CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Differential Equation

Derivatives is the core concept of calculus in modern mathematics. Indeed, the
derivatives originated while solving two classical problems, one to find the slope
of the tangent to a curve, and the other as a rate of change such as instantaneous
velocity of the particle with variable velocity. Differential equations mostly
emerge while modeling some dynamic phenomena (Kattel and Kafle, 2018).
Depending on how many variables are involved, there may be ordinary differential
equations (ODEs) and partial differential equations (PDEs). ODEs are those in
which all the differential coefficients involve only one independent variable and
PDEs are those which involve derivatives of the dependent variables with respect
to two or more independent variables.

Before discussing various form of differential equations, we introduce here

degree and order of differential equations.

Order and degree of a differential equations: The order of a differential equations

is the order of the highest derivative of differential in it. For example,
√1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + √1 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 0 is a differential equation of the first order, and
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3 2 −5 + 2𝑦 = 0 is a differential equation of the second order. The degree
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
of differential equation is the degree of derivative of the highest order occurring
in it after it has been made free from radicals, if any, of the derivatives [2]. For
Example,
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2 −5 − 12𝑦 = 0 is an equation of degree 1 and order 2.
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 ( ) + 5 = 𝑦2 is an equation of degree 2 and order 1.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(Also, mention what a solution of differential equation means)
Differential equation is a branch of mathematics that starts with one, or many,
recorded observations of change and ends with one, or many, functions that
predict future outcomes. An algebraic equation such as a quadratic equation, is
solved with a value or set of values; a differential equation, in contrast, is solved
with a function of a class of functions. It has been a major branch of pure and
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 applied mathematics since their inauguration in the mid-17th century. While their
history has been well studied, it remains a vital field of ongoing investigation, with
the emergence of new connections with other parts of mathematics, fertile
periods, new vistas in the 20th century, and so on (REF). In this project, we consider
some of the principal parts of this story, from the launch with Newton and Leibnitz
up to around 1950 [3]. Indeed, differential equation began with Leibniz, the
Bernoulli brothers and others from the 1680 not long after Newton’s ‘fluxional
equations’ in the 1970s.

1.2 Motivation
Ordinary differential equations arise throughout engineering and science. They
can arise directly in a model, such an in-mixing problems, spring mass systems or
circuits. They can arise during the solution of a partial differential equation, such
as the heat equation, the wave equation of Schrodinger equation. Solutions of
differential equations can be compared with the actual behavior of a system to
determine if the theoretical description of the system is accurate. Solutions of
differential equations predict the behavior of a system. These aspects are
interesting and important for natural sciences, social sciences and engineering.
Due to its wide applications with rich solution techniques, we chose this area for
the project work.

1.3 Significance
 All the basic laws of physics are expressed as differential equations, and their
solution explain and predict all physical phenomena.
 It is used in some game design and computer graphics.
 The electrical equipment we use, it is an outcome of a differential equation.
 Some vehicles systems are design using some sets of differential equation.
1.4 Objectives
 To develop understanding on formation of differential equations.
 To reveal different application of differential equations.
 To develop skill on solving ODEs of first degree and first order.
 To develop knowledge about differential equation.

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1.5 Limitation
As is not possible to study all possible types of differential equations, we limit our
study only on first order and first degree differential equation. We introduce
differential equations of the form where y is an unknown function of x. When it is
continuous over some interval, we find the general solution by integration. We
solve separable differential equations, homogeneous differential equation, linear
differential equation and exact differential equations. Such equations arise when
investigating exponential growth or decay [4,5].

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 CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Here, we discuss the ordinary differential equations with its formations, solutions
techniques and applications.

2.1 Formation of ODEs of first order and first degree

If we have family of straight lines with different slopes m, then it will be of the
form:
𝑑𝑦
Y=mx + c, where c is a given constant. Then, = 𝑚. If we eliminate m, we get,
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑦= 𝑥 + 𝑐. So, the required differential equation will be 𝑥 = − 𝑦 + 𝑐.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2.2 Some special type of ODEs of first degree and first order
There are various form of differential equations but in this chapter, we focus on the
variable separable form, Homogenous form, linear differential form, exact equation
and Bernoulli’s Differential Equations.

𝑑𝑦
 Variables separable form: If the equation = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) could be written in the
𝑑𝑥
form
𝑑𝑦 𝑋
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑌
Where X is a function of x alone and Y is a function of y alone, it can be written
as 𝑌 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑋 𝑑𝑥,
In which the variables are separated.
Then, by direct integration, we arrive at the general solution
∫ 𝑌 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑋 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐
where c is an arbitrary constant of integration.
Example:
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
Solve, by separation of variable, the equation =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Solution:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
Clearly, =−
𝑦 𝑥
Integrating both sides, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
∫ = −∫ + 𝐴, Where A is an arbitrary constant.
𝑦 𝑥

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 So, log 𝑦 = − log 𝑥 + log 𝑐
By putting 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑐 so as to make the simplification easy and nice
Thus log 𝑦 = log 𝑐/𝑥
𝑐
or 𝑦=
𝑥
or 𝑥𝑦=𝑐
 Homogeneous equation: A differential equation of the first order and first
degree is said to be homogeneous if it can be written in the form
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
= 𝑓( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑦
A simple test for this is to put = 𝑣 or𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥, and see whether all x’s cancel
𝑥
out or not. If so, it is homogeneous otherwise not.
To solve such an equation, we put 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥. and
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑣+𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
in the given equation then we have a differential equation with variables v
and x, i.e.: we get
𝑑𝑣
𝑣+𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑣)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
or, =
𝑓(𝑣)−𝑣 𝑥
in which the variables are separated. Now by integration we get the required
solution.
Example:
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
Solve: = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
Solution:
𝑦
Put = 𝑣 so that 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥
𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
then, = 𝑣+𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Now, the given equation is
𝑑𝑣
𝑣+𝑥 = 𝑣 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑣
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
 𝑥 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑣
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
 − =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑣 𝑥
Integrating, we have
cot 𝑣 = log 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑦
 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( ) = log 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥

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 Linear equation: A first order and first degree differential equation is said to
be a linear equation if it can be written in the form
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑄, ………….(i)
𝑑𝑥
where P and Q are functions of x or constants (but not of y).
𝑑𝑦
For example, the equation + 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is linear.
𝑑𝑥
The linear equation
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑄
𝑑𝑥
Becomes easily integrable if both sides of it is multiplied by 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑥
This quantity of factor is called the Integrating Factor (I.F.) of the linear
equation.
Sometimes, we may come across a differential equation of the form
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑄 𝑦 2 ……….(ii)
𝑑𝑥
The equation (ii) can be changed into the form
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 −2 + 𝑃𝑦 −1 = 𝑄
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
Substituting 𝑦 −1 = 𝑧 and 𝑦 −2 = in (ii)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
The equation (ii) reduces to
𝑑𝑧
− 𝑃𝑧 = −𝑄
𝑑𝑥
Which is the linear differential equation of the form (i).
Example:
𝑑𝑦
Solve: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥 +𝑦 =1
𝑑𝑥
Solution:
Dividing both sides by 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥, we have
𝑑𝑦 1
+ 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥
So, I.F. = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑒 ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 tan 𝑥
Multiplying both sides by 𝑒 tan 𝑥 , we get
𝑑𝑦
𝑒 tan 𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑒 tan 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = 𝑒 tan 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑒 tan 𝑥 𝑦
or, = 𝑒 tan 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
tan 𝑥
or, 𝑑𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑒 tan 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Integrating, we have
𝑒 tan 𝑥 𝑦 = ∫ 𝑑 (𝑒 tan 𝑥 ) + 𝑐
𝑒 tan 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑒 tan 𝑥 + 𝑐

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 or, 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑐 𝑒 −tan 𝑥
as the required solution.

 Exact equation: A differential equation written in the form

𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
Where M and N are function of x and y or both, is said to be exact if there
exists a function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) of 𝑥 and 𝑦 such that
𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦),
i.e. when 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁 𝑑𝑦 is an exact or a perfect differential.
The differential equation 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0
is exact, since 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑 (𝑥𝑦) = 0 which gives
𝑥𝑦 = 𝑐
Where 𝑐 is an arbitrary constant, But, the differential equation
𝑥 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0
is not exact as it stands.
1
It, however, becomes exact if we multiply both sides of it by , since
𝑥2
𝑥 𝑑𝑦−𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑦
=0 becomes 𝑑( )= 0
𝑥2 𝑥
On integration, we have
𝑦
=𝑐 or 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑥,
𝑥
where c is an arbitrary constant as its solutions.
Example:
Solve 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0
Solution:
Dividing both sides of the given equation by 𝑦 2 , we have
𝑦 𝑑𝑥−𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑥
=0 or 𝑑 ( ) = 0,
𝑦2 𝑦
This gives, on integration,
𝑥
=𝑐 or 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑦
𝑦
where 𝑐 is an arbitrary constant, is the required solution.

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2.3 Application of ODEs of first order and degree
The first order differential equation plays an important role in modelling virtually
every physical, technical or biological process. It is also used to solve real-life
problem which may not be directly solvable. The study of differential equation is
wide field in pure and applied mathematics, physics and engineering. We also use
first order and first degree differential equation for population growth rate such as
(logistics and exponential models), decay rates of radioactive materials, motion of
falling object, Newton’s law of cooling, RLC circuit, etc.

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 Conclusion

In this project, we studied about the meaning of differential equation and its types.
As well as example too. We have also study about the differential equation of first
order and first degree. We study about the various method for solving the first
order and first degree of differential equation (i.e. Variable Separable,
Homogeneous Equation Method, Linear Equation of first order and Exact
differential equation method, etc). A single differential equation may be solved by
various techniques.

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 References

[1] Kattel, P. Kafle, J (2018). Differential Equations with Applications. Kathmandu

Sukunda Pustak Bhawan.

[2] Panta, G. and Shrestha G. S. (2015). Integral Calculus and Differential Equation.
Kathmandu: Sunil Prakashan, Kathmandu.

[3] Ahsan, Z (2013). Differential Equations and Their Applications. New Delhi: PHI.

[4] Koirala, Y.P. and Shah R.B. (2015). A Textbook of Advanced Calculus. New Delhi:
S. Chand and Sons.

[5] https://www.differentialequation.ws

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