Feyera Senbeta (PhD)

Nov 2012, AAU

CENSUS AND SAMPLE SURVEY

All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’

or ‘Population.’

A complete enumeration of all items in the

‘population’ is known as a census inquiry.

When the field of inquiry is large, this method

becomes difficult to adopt because of the resources
involved.

At times, this method is practically beyond the reach of
ordinary researchers.

Perhaps, government is the only institution which can get the

complete enumeration carried out.

Even the government adopts this in very rare cases such as

population census conducted once in a decade.

In such cases there is no utility of census surveys.


When field studies are undertaken in practical life, considerations
of time and cost almost invariably lead to a selection of
respondents i.e., selection of only a few items.

The selected respondents constitute what is technically called a

‘sample’ and the selection process is called ‘sampling technique.’

The survey so conducted is known as ‘sample survey’.

Algebraically, let the population size be N and if a part of size n
(which is < N) of this population is selected according to some
rule for studying some characteristic of the population, the group
consisting of these n units is known as ‘sample’.

Researcher must prepare a sample design for his study i.e., he

must plan how a sample should be selected and of what size such
a sample would be.
IMPLICATIONS OF A SAMPLE DESIGN

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from
a given population.

It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would

adopt in selecting items for the sample.

Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be

included in the sample i.e., the size of the sample.

Sample design is determined before data are collected.

There are many sample designs from which a researcher can
choose.

Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to apply
than others.
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the
following points:
i) Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to
clearly define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be
studied.

The universe can be finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of
items is certain, but in case of an infinite universe the number of items is
infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total number of items.
(ii) Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit
before selecting sample.
Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc.,
or may be a social unit such as family, club, school, etc., or it may be an
individual.
(iii) Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’
from which sample is to be drawn.
- It contains the names of all items of a universe (in
case of finite universe only).
- If source list is not available, researcher has to
prepare it.
- Such a list should be comprehensive, correct,
reliable and appropriate.
- Be as representative of the population as possible.
(iv) Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to
be selected from the universe to constitute a sample.

This a major problem before a researcher.

The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor
too small.

It should be optimum.

An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements
of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility.

Researcher must determine the desired precision as also an
acceptable confidence level for the estimate.

The parameters of interest in a research study must be kept
in view, while deciding the size of the sample.

Costs too dictate the size of sample that we can draw.
(v) Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design,
one must consider the question of the specific population
parameters which are of interest.

For instance, we may be interested in estimating the proportion of
persons with some characteristic in the population,

or we may be interested in knowing some average or the other
measure concerning the population.

There may also be important sub-groups in the population about

whom we would like to make estimates.

All this has a strong impact upon the sample design we would
accept.
(vi) Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical
point of view, have a major impact upon decisions relating to
not only the size of the sample but also to the type of sample.
This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability
sample.
(vii) Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide
the type of sample he will use

i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the
items for the sample.

In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design
itself. There are several sample designs out of which the
researcher must choose one for his study.

Obviously, he must select that design which, for a given sample
size and for a given cost, has a smaller sampling error.
CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE

Researcher must keep in view the two causes of
incorrect inferences viz.,

systematic bias and sampling error.

A systematic bias results from errors in the sampling
procedures, and

it cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the
sample size.

At best the causes responsible for these errors can
be detected and corrected.

Usually a systematic bias is the result of one or more
of the following factors:
1. Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling
frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased representation of
the universe, it will result in a systematic bias.
2. Defective measuring device:

If the measuring device is constantly in error

In survey work, if the questionnaire or the interviewer
is biased.

3. Non-respondents:

If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially
included in the sample, there may arise a systematic
bias.

The reason is that in such a situation the likelihood of

establishing contact or receiving a response from an
individual is often correlated with the measure of what
is to be estimated.
4. Indeterminancy principle:

Sometimes we find that individuals act differently when
kept under observation than what they do when kept in
non-observed situations.

For instance, if workers are aware that somebody is
observing them in course of a work study the change the
situation .

5. Natural bias in the reporting of data:

Respondents in the reporting of data is often the cause of
a systematic bias in many inquiries.

There is usually a downward bias in the income data
collected by government taxation department,

whereas we find an upward bias in the income data
collected by some social organization.

Generally in psychological surveys, people tend to give

what they think is the ‘correct’ answer rather than
revealing their true feelings.

Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample estimates
around the true population parameters.

Since they occur randomly and are equally likely to be in either
direction, and the expected value of such errors happens to be equal to
zero.

Sampling error decreases with the increase in the size of the sample,
and

it happens to be of a small in homogeneous population.

It can be measured for a given sample design and size.

The measurement of sampling error is usually called the ‘precision of
the sampling plan’.

If we increase the sample size, the precision can be improved.

But increasing the size of the sample has its own limitations.

Hence, select a better sampling design-viz cost/ error.

While selecting a sampling procedure, researcher must ensure that the

procedure causes a relatively small sampling error and helps to
control the systematic bias in a better way.
 Xics OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

The characteristics of a good sample design as under:
(a) It must result in a truly representative sample.
(b) It must be results in a small sampling error.
(c) It must be viable in the context of funds available.
(d) It must be such so that systematic bias can be
controlled in a better way.
(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample
study can be applied, in general, for the universe with
a reasonable level of confidence.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS

There are different types of sample designs based on two factors viz.,

the representation basis and

the element selection technique.

On the representation basis, the sample may be probability or non-
probability sampling.

Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection,

Non-probability sampling is based on ‘non-random’ sampling.

On element selection basis, the sample may be either unrestricted or

restricted.

When each sample element is drawn individually from the population
at large, then the sample so drawn is known as ‘unrestricted sample’,
whereas all other forms of sampling are covered under the term
‘restricted sampling’.
Classification of Sampling Methods
Sample designs are basically of two
types viz.,
non-probability and
probability sampling. Sampling
Methods

Probability Non-
Samples probability

Systematic Stratified Convenience Snowball

Simple
Cluster Judgment Quota
Random
Probability Sample:

A sampling technique in which every member of the
population will have a known, nonzero probability of being
selected
Characteristics of Probability Sampling

The main characteristics of probability sampling:
1. In probability sampling we refer from the sample as well as
the population.
2. In PS every individual of the population has equal probability
to be taken into the sample.
3. Probability sample may be representative of the population.
4. The observations (data) of the probability sample are used for
the inferential purpose.
5. Probability sample has not from distribution for any variable.
6. Inferential or parametric statistics are used for probability
sample.
7. There is a risk for drawing conclusions from probability
sample.
8. The probability is comprehensive. Representativeness refers
to characteristic. Comprehensiveness refers to size and area.
Types or Techniques Probability Sampling:

There are a number of techniques of taking
probability sample.

But here only six important techniques have been
discussed as follows:
1. Simple random sampling.
2. Systematic sampling.
3. Stratified sampling.
4. Multiple or Double sampling.
5. Multi-stage sampling.
6. Cluster sampling.
Xics of Non-probability Sampling

The main characteristics of nonprobability sample:
1. There is no idea of population in non-probability
sampling.
2. There is no probability of selecting any individual.
3. Non-probability sample has free distribution.
4. The observations of non-probability sample are not
used for generalization purpose.
5. Non-parametric or non-inferential statistics are
used in non probability sample.
6. There is no risk for drawing conclusions from non-
probability sample

Units of the sample are chosen on the basis of personal
judgment or convenience

There are NO statistical techniques for measuring random
sampling error in a non-probability sample. Therefore,
generalizability is never statistically appropriate.
2. Types of Non-probability Sample:

There are the following four types of non-
probability sample:

(1) Incidental or accidental sample.

(2) Purposive sample.
(3) Quota sample.
(4) Judgment sample.
I. PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Simple Random Sampling

It is one in which each element of the population has an
equal and independent chance of being included in the
sample i.e. a sample selected by randomization method is
known as simple-random sample and this technique is
simple random-sampling.

Randomization is a method; and is done by using a number of

techniques as :
(a) Tossing a coin.
(b) Throwing a dice.
(c) Lottery method.
(d) Blind folded method.
(e) By using random table.
SRS
Advantages
(a) It requires a minimum knowledge of population.
(b) It is free from subjectivity and free from personal error.
(c) It provides appropriate data for our purpose.
(d) The observations of the sample can be used for inferential
purpose.

Disadvantages
(a) The representativeness of a sample cannot be ensured by
this method. (????)
(b) This method does not use the knowledge about the
population.
(c) The inferential accuracy of the finding depends upon the
size of the sample.
2. Systematic Sampling

It is an improvement over the simple random sampling.

This method requires the complete information about the population.

There should be a list of information's of all the individuals of the
population in any systematic way.

Now we decide the size of the sample.

Let sample size = n

and population size = N

Now we select each N/nth individual from the list and thus we have
the desired size of sample which is known as systematic sample.

Thus for this technique of sampling population should be arranged in
any systematic way.
 Systematic S
Advantages
(a) This is a simple method of selecting a sample.
(b) It reduces the field cost.
(c) Inferential statistics may be used.
(d) Sample may be comprehensive and representative of
population.
(e) Observations of the sample may be used for drawing
conclusions and generalizations.
Disadvantages
(a) This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity
due to different ways of systematic list by different
individuals. Knowledge of population is essential.
(b) Information of each individual is essential.
(c) This method can’t ensure the representativeness.
(d) There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the
observations of the sample.
3. Stratified Sampling

It is an improvement over the earlier method.

The researcher divides his population in strata on the
basis of some characteristics and

From each of these smaller homogeneous groups (strata)
draws at random a predetermined number of units.

Researcher should choose criterion which seems to be
more relevant in his research work.

Stratified sampling may be of three types:

1. Disproportionate stratified sampling.
2. Proportionate stratified sampling.
3. Optimum allocation stratified sampling.
1. Disproportionate sampling means that the size of the sample
in each unit is not proportionate to the size of the unit but
depends upon considerations involving personal judgement
and convenience. It is more effective for comparing strata
which have different error possibilities. It is less efficient
for determining population characteristics.

2. Proportionate sampling refers to the selection from each

sampling unit of a sample that is proportionate to the size
of the unit. Advantages of this procedure include
representativeness with respect to variables used as the
basis of classifying categories and increased chances of
being able to make comparisons between strata. Lack of
information on proportion of the population in each category
and faulty classification may be listed as disadvantages of
this method.

3. Optimum allocation stratified sampling is representative as

well as comprehensive than other stratified samples. It
refers to selecting units from each stratum should be in
proportion to the corresponding stratum the population.
These three types are clear from the table as given below:

Levels Disproportionate Proportionate Optimum

Proportionate allocation
250 35 25 25

400 43 50 40

350 22 25 35

1000 100 100 100

Sample
Advantages
(a) It is a good representative of the population.
(b)It is an improvement over the earlier.
(c) It is an objective method of sampling.
(d)Observations can be used for inferential purpose.
Disadvantages
(a) It is difficult for the researcher to decide the relevant
criterion for stratification.
(b)Only one criterion can be used for stratification, but it
generally seems more than one criterion relevant for
stratification.
(c) It is costly and time consuming method.
(d)Selected sample may be representative with reference to
the used criterion but not for the other.
(e)There is a risk in generalization.
4. Multiple or Double or Repetitive Sampling

Generally this is not a new method but only a new application
of the samplings we discussed above.

This is most frequently used for establishing the reliability
of a sample.

When employing a mailed questionnaire, double sampling is
sometimes used to obtain a ‘more representative sample.

This is done because some randomly selected subjects who
are sent questionnaires may not return them.

Obviously, the missing data will bias the result of the study,

To eliminate this bias, a second sample may be drawn at
random from the non-respondents and the people interviewed
to obtain the desired information.

This double sampling technique enables one to check on the
reliability of the information obtained from the first sample.
Advantages
(a) This sampling procedure leads to the inferences of free
determine precision based on a number of observations.
(b) This technique of sampling reduces the error.
(c) This method maintains the procedure of the finding
evaluate the reliability of the sample.

Disadvantages
(a) This technique of sampling cannot be used for a large
sample. It is applicable only for small sample.
(b) This technique is time consuming, costly, and requires
more competition.
(c) Its planning and administration is more complicated.
5. Multi-Stage Sampling

This sample is more comprehensive and representative
of the population.

In this type of sampling, primary sample units are

inclusive groups and secondary units, are sub-groups
within these ultimate units to be selected which belong
to one and only one group.

Stages of a population are usually available within a

group or population, whenever stratification is done by
the researcher.

The Individuals are selected from different stages for
constituting the multi-stage sampling.
Advantages
(a) It is a good representative of the population.
(b) It is an improvement over the earlier methods.
(c) It is an objective procedure of sampling.
(d) The observations from multi-stage sample may be used
for inferential purpose.

Disadvantages
(a) It is a difficult and complex method of samplings.
(b) It involves errors when we consider the primary and
secondary stages.
(c) It is again a subjective phenomenon.
6. Cluster Sampling

To select the intact group as a whole.

In CS the sample units contain groups of elements
(clusters) instead of individual members or items in
the population.

Rather than listing all elementary school children in a
given city and randomly selecting 15 per cent of these
students for the sample,

a researcher lists all of the elementary schools in the
city,

selects at random 15 per cent of these clusters of
units, and

uses all of the children in the selected schools as the
sample.
Advantages
(a) It may be a good representative of the population.
(b) It is an easy method.
(c) It is an economical method.
(d) It is practicable and highly applicable in education.
(e) Observations can be used for inferential purpose.

Disadvantages
(a) Cluster sampling is not free from error.
(b) It is not comprehensive.
(c) All these above are techniques of probability sampling.
II. Non-probability Sampling Techniques

Non-probability is also known as non-parametric
sampling which are used for certain purpose

1. Incidental or Accidental Sampling

The term incidental or accidental applied to those
samples that are taken because they are most
frequently available, i.e.

this refers to groups which are used as samples of a

population because they are readily available or

because the researcher is unable to employ more
acceptable sampling methods.
Incidental or Accidental Sampling
Advantages
(a) It is very easy method of sampling.
(b) It is frequently used in behavioural sciences.
(c) It reduces the time, money and energy i.e. it is an
economical method.

Disadvantages
(a) It is not a representative of the population.
(b) It is not free from error.
(c) Parametric statistics cannot be used.
2. Judgement Sampling

This involves the selection of a group from the
population on the basis of available information
thought.

It is to be representative of the total population.

Or the selection of a group by intuition on the basis of
criterion deemed to be self-evident.

Generally investigator should take the judgement

sample so this sampling is highly risky.
 Judgement Sampling
Advantages
(a) Knowledge of the investigator can be best used in
this technique of sampling.
(b) This technique of sampling is also economical.

Disadvantages
(a) This technique is objective.
(b) It is not free from error.
(c) It includes uncontrolled variation.
(d) Inferential statistics cannot be used for the
observations of this sampling, so generalization is not
possible.
3. Purposive Sampling

It is selected by some arbitrary method because it is
known to be representative of the total population, or

it is known that it will produce well matched groups.



Sampling in relation to some criterion, which are
considered important for the particular study.

This method is appropriate when the study places special

emphasis upon the control of certain specific variables.
 Purposive Sampling
Advantages
(a) Use of the best available knowledge concerning the sample
subjects.
(b) Better control of significant variables.
(c) Sample groups data can be easily matched.
(d) Homogeneity of subjects used in the sample.

Disadvantages
(a) Reliability of the criterion is questionable.
(b) Knowledge of population is essential.
(c) Errors in classifying sampling subjects.
(d) Inability to utilise the inferential parametric statistics.
(e) Inability to make generalization concerning total population.
4. Quota Sampling

It combine both judgment sampling and probability
sampling.

The population is classified into several categories: on

the basis of judgment or assumption or the previous
knowledge, the proportion of population falling into
each category is decided.

Thereafter, a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and

the observer is allowed to sample as he likes.

Quota sampling is very arbitrary and likely to figure in

Municipal surveys.
 Quota Sampling
Advantages
(a) It is an improvement over the judgment sampling.
(b) It is an easy sampling technique.
(c) It is most frequently used in social surveys.

Disadvantages
(a) It is not a representative sample.
(b) It is not free from error.
(c) It has the influence of regional geographical and
social factors.
CONCLUSION

From a brief description already made, we can say that normally
one should resort to simple random sampling because under it bias
is generally eliminated and the sampling error can be estimated.

But purposive sampling is considered more appropriate when the

universe happens to be small and a known characteristic of it is to
be studied intensively.

There are situations in real life under which sample designs other
than simple random samples may be considered better (say easier
to obtain, cheaper or more informative) and as such the same may
be used.

In a situation when random sampling is not possible, then we have

to use necessarily a sampling design other than random sampling.

At times, several methods of sampling may well be used in the
same study.

In real life often sampling is driven by funding – monetary
concerns.

It is easy to understand the cost and the sample size but
not as easy to understand the importance of proper
sampling versus convenience sampling.

In real life only a single sample is taken and the difference

from the estimate and that of the truth can’t be quantified.

Another reason many people go for quantity.

Before collecting data think - quality over quantity

Statistical tests – p-values may often be
performed/calculated using convenience samples but they
truly have no meaning when calculated on a convenience
sample

Finally, the researchers note that much is easier said than

done. That is, to take a proper sample is much easier said
than done.
Questions
1. What do you mean by ‘Sample Design’? What points should be taken into consideration by
a researcher in developing a sample design for this research project.
2. How would you differentiate between simple random sampling and complex random
sampling designs? Explain clearly giving examples.
3. Why probability sampling is generally preferred in comparison to non-probability
sampling? Explain the procedure of selecting a simple random sample.
4. Under what circumstances stratified random sampling design is considered appropriate?
How would you select such sample? Explain by means of an example.
5. Distinguish between:

Restricted and unrestricted sampling;

Convenience and purposive sampling;

Systematic and stratified sampling;

Cluster and area sampling.
6. Under what circumstances would you recommend:

A probability sample?

A non-probability sample?

A stratified sample?

A cluster sample?
7. Explain and illustrate the procedure of selecting a random sample.
8. “A systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures”. What do you mean by
such a systematic bias? Describe the important causes responsible for such a bias.