 0.547 0.548 0.549 0.549 0.549
3.00 0.179 0.293 0.348 0.373 0.384 0.389 0.392 0.393 0.394 0.395
4.00 0.108 0.190 0.241 0.269 0.285 0.293 0.298 0.301 0.302 0.303
5.00 0.072 0.131 0.174 0.202 0.219 0.229 0.236 0.240 0.242 0.244
6.00 0.051 0.095 0.130 0.155 0.172 0.184 0.192 0.197 0.200 0.202
CEGEOEN 4th Update
7.00 0.038 0.072 0.100 0.122 0.139 0.150 0.158 0.164 0.168 0.171
8.00 0.029 0.056 0.079 0.098 0.113 0.125 0.133 0.139 0.144 0.147
9.00 0.023 0.045 0.064 0.081 0.094 0.105 0.113 0.119 0.124 0.128
10.00 0.019 0.037 0.053 0.067 0.079 0.089 0.097 0.103 0.108 0.112
Approximate Method for Rectangular Loads
𝑃 𝑞𝑠 𝐵𝐿
𝛥𝜎𝑧 = =
(𝐵 + 𝑧)(𝐿 + 𝑧) (𝐵 + 𝑧)(𝐿 + 𝑧)
𝒛 is the depth.
𝑳 is the length.
𝑩 is the width.
𝑷 is the total load.
𝒒𝒔 is the load per unit area.
Vertical Stress Below Arbitrarily Shaped Areas

(Newark Method)
Increase in the Pressure at Procedure
the Point Under 1. Determine the depth 𝒛 below the uniformly loaded area at which the
Consideration stress increase is required.
𝛥𝜎𝑧 = (𝐼𝑉)𝑞𝑀 2. Plot the plan of the loaded area with a scale of 𝒛 equal to the unit
length of the chart (AB).
3. Place the plan (plotted in step 2) on the influence chart in such a way
𝑰𝑽 is the influence value. that the point below which the stress is to be determined is located
𝒒 is the pressure on the at the center of the chart.
loaded area. 4. Count the number of elements (M) of the chart enclosed by the plan
of the loaded area.
Influence chart found in Tables section.
Shear Strength
Frictional Strength Cohesive Strength Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
Effective Friction Angle Effective Cohesion Shear Strength at Failure
′ ′ ′
′
𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1
𝜇 𝑐 = 𝜏 − 𝜎 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐 ′ + 𝜎 ′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 ′
Shear Strength due to Friction 𝒄′ is the effective cohesion.
𝜏 = 𝜎 ′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 ′ 𝝓′ is the effective friction angle.
𝝈′ is the effective normal stress.
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Inclination of the Plane of Failure Caused by Shear
Inclination of the Failure Plane wrt the Relationship Between 𝜎1′ and 𝜎3′
Major Principal Effective Stress Plane 𝜙′ 𝜙′
𝜙′ 𝜎1′ = 𝜎3′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ′
(45 + ) + 2𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (45 + )
𝜃 = 45 + 2 2
2
Laboratory Tests for Determination of Shear Strength Parameters

Unconfined Compression Test 𝑨𝒐 is the initial cross-sectional area.
Cross-Sectional Unconfined Compressive 𝚫𝑯
𝜺𝒇 = 𝑯 is the axial strain at failure.
Area at Failure Strength
𝒐
𝑯𝒐 is the initial height of the sample.
𝐴𝑜 𝑃𝑓 𝑷𝒇 is the load at failure.
𝐴𝑓 = 𝑞𝑢 =
1 − 𝜀𝑓 𝐴𝑓
Direct Shear Test 𝑵 is the normal force applied from the top
Total Vertical Stress Shear Stress of the shear box.
𝑁 𝐹 𝑨 is the cross-sectional area of the sample.
𝜎′ = 𝜎 = 𝜏= 𝑭 is the shear force.
𝐴 𝐴
Triaxial Test 𝑷 is the measured applied axial load.
Deviator Cross- Axial Strain Major 𝑨𝒐 is the initial average cross-sectional area
Stress Sectional 𝛥𝐻 Principal of the specimen.
𝑃 Area
𝜀= Stress 𝚫𝑯 is the change in height of specimen as
𝜎𝑑 = 𝐻𝑜
𝐴𝑜 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑑 + 𝜎3 read from deformation indicator.
𝐴 𝐴= 𝑯𝒐 is the initial height of test specimen
1−𝜀
minus any change in length prior to loading.
Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) Triaxial Test
Undrained Shear Strength of Saturated Soil
𝜎1 + 𝜎3
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑢 =
2
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Consolidated Drained (CD) Triaxial Test
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope Over Consolidated Failure Envelope
′
𝜏𝑓 = 𝜎 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 ′
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐 ′ + 𝜎 ′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙1′
Effective Angle of Friction ′
𝜎1(1) ′
− 𝜎1(2)
0.5
𝜎1′ − 𝜎3′ 𝜙1′ = 2 {𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1

[ ′ ′ ] − 45°}
′
𝜙 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1
( ′ ) 𝜎3(1) − 𝜎3(2)
𝜎1 + 𝜎3′
′ ′ 𝜙1′
Inclination of Failure Plane 𝜎1(1) − 𝜎3(1) 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45 +
2)
𝜙′ 𝑐′ =
𝜃 = 45° + 𝜙1′
2 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (45 + 2 )
Consolidated Undrained (CU) Triaxial Test

Total Major Principal Stress at Failure Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope
𝜎1 = 𝜎3 + (𝛥𝜎𝑑 )𝑓 𝜏𝑓 = 𝜎 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙
Effective Major Principal Stress at Failure Angle of Failure Envelope wrt Normal Stress Axis
𝜎1′ = 𝜎1 − (𝛥𝑢)𝑓 𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝜙 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
𝜎1 + 𝜎3
Total Minor Principal Stress at Failure
𝜎3 = 𝜎1 − (𝛥𝜎𝑑 )𝑓 Over Consolidated Effective Stress Failure Envelope
𝜏 = 𝑐 ′ + 𝜎 ′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 ′
Effective Minor Principal Stress at Failure
𝜎3′ = 𝜎3 − (𝛥𝑢)𝑓
Factor of Safety Against Shear Failure
Factor of Safety
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐹𝑆 =
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Compressibility
Elastic Settlement
Total Settlement Elastic Settlement Shape Factor
𝑆𝑒 + 𝑆𝑝 + 𝑆𝑠 1− 𝜇𝑠2 1 − 2𝜇𝑠
𝑆𝑒 = 𝛥𝜎(𝛼𝐵 ′)
𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝑓 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹
𝐸𝑠 1 − 𝜇𝑠 2
Settlement at Center 𝑺𝒑 is the primary consolidation.
𝛼=4 𝐿 𝐻 𝐵 𝑺𝒔 is the secondary compression.
𝑚′ = 𝑛′ = 𝐵′ =
𝐵 (𝐵⁄2) 2 𝚫𝝈 is the net applied pressure on the
foundation.
Settlement at Corner 𝝁𝒔 is the Poisson’s ratio of soil.
𝛼=1 𝐿 𝐻 𝐵′ = 𝐵 𝑬𝒔 is the average modulus of elasticity
𝑚′ = 𝑛′ = of the soil under the foundation
𝐵 𝐵
measured from 𝑧 = 0 to about 𝑧 = 5𝐵
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Elastic Settlement of a Rigid Foundation
𝑆𝑒(𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑) ≈ 0.93𝑆𝑒(𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒, 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟)
Bowles Modulus of Elasticity 𝑬𝒔(𝒊) is the soil modulus of elasticity

∑ 𝐸𝑠(𝑖) 𝛥𝑧 within a depth Δ𝑧.
𝐸𝑠 = 𝒛̅ is 𝐻 or 5𝐵, whichever is smaller.
𝑧̅
Variation of 𝐹1 with 𝑚′ and 𝑛′
𝑚′
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
0.25 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
0.50 0.049 0.046 0.044 0.042 0.041 0.040 0.038 0.038 0.037 0.037
0.75 0.095 0.090 0.087 0.084 0.082 0.080 0.077 0.076 0.074 0.074
1.00 0.142 0.138 0.134 0.130 0.127 0.125 0.121 0.118 0.116 0.115
1.25 0.186 0.183 0.179 0.176 0.173 0.170 0.165 0.161 0.158 0.157
1.50 0.224 0.224 0.222 0.219 0.216 0.213 0.207 0.203 0.199 0.197
1.75 0.257 0.259 0.259 0.258 0.255 0.253 0.247 0.242 0.238 0.235
2.00 0.285 0.290 0.292 0.292 0.291 0.289 0.284 0.279 0.275 0.271
2.25 0.309 0.317 0.321 0.323 0.323 0.322 0.317 0.313 0.308 0.305
2.50 0.330 0.341 0.347 0.350 0.351 0.351 0.348 0.344 0.340 0.336
2.75 0.348 0.361 0.369 0.374 0.377 0.378 0.377 0.373 0.369 0.365
3.00 0.363 0.379 0.389 0.396 0.400 0.402 0.402 0.400 0.396 0.392
3.25 0.376 0.394 0.406 0.415 0.420 0.423 0.426 0.424 0.421 0.418
𝑛′
3.50 0.388 0.408 0.422 0.431 0.438 0.442 0.447 0.447 0.444 0.441
3.75 0.399 0.420 0.436 0.447 0.454 0.460 0.467 0.458 0.466 0.464
4.00 0.408 0.431 0.448 0.460 0.469 0.476 0.484 0.487 0.486 0.484
4.25 0.417 0.440 0.458 0.472 0.481 0.484 0.495 0.514 0.515 0.515
4.50 0.424 0.450 0.469 0.484 0.495 0.503 0.516 0.521 0.522 0.522
4.75 0.431 0.458 0.478 0.494 0.506 0.515 0.530 0.536 0.539 0.539
5.00 0.437 0.465 0.487 0.503 0.516 0.526 0.543 0.551 0.554 0.554
5.25 0.443 0.472 0.494 0.512 0.526 0.537 0.555 0.564 0.568 0.569
5.50 0.448 0.478 0.501 0.520 0.534 0.546 0.566 0.576 0.581 0.584
5.75 0.453 0.483 0.508 0.527 0.542 0.555 0.576 0.588 0.594 0.597
6.00 0.457 0.489 0.514 0.534 0.550 0.563 0.585 0.598 0.606 0.609
6.25 0.461 0.493 0.519 0.540 0.557 0.570 0.594 0.609 0.617 0.621
6.50 0.465 0.498 0.524 0.546 0.563 0.577 0.603 0.618 0.627 0.632
6.75 0.468 0.502 0.529 0.551 0.569 0.584 0.610 0.627 0.637 0.643
7.00 0.471 0.506 0.533 0.556 0.575 0.590 0.618 0.635 0.646 0.653
7.25 0.474 0.509 0.538 0.561 0.580 0.596 0.625 0.643 0.655 0.662
7.50 0.477 0.513 0.541 0.565 0.585 0.601 0.631 0.650 0.663 0.671
7.75 0.480 0.516 0.545 0.569 0.589 0.606 0.637 0.658 0.671 0.680
8.00 0.482 0.519 0.549 0.573 0.594 0.611 0.643 0.664 0.678 0.688
8.50 0.485 0.522 0.552 0.577 0.598 0.615 0.648 0.670 0.685 0.695
CEGEOEN 4th Update
8.50 0.487 0.524 0.555 0.580 0.601 0.619 0.653 0.676 0.692 0.703
8.75 0.489 0.527 0.558 0.583 0.605 0.623 0.658 0.682 0.698 0.710
9.00 0.491 0.529 0.560 0.587 0.609 0.627 0.663 0.687 0.705 0.716
9.25 0.493 0.531 0.563 0.589 0.612 0.631 0.667 0.693 0.710 0.723
9.50 0.495 0.533 0.565 0.592 0.615 0.634 0.671 0.697 0.716 0.719
9.75 0.496 0.536 0.568 0.595 0.618 0.638 0.675 0.702 0.721 0.735
10.00 0.498 0.537 0.570 0.597 0.621 0.641 0.679 0.707 0.726 0.740
20.00 0.529 0.575 0.614 0.647 0.677 0.702 0.756 0.797 0.830 0.858
50.00 0.548 0.598 0.640 0.678 0.711 0.740 0.803 0.853 0.895 0.931
100.00 0.555 0.605 0.649 0.688 0.722 0.753 0.819 0.872 0.918 0.956
Variation of 𝐹1 with 𝑚′ and 𝑛′ (cont.)
𝑚′
4.5 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 25.0 50.0 100.0
0.25 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010
0.50 0.036 0.036 0.036 0.036 0.036 0.036 0.036 0.036 0.036 0.036
0.75 0.073 0.073 0.072 0.072 0.072 0.072 0.071 0.071 0.071 0.071
1.00 0.114 0.113 0.112 0.112 0.112 0.111 0.111 0.110 0.110 0.110
1.25 0.155 0.154 0.153 0.152 0.152 0.151 0.151 0.150 0.150 0.150
1.50 0.195 0.194 0.192 0.191 0.190 0.190 0.189 0.188 0.188 0.188
1.75 0.233 0.232 0.229 0.228 0.227 0.226 0.225 0.223 0.223 0.223
2.00 0.269 0.267 0.264 0.262 0.261 0.260 0.259 0.257 0.256 0.256
2.25 0.302 0.300 0.296 0.294 0.293 0.291 0.291 0.287 0.287 0.287
2.50 0.333 0.331 0.327 0.324 0.322 0.321 0.320 0.316 0.315 0.315
2.75 0.362 0.359 0.355 0.352 0.350 0.348 0.347 0.343 0.342 0.342
3.00 0.389 0.386 0.382 0.378 0.376 0.374 0.373 0.368 0.367 0.367
3.25 0.415 0.412 0.407 0.403 0.401 0.399 0.397 0.391 0.390 0.390
𝑛′
3.50 0.438 0.435 0.430 0.427 0.424 0.421 0.420 0.413 0.412 0.411
3.75 0.461 0.458 0.453 0.449 0.446 0.443 0.441 0.433 0.432 0.432
4.00 0.482 P.479 0.474 0.470 0.466 0.464 0.462 0.453 0.451 0.451
4.25 0.516 0.496 0.484 0.473 0.471 0.471 0.470 0.468 0.462 0.460
4.50 0.520 0.517 0.513 0.508 0.505 0.502 0.499 0.489 0.487 0.487
4.75 0.537 0.535 0.530 0.526 0.523 0.519 0.517 0.506 0.504 0.503
5.00 0.554 0.552 0.548 0.543 0.540 0.536 0.534 0.522 0.519 0.519
5.25 0.569 0.568 0.564 0.560 0.556 0.553 0.550 0.537 0.534 0.534
5.50 0.584 0.583 0.579 0.575 0.571 0.568 0.585 0.551 0.549 0.548
5.75 0.597 0.597 0.594 0.590 0.586 0.583 0.580 0.565 0.583 0.562
6.00 0.611 0.610 0.608 0.604 0.601 0.598 0.595 0.579 0.576 0.575
6.25 0.623 0.623 0.621 0.618 0.615 0.611 0.608 0.592 0.589 0.588
6.50 0.635 0.635 0.634 0.631 0.628 0.625 0.622 0.605 0.601 0.600
6.75 0.646 0.647 0.646 0.644 0.641 0.637 0.634 0.617 0.613 0.612
7.00 0.656 0.658 0.658 0.656 0.653 0.650 0.647 0.628 0.624 0.623
7.25 0.666 0.669 0.669 0.668 0.665 0.662 0.659 0.640 0.635 0.634
CEGEOEN 4th Update
7.50 0.676 0.679 0.680 0.679 0.676 0.673 0.670 0.651 0.646 0.645
7.75 0.685 0.688 0.690 0.689 0.687 0.684 0.681 0.661 0.656 0.655
8.00 0.694 0.697 0.700 0.700 0.698 0.695 0.692 0.672 0.666 0.665
8.50 0.702 0.706 0.710 0.710 0.708 0.705 0.703 0.682 0.676 0.675
8.50 0.710 0.714 0.719 0.719 0.718 0.715 0.713 0.692 0.686 0.684
8.75 0.717 0.722 0.727 0.728 0.727 0.725 0.723 0.701 0.695 0.693
9.00 0.725 0.730 0.736 0.737 0.736 0.735 0.732 0.710 0.704 0.702
9.25 0.731 0.737 0.744 0.746 0.745 0.744 0.742 0.719 0.713 0.711
9.50 0.738 0.744 0.752 0.754 0.754 0.753 0.751 0.728 0.721 0.719
9.75 0.744 0.751 0.759 0.762 0.762 0.761 0.759 0.737 0.729 0.727
10.00 0.750 0.758 0.766 0.770 0.770 0.770 0.768 0.745 0.738 0.735
20.00 0.878 0.896 0.925 0.945 0.959 0.969 0.977 0.982 0.965 0.957
50.00 0.962 0.989 1.034 1.070 1.100 1.125 1.146 1.265 1.279 1.261
100.00 0.990 1.020 1.072 1.114 1.150 1.182 1.209 1.408 1.489 1.499
Variation of 𝐹2 with 𝑚′ and 𝑛′
𝑚′
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
0.25 0.049 0.050 0.051 0.051 0.051 0.052 0.052 0.052 0.052 0.052
0.50 0.074 0.077 0.080 0.081 0.083 0.084 0.086 0.086 0.0878 0.087
0.75 0.083 0.089 0.093 0.097 0.099 0.101 0.104 0.106 0.107 0.108
1.00 0.083 0.091 0.098 0.102 0.106 0.109 0.114 0.117 0.119 0.120
1.25 0.080 0.089 0.096 0.102 0.107 0.111 0.118 0.122 0.125 0.127
1.50 0.075 0.084 0.093 0.099 0.105 0.110 0.118 0.124 0.128 0.130
1.75 0.069 0.079 0.088 0.095 0.101 0.107 0.117 0.123 0.128 0.131
2.00 0.064 0.074 0.083 0.090 0.097 0.102 0.114 0.121 0.127 0.131
2.25 0.059 0.069 0.077 0.085 0.092 0.098 0.110 0.119 0.125 0.130
2.50 0.055 0.064 0.073 0.080 0.087 0.093 0.106 0.115 0.122 0.127
2.75 0.051 0.060 0.068 0.076 0.082 0.089 0.102 0.111 0.119 0.125
3.00 0.048 0.056 0.064 0.071 0.078 0.084 0.097 0.108 0.116 0.122
3.25 0.045 0.053 0.060 0.067 0.074 0.080 0.093 0.104 0.112 0.119
𝑛′
3.50 0.042 0.050 0.057 0.064 0.070 0.076 0.089 0.100 0.109 0.116
3.75 0.040 0.047 0.054 0.060 0.067 0.073 0.086 0.096 0.105 0.113
4.00 0.037 0.044 0.051 0.057 0.063 0.069 0.082 0.093 0.102 0.110
4.25 0.036 0.042 0.049 0.055 0.061 0.066 0.079 0.090 0.099 0.107
4.50 0.034 0.040 0.046 0.052 0.058 0.063 0.076 0.086 0.096 0.104
4.75 0.032 0.038 0.044 0.050 0.055 0.061 0.073 0.083 0.093 0.101
5.00 0.031 0.036 0.042 0.048 0.053 0.058 0.070 0.080 0.090 0.098
5.25 0.029 0.035 0.040 0.046 0.051 0.056 0.067 0.078 0.087 0.095
5.50 0.028 0.033 0.039 0.044 0.049 0.054 0.065 0.075 0.084 0.092
5.75 0.027 0.032 0.037 0.042 0.047 0.052 0.063 0.073 0.082 0.090
6.00 0.026 0.031 0.036 0.040 0.045 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.079 0.087
6.25 0.025 0.030 0.034 0.039 0.044 0.048 0.058 0.068 0.077 0.085
CEGEOEN 4th Update
6.50 0.024 0.029 0.033 0.038 0.042 0.046 0.056 0.066 0.075 0.083
6.75 0.023 0.028 0.032 0.036 0.041 0.045 0.055 0.064 0.073 0.080
7.00 0.022 0.027 0.031 0.035 0.039 0.043 0.053 0.062 0.071 0.078
7.25 0.022 0.026 0.030 0.034 0.038 0.042 0.051 0.060 0.069 0.076
7.50 0.021 0.025 0.029 0.033 0.037 0.041 0.050 0.059 0.067 0.074
7.75 0.020 0.024 0.028 0.032 0.036 0.039 0.048 0.057 0.065 0.072
8.00 0.020 0.023 0.027 0.031 0.035 0.038 0.047 0.055 0.063 0.071
8.50 0.019 0.023 0.026 0.030 0.034 0.037 0.046 0.054 0.062 0.069
8.50 0.018 0.022 0.026 0.029 0.033 0.036 0.045 0.053 0.060 0.067
8.75 0.018 0.021 0.025 0.028 0.032 0.035 0.043 0.051 0.059 0.066
9.00 0.017 0.021 0.024 0.028 0.031 0.034 0.042 0.050 0.057 0.064
9.25 0.017 0.020 0.024 0.027 0.030 0.033 0.041 0.049 0.056 0.063
9.50 0.017 0.020 0.023 0.026 0.029 0.033 0.040 0.048 0.055 0.061
9.75 0.016 0.019 0.023 0.026 0.029 0.032 0.039 0.047 0.054 0.060
10.00 0.016 0.019 0.022 0.025 0.028 0.031 0.038 0.046 0.052 0.059
20.00 0.008 0.010 0.011 0.013 0.014 0.016 0.020 0.024 0.027 0.031
50.00 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.011 0.013
100.00 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.006
Variation of 𝐹2 with 𝑚′ and 𝑛′ (cont.)
𝑚′
4.5 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 25.0 50.0 100.0
0.25 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053 0.053
0.50 0.087 0.087 0.088 0.088 0.088 0.088 0.088 0.088 0.088 0.088
0.75 0.109 0.109 0.109 0.110 0.110 0.110 0.110 0.111 0.111 0.111
1.00 0.121 0.122 0.123 0.123 0.124 0.124 0.124 0.125 0.125 0.125
1.25 0.128 0.130 0.131 0.132 0.132 0.133 0.133 0.134 0.134 0.134
1.50 0.132 0.134 0.136 0.137 0.138 0.138 0.139 0.140 0.140 0.140
1.75 0.134 0.136 0.138 0.140 0.141 0.142 0.142 0.144 0.144 0.145
2.00 0.134 0.136 0.139 0.141 0.143 0.144 0.145 0.147 0.147 0.148
2.25 0.133 0.136 0.140 0.142 0.144 0.145 0.146 0.149 0.150 0.150
2.50 0.132 0.135 0.139 0.142 0.144 0.146 0.147 0.151 0.151 0.151
2.75 0.130 0.133 0.138 0.142 0.144 0.146 0.147 0.152 0.152 0.153
𝑛′
3.00 0.127 0.131 0.137 0.141 0.144 0.145 0.147 0.152 0.153 0.154
3.25 0.125 0.129 0.135 0.140 0.143 0.145 0.147 0.153 0.154 0.154
3.50 0.122 0.126 0.133 0.138 0.142 0.144 0.146 0.153 0.155 0.155
3.75 0.119 0.124 0.131 0.137 0.141 0.143 0.145 0.154 0.155 0.155
4.00 0.116 0.121 0.129 0.135 0.139 0.142 0.145 0.154 0.155 0.156
4.25 0.113 0.119 0.127 0.133 0.138 0.141 0.144 0.154 0.156 0.156
4.50 0.110 0.116 0.125 0.131 0.136 0.140 0.143 0.154 0.156 0.156
4.75 0.107 0.113 0.123 0.130 0.135 0.139 0.142 0.154 0.156 0.157
5.00 0.105 0.111 0.120 0.128 0.133 0.137 0.140 0.154 0.156 0.157
5.25 0.102 0.108 0.118 0.126 0.131 0.136 0.139 0.154 0.156 0.157
CEGEOEN 4th Update
5.50 0.099 0.106 0.116 0.124 0.130 0.134 0.138 0.154 0.156 0.157
5.75 0.097 0.103 0.113 0.122 0.128 0.133 0.136 0.154 0.157 0.157
6.00 0.094 0.101 0.111 0.120 0.126 0.131 0.135 0.153 0.157 0.157
6.25 0.092 0.098 0.109 0.118 0.124 0.129 0.134 0.153 0.157 0.158
6.50 0.090 0.096 0.107 0.116 0.122 0.128 0.132 0.153 0.157 0.158
6.75 0.087 0.094 0.105 0.114 0.121 0.126 0.131 0.153 0.157 0.158
7.00 0.085 0.092 0.103 0.112 0.119 0.125 0.129 0.152 0.157 0.158
7.25 0.083 0.090 0.101 0.110 0.117 0.123 0.128 0.152 0.157 0.158
7.50 0.081 0.088 0.099 0.108 0.115 0.121 0.126 0.152 0.156 0.158
7.75 0.079 0.086 0.097 0.106 0.114 0.120 0.125 0.151 0.156 0.158
8.00 0.077 0.084 0.095 0.104 0.112 0.118 0.124 0.151 0.156 0.158
8.50 0.076 0.082 0.093 0.102 0.110 0.117 0.122 0.150 0.156 0.158
8.50 0.074 0.080 0.091 0.101 0.108 0.115 0.121 0.150 0.156 0.158
8.75 0.072 0.078 0.089 0.099 0.107 0.114 0.119 0.150 0.156 0.158
9.00 0.071 0.077 0.088 0.097 0.105 0.112 0.118 0.149 0.156 0.158
9.25 0.069 0.075 0.086 0.096 0.104 0.110 0.116 0.149 0.156 0.158
9.50 0.068 0.074 0.085 0.094 0.102 0.109 0.115 0.148 0.156 0.158
9.75 0.066 0.072 0.083 0.092 0.100 0.107 0.113 0.148 0.156 0.158
10.00 0.065 0.071 0.082 0.091 0.099 0.106 0.112 0.147 0.156 0.158
20.00 0.035 0.039 0.046 0.053 0.059 0.065 0.071 0.124 0.148 0.156
50.00 0.014 0.016 0.019 0.022 0.025 0.028 0.031 0.071 0.113 0.142
100.00 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.011 0.013 0.014 0.016 0.039 0.071 0.113
Variation of 𝐼𝑓 with 𝐿/𝐵 and 𝐷𝑓 /𝐵
𝑳 𝑫𝒇 𝑰𝒇
𝑩 𝑩 𝝁𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝝁𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟒 𝝁𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟓
0.5 0.77 0.82 0.85
1 0.75 0.69 0.74 0.77
1 0.65 0.69 0.72
0.5 0.82 0.86 0.89
2 0.75 0.75 0.79 0.83
1 0.72 0.75 0.79
0.5 0.87 0.91 0.93
5 0.75 0.81 0.86 0.89
1 0.78 0.82 0.85
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Consolidation Settlement
Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation
Coefficient of Log-of-time Method
Consolidation 1. Plot the deformation for a given load increment against time in a
𝑇𝑣 𝐻2 semi-log graph.
𝐶𝑣 = 2. Plot two points P and Q on the upper portion of the curve, which
𝑡50
corresponds to 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 , respectively. Note that 𝑡2 = 4𝑡1 .
50% Average Degree of 3. The difference of dial readings between P and Q is equal to x. Locate
Consolidation point R, which is at a distance x above P.
𝑇𝑣 = 0.197 4. Draw the horizontal line RS. The dial reading corresponding to this is
𝑑𝑜 , which corresponds to 0% consolidation.
0.197𝐻2 5. Project the straight-line portion of the primary consolidation to
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑡50 intersect at T. The dial reading corresponding to this is 𝑑100 , that is
100% consolidation.
Drainage Path
6. Determine the point V on the consolidation curve that corresponds to
𝐻𝑎𝑣 𝐻𝑜 + 𝐻𝑖 𝑑𝑜 +𝑑100
𝐻= = a dial reading of 2
= 𝑑50 . The time corresponding to point V is
2 4
𝑡50 , that is the time for 50% consolidation.
7. Determine coefficient of consolidation.
Coefficient of Consolidation Square-root-of-time Method

𝑇𝑣 𝐻 2 1. Plot the deformation and the corresponding
𝐶𝑣 = square-root-of-time √𝑡.
𝑡50
2. Draw the tangent PQ to the early portion of the
90% Average Degree of Consolidation plot.
𝑇𝑣 = 0.848 3. Draw a line PR such that 𝑂𝑅 = (1.15)(𝑂𝑄).
4. The abscissa of the point S (i.e., the intersection of
0.848𝐻2 PR and the consolidation curve) will give √𝑡90 .
𝐶𝑣 = 5. Determine coefficient of consolidation.
𝑡90
Determination of Void Ratio at the End of Load Increment
Height of Solid Soil Initial Void Ratio 𝑾𝒔 is the dry weight of the specimen.
𝑊𝑠 𝑉𝑣 𝐻𝑣 𝑨 is the area of the specimen.
𝐻𝑠 = 𝑒0 = = 𝑮𝒔 is the specific gravity of solid soil.
𝐴𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 𝑉𝑠 𝐻𝑠
𝜸𝒘 is the unit weight of water.
Change in Void Ratio
𝛥𝐻1 𝛥𝐻1 𝛥𝐻1
𝛥𝑒1 = 𝑒1 = 𝑒0 − 𝛥𝑒1 = 𝑒0 − 𝑒2 = 𝑒1 −
𝐻𝑠 𝐻𝑠 𝐻𝑠
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Determination of Preconsolidation Pressure
Casagrande Method
1. By visual observation, establish point a, at which
the 𝑒-log 𝜎 ′ plot has a minimum radius of
curvature.
2. Draw a horizontal line ab.
3. Draw the line ac tangent at a.
4. Draw the line ad, which is the bisector of the angle
bac.
5. Project the straight-line portion gh of the 𝑒-log 𝜎 ′
plot back to intersect line ad at f. The abscissa of
point f is the preconsolidation pressure, 𝜎𝑐′ .
Compression Index Recompression/Swelling Index
𝑒1 − 𝑒2 𝛥𝑒 𝑒1 − 𝑒2 𝛥𝑒
𝐶𝑐 = = 𝐶𝑟 = =
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜎2′ − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜎1′ 𝜎′ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜎2′ − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜎1′ 𝜎′
𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 2′ ) 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 2′ )
𝜎1 𝜎1
Correlations for Compression Indices
Skempton (1944) Nagaraj-Murty (1985) In Most Cases
𝐶𝑐 = 0.009(𝐿𝐿 − 10) 𝐿𝐿(%) 1 1
𝐶𝑐 = 0.2343 [ ] 𝐺𝑠 𝐶𝑟 = 𝑡𝑜 𝐶𝑐
Rendon-Herrero (1983) 100 5 10
1 + 𝑒𝑜 2.38 𝐿𝐿(%)
𝐶𝑐 = 0.141𝐺𝑠1.2 ( ) 𝐶𝑟 = 0.0463 [ ] 𝐺𝑠
𝐺𝑠 100
Overconsolidation Ratio 𝝈′𝒄 is the preconsolidation pressure of a specimen.

OCR for a Soil 𝝈′ is the present effective vertical pressure.
𝜎𝐶′ 𝑶𝑪𝑹 = 𝟏 is normally consolidated clay.
𝑂𝐶𝑅 = ′ 𝑶𝑪𝑹 > 𝟏 is overconsolidated clay.
𝜎
Primary Consolidation Settlement
For Normally Consolidated Clay (OCR=1) 𝑯 is the thickness of clay layer.
𝐶𝑐 𝐻 𝜎𝑜′ + 𝛥𝜎 ′
𝝈′𝒐 is the initial vertical effective stress.
𝑆𝑝 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) 𝝈′𝒄 is the preconsolidation pressure.
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎𝑜′
𝚫𝝈′ is the increase in vertical effective stress.
For Overconsolidated Clay and 𝜎𝑜′ + Δ𝜎 ′ ≤ 𝜎𝑐′ 𝒆𝒐 is the initial void ratio.
𝐶𝑟 𝐻 𝜎𝑜′ + 𝛥𝜎 ′
𝑆𝑝 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎𝑜′
Note: 𝝈′𝒐 is computed at the mid-layer of clay.
For Overconsolidated Clay and 𝜎𝑜′ + Δ𝜎 ′ > 𝜎𝑐′
𝐶𝑟 𝐻 𝜎𝑐′ 𝐶𝑐 𝐻 𝜎𝑜′ + 𝛥𝜎 ′
𝑆𝑝 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ′ ) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎𝑜 1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝜎𝑐′
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Settlement Under a Foundation
Average Increase in Effective Stress 𝝈′𝒕 , 𝝈′𝒎 , and 𝝈′𝒃 represent the increase in the
′
𝛥𝜎𝑡′ + ′
4𝛥𝜎𝑚 + 𝛥𝜎𝑏′ effective stress at top, middle, and bottom
𝛥𝜎𝑎𝑣 = later, respectively.
6
Secondary Consolidation Settlement
Secondary Compression Index 𝚫𝒆 is the change of void ratio.
𝛥𝑒 𝛥𝑒 𝒕𝟏 and 𝒕𝟐 is the time.
𝐶𝛼 = = 𝒆𝒑 is the void ratio at end of primary
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑡2 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑡1 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑡2 )
𝑡1 consolidation settlement.
Magnitude of Secondary Consolidation

𝑡2 𝐶𝛼 𝒆𝒑 is the void ratio at the end of
𝑆𝑠 = 𝐶𝛼′ 𝐻 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐶𝛼′ =
𝑡1 1 + 𝑒𝑝 primary consolidation.
𝑯 is the thickness of clay layer.
𝑒𝑝 = 𝑒𝑜 − 𝛥𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝑒1 − 𝑒2 𝛥𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝐶𝑐 = =
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜎2′ − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜎1′ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝜎𝑜′ + 𝛥𝜎 ′ ]
𝜎𝑜′
Time Rate of Consolidation

Terzaghi’s Theory of One-Dimensional Consolidation
General Equation
𝜕𝑢 𝜕2𝑢
= 𝐶𝑣 2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧
Consolidation Equation
∞
2𝛥𝑢𝑜 𝑀𝑧
𝛥𝑢(𝑧, 𝑡) = ∑ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝(−𝑀2 𝑇𝑣 )
𝑀 𝐻𝑑𝑟
𝑚=0
𝜋
𝑀= (2𝑚 + 1)
2
Time Factor 𝑪𝒗 is the coefficient of consolidation.
𝐶𝑣 𝑡 𝑯𝒅𝒓 is the drainage path.
𝑇𝑣 = 2 𝑯𝒅𝒓 = 𝑯⁄𝟐 for double drainage
𝐻𝑑𝑟
𝒕 is the time.
Degree of Consolidation
𝑢𝑜 − 𝑢𝑧 𝑢𝑧
𝑈𝑧 = =1− 𝒖𝒛 is the excess pore water pressure at time t.
𝑢𝑜 𝑢𝑜
Average Degree of Consolidation 𝑺𝒄(𝒕) is the settlement of the layer at time t.
𝑆𝑐(𝑡) 𝑺𝒄 is the ultimate settlement of the layer
𝑈𝑎𝑣 = from primary consolidation.
𝑆𝑐
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Time Factor
For 𝑈 < 60% For 𝑈 ≥ 60%
2
𝜋 𝑈% 𝑇𝑣 = 1.781 − 0.933 𝑙𝑜𝑔(100 − 𝑈%)
𝑇𝑣 = ( )
4 100
Variation of 𝑇𝑣 with 𝑈
U(%) 𝑻𝒗 U (%) 𝑻𝒗 U (%) 𝑻𝒗 U (%) 𝑻𝒗
0 0 26 0.0531 52 0.212 78 0.529
1 0.00008 27 0.0572 53 0.221 79 0.547
2 0.0003 28 0.0615 54 0.230 80 0.567
3 0.00071 29 0.0660 55 0.239 81 0.588
4 0.00126 30 0.0707 56 0.248 82 0.610
5 0.00196 31 0.0754 57 0.257 83 0.633
6 0.00283 32 0.0803 58 0.267 84 0.658
7 0.00385 33 0.0855 59 0.276 85 0.684
8 0.00502 34 0.0907 60 0.286 86 0.712
9 0.00636 35 0.0962 61 0.297 87 0.742
10 0.00785 36 0.102 62 0.307 88 0.774
11 0.0095 37 0.107 63 0.318 89 0.809
12 0.0113 38 0.113 64 0.329 90 0.848
13 0.0133 39 0.119 65 0.340 91 0.891
14 0.0154 40 0.126 66 0.352 92 0.938
15 0.0177 41 0.132 67 0.364 93 0.993
16 0.0201 42 0.138 68 0.377 94 1.055
17 0.0227 43 0.145 69 0.390 95 1.129
18 0.0254 44 0.152 70 0.403 96 1.219
19 0.0283 45 0.159 71 0.417 97 1.336
20 0.0314 46 0.166 72 0.431 98 1.500
21 0.0346 47 0.173 73 0.446 99 1.781
22 0.0380 48 0.181 74 0.461 100 ∞
23 0.0415 49 0.188 75 0.477
24 0.0452 50 0.197 76 0.493
25 0.0491 51 0.204 77 0.511
Lateral Earth Pressure
Coefficient of Lateral Earth Pressure 𝝈′𝒉 is the horizontal effective pressure.
𝜎ℎ′ 𝝈′𝒐 is the vertical effective pressure.
𝐾=
𝜎𝑜′
At-Rest Lateral Earth Pressure

Pressure Coefficient
At-Rest Earth Pressure Coefficient
𝜎ℎ′
𝐾 = 𝐾𝑜 = ′
𝜎𝑜
CEGEOEN 4th Update
For Loose Coarse-Grained Soils (Jacky, 1944)
𝐾𝑜 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 ′
For Dense, Compacted Sand Backfill (Sherif, Sherif and Fang, 1984) 𝜸𝒅 is the actual compacted dry
𝛾𝑑 unit weight of the sand behind
𝐾𝑜 = (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙) + [ − 1] 5.5 the wall.
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛)
𝜸𝒅(𝒎𝒊𝒏) is the dry unit weight of
For Soil Ranging From Clay to Gravel (Mayne and Kulhawy, 1982) the sand in the loosest state.
′
𝐾𝑜 = (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 ′ )(𝑂𝐶𝑅)𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
For Fine Grained, Normally Consolidated Soils (Massarsch, 1979)
𝑃𝐼
𝐾𝑜 = 0.44 + 0.42 [ ]
100
For Overconsolidated Clays
𝐾𝑜(𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑) = 𝐾𝑜(𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑) √𝑂𝐶𝑅
Active Earth Pressure

Active Earth Pressure Coefficient
𝜎ℎ′ 𝜎𝑎′
𝐾 = 𝐾𝑎 = ′ = ′
𝜎𝑜 𝜎𝑜
Rankine’s Active Earth Pressure
Coefficient of Rankine’s Active Earth Pressure
2
𝜙′ 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 ′
𝐾𝑎 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (45° − ) =
2 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 ′
Coefficient with Sloping Backfill
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − √𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜙 ′
𝐾𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + √𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜙 ′
For Cohesive Soils
𝜙′ 𝜙′
𝜎𝑎′ = 𝜎𝑜′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45° − ) − 2𝑐 ′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (45° − )
2 2
𝜎𝑎′ = 𝜎𝑜′ 𝐾𝑎 − 2𝑐 ′ √𝐾𝑎

For Cohesionless Soils
𝜙′ 𝜹′ is the angle of friction between the soil
𝜎𝑎′ = 𝜎𝑜′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45° − ) and the wall.
2
𝜶 is the angle of inclination of the ground
𝜎𝑎′ = 𝜎𝑜′ 𝐾𝑎 surface above the wall from the horizontal.
𝜽 is the angle that the back face of the wall
makes with the vertical.
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure
Coefficient of Coulomb’s Active Earth Pressure
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜙 ′ − 𝜃)
𝐾𝑎 = 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛿 ′ + 𝜙 ′ ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜙 ′ − 𝛼)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 ′ + 𝜃) [1 + √ ]
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 ′ + 𝜃) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 − 𝛼)
Passive Earth Pressure

Passive Earth Pressure Coefficient
𝜎ℎ′ 𝜎𝑝′
𝐾 = 𝐾𝑝 = ′ = ′
𝜎𝑜 𝜎𝑜
Rankine’s Passive Earth Pressure
Coefficient of Rankine’s Passive Earth Pressure
2
𝜙′ 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 ′
𝐾𝑝 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (45° + ) =
2 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 ′
Coefficient with Sloping Backfill
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 + √𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜙 ′
𝐾𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − √𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜙 ′
For Cohesive Soils
𝜙′ 𝜙′
𝜎𝑝′ = 𝜎𝑜′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45° + ) + 2𝑐 ′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (45° + )
2 2
𝜎𝑝′ = 𝜎𝑜′ 𝐾𝑝 + 2𝑐 ′ √𝐾𝑝

For Cohesionless Soils
𝜙′ 𝜹′ is the angle of friction between the soil
𝜎𝑝′ = 𝜎𝑜′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45° + )
2 and the wall.
𝜶 is the angle of inclination of the ground
𝜎𝑝′ = 𝜎𝑜′ 𝐾𝑝 surface above the wall from the horizontal.
𝜽 is the angle that the back face of the wall
Coulomb’s Passive Earth Pressure makes with the vertical.
Coefficient of Coulomb’s Passive Earth Pressure
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜙 ′ + 𝜃)
𝐾𝑝 = 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛿 ′ + 𝜙 ′ ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜙 ′ + 𝛼)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 ′ − 𝜃) [1 − √ ]
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 ′ − 𝜃) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 − 𝛼)
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Factor of Safety
Against Translation or Sliding Against Rotation or Overturning
𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑀
𝐹𝑆𝑇 = 𝐹𝑆𝑜 = ≥ 3.0
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑂𝑀 𝑶𝑴 is the overturning moment.
𝑹𝑴 is the righting moment.
≥ 1.5 𝑂𝑀 = 𝑃𝑎𝑥 𝑧̅𝑎
(𝑊𝑤 + 𝑊𝑏 + 𝑊𝑠 + 𝑃𝑎𝑧 )𝜇 𝑅𝑀 = 𝑊𝑤 𝑥𝑤 + 𝑊𝑠 𝑥𝑠 + 𝑊𝑏 𝑥𝑏 + 𝑃𝑎𝑧 𝑥𝑎
𝐹𝑆 =
𝝁 𝑇is the coefficient of friction
𝑃𝑎𝑥
at base of retaining wall.
Other Tables
US Standard Sieve Sizes
Sieve # Opening (mm) Sieve # Opening (mm) Sieve # Opening (mm)
4 4.75 18 1.00 80 0.180
5 4.00 20 0.850 100 0.150
6 3.35 25 0.710 120 0.125
7 2.80 30 0.600 140 0.106
8 2.36 35 0.500 170 0.090
10 2.00 40 0.425 200 0.075
12 1.70 50 0.355 270 0.053
14 1.40 60 0.250
16 1.18 70 0.212
CEGEOEN 4th Update
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Soil Classification (1993)
General Granular Materials Silt-clay Materials Highly
Classification (≤35% passing #200 sieve)c (>35% passing #200 sieve) Organic
A-1 A-2 A-7
Group
Classification A-7-5
A-1-a A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
A-3 A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7-6 A-8
Sieve analysis percent passing:
#10 ≤50
#40 ≤30 ≤50 ≥51
#200 ≤15 ≤25 ≤10 ≤35 ≤35 ≤35 ≤35 ≥36 ≥36 ≥36 ≥36
Characteristics of fraction passing #40:
Liquid Limit ≤40 ≥41 ≤40 ≥41 ≤40 ≥41 ≤40 ≥41b
Plasticity Index ≤6 NPa ≤10 ≤10 ≥11 ≥11 ≤10 ≤10 ≥11 ≥11
Usual types of significant constituent materials
Stone
fragments; Fine Peat or
Silty or clayey gravel and sand Silty soils Clayey soils
gravel and sand muck
sand
General rating as subgrade
Excellent to good Fair to poor Unstable
a
NP indicates the soil is non-plastic (i.e., it has no clay).
b
The plasticity index of A-7-5 soils is ≤ liquid limit – 30. For A-7-6 soils, it is > than the liquid limit – 30.
c
The placement of A-3 before A-2 is necessary for the “left-to-right elimination process” and does not indicate superiority of A-3 over A-2.
CEGEOEN 4th Update
United Soil Classification System (ASTM D2487)
Soil Classification
Criteria for Assigning Group Symbols
Group
and Group Names Using Laboratory TestsA Group NameB
Symbol
Gravels: >50% of Clean gravels: Cu ≥ 4 and 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3E GW Well-graded gravelE
coarse fraction <5% finesC Cu < 4 and/or 1 > Cc > 3E GP Poorly graded gravelE
retained on Gravels with fines: Fines classify as ML or MH GM Silty gravelF,G,H
Coarse-grained: #4 sieve >12% finesC Fines classify as CL or CH GC Clayey gravelF,G,H
>50% retained
Clean sands: <5% Cu ≥ 6 and 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3E SW Well-graded sandI
on #200 sieve Sands: ≥50% of
finesD Cu < 6 and/or Cc < 1 or Cc > 3E SP Poorly graded sandI
coarse fraction
Sands with fines: Fines classify as ML or MH SM Silty sandG,H,I
passes #4 sieve
>12% finesD Fines classify as CL or CH SC Clayey sandG,H,I
PI > 7 and plots on or above “A” lineJ CL Lean clayK,L,M
Inorganic
Silts and clays: PI < 4 and plots below “A” lineJ MK SiltK,L,M
Liquid limit < 50 Liquid limit – oven dried < 0.75 Organic clayK,L,M,N
Fine-grained: Organic OL
Liquid limit – not dried < 0.75 Organic siltK,L,M,O
≥50% passes
PI plots on or above “A” line CH Fat clayK,I,M
the #200 sieve Inorganic
Silts and clays: PI plots below “A” line MH Elastic siltK,L,M
Liquid limit ≥ 50 Liquid limit – oven dried < 0.75 Organic clayK,L,M,P
Organic OH
Liquid limit – not dried < 0.75 Organic siltK,L,M,Q
Highly organic Primarily organic matter, dark in color, and organic color PT Peat
A E D60 (D30 )2 J
Based on the material passing the 3-in. (75-mm) sieve. Cu = , Cc = If Atterberg limits plot in hatched area, soil is a
D10 D10 ×D60
B CL-ML silty clay.
If field sample contained cobbles or boulders, or both, F
If soil contains ≥15% sand, add K
add “with cobbles or boulders, or both” to group name. “with sand” to group name. If soil contains 15 to 29% plus #200, add “with
C sand” or “with gravel,” whichever is predominant.
Gravels with 5 to 12% fines require dual symbols: G
If fines classify as CL-ML, use dual L
GW-GM, well-graded gravel with silt symbol GC-GM or SC-SM. If soil contains ≥30% plus #200, predominantly
GW-GC, well-graded gravel with clay H sand, add “sandy” to group name.
If fines are organic, add “with M
GP-GM, poorly graded gravel with silt If soil contains ≥30% plus #200, predominantly
organic fines” to group name.
GP-GC, poorly graded gravel with clay I gravel, add “gravelly” to group name.
D If soil contains ≥15% gravel, add
Sands with 5 to 12% fines require dual symbols: N
PI ≥ 4 and plots on or above “A” line.
“with gravel” to group name.
SW-SM, well-graded sand with silt O
PI < 4 or plots below “A” line.
SW-SC, well-graded sand with clay P
SP-SM, poorly graded sand with silt PI plots on or above “A” line.
Q
SP-SC, poorly graded sand with clay PI plots below “A” line.
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Casagrande Plasticity Chart
CEGEOEN 4th Update
Newark Influence Chart

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Kyle Michael Sy Geotechnical Engineering January 29, 2021

CEGEOEN 4th Update

Relationship between e and n Specific Gravity Moisture Content

𝒄 is a constant that varies from 1.0 to 1.5.

Uplift Force Under a Hydraulic Structure

𝑯 is the head at the upstream level

Stresses on Inclined Plane

Minimum Normal/Minor Principal Stress 𝜎1 − 𝜎3

Oriented from Principal Planes

In Situ Stresses: Geostatic Stresses

Saturated Soil without Seepage

Safety of Hydraulic Structures

Terzaghi’s Method D/T 𝐂𝟎 Harza’s Method

Variation of Δ𝜎𝑧 /𝑞 with 2𝑧/𝐵 and 2𝑥/𝐵 (0-1)

Variation of Δ𝜎𝑧 /𝑞 with 2𝑧/𝐵 and 2𝑥/𝐵 (1.1-2)

Variation of Δ𝜎𝑧 /𝑞 with 2𝑥/𝐵 and 2𝑧/𝐵

1 0.5 0.4797 0.4092 0.3341 0.2749 0.2309 0.1979 0.1735 0.1241

𝜸 is the unit weight of the embankment soil.

Vertical Stress Increase

Vertical Stress at any Point Below a Uniformly Loaded

Vertical Stress Increase

Variation of 𝐴′ with 𝑧/𝑅 and 𝑟/𝑅 (0-2)

1.2 0.01935 0.00871 0.00459 0.00269 0.00171 0.00115

1 -0.01115 -0.00608 -0.00344 -0.00210 -0.00135 -0.00092 -0.00048 -0.00028 -0.00018

Vertical Stress Below Arbitrarily Shaped Areas

Laboratory Tests for Determination of Shear Strength Parameters

𝜎1′ − 𝜎3′ 𝜙1′ = 2 {𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1

Consolidated Undrained (CU) Triaxial Test

Bowles Modulus of Elasticity 𝑬𝒔(𝒊) is the soil modulus of elasticity

Coefficient of Consolidation Square-root-of-time Method

Overconsolidation Ratio 𝝈′𝒄 is the preconsolidation pressure of a specimen.

Magnitude of Secondary Consolidation

Time Rate of Consolidation

At-Rest Lateral Earth Pressure

Active Earth Pressure

𝜎𝑎′ = 𝜎𝑜′ 𝐾𝑎 − 2𝑐 ′ √𝐾𝑎

Passive Earth Pressure

𝜎𝑝′ = 𝜎𝑜′ 𝐾𝑝 + 2𝑐 ′ √𝐾𝑝

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