Bab 3

Food is composed of 3 main groups of constituent carbo, fats, proteins, and derivatives of these, in
addition, there’s a group of inorganic mineral components and a diverse group of organic substances
present in comparatively small proportions that include vitamins, enzymes, emulsifiers, acids,
oxidants, antioxidants, pigments, and flavors, and very important constituent water

All of these arranged in different foods to give the foods their structure, texture, flavor, color, and
nutritive value

Carbo

Types: sugars, dextrins, starches, celluloses, hemicelluloses, pectins, and certain gums

Chemically only contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

One of the simplest carbo is the six-carbon sugar glucose

Glucose and other simple sugars form ring structures of the following form:

These simple sugars each contain 6 C atoms, 12 H atoms, and 6 O atoms

They differ in the positions of oxygen and hydrogen around the ring

These differences in the arrangement of the elements result in differences in the solubility,
sweetness, rates of fermentation by microorganisms, and other properties of these sugars

2 glucose units may be linked together with the splitting out of a molecule of water

The result is the formation of a molecule of a disaccharide, in this case maltose:

Common disaccharides formed in similar fashion are sucrose/ cane sugar from glucose and fructose
(a five-membered ring), maltose / malt sugar from 2 molecules of glucose, and lactose/ milk sugar
from glucose and galactose

These disaccharides differ from one another in solubility, sweetness, susceptibility to fermentation,
and other properties

A larger number of glucose units may be linked together in polymer fashion to form polisaccharides

Ex: amylose, an important component of plant starches, a chain of glucose units linked together in a
slightly different way forms cellulose

Saccharide form: mono-, disa-, tri-saccharides, dextrins, cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, and
carbohydrate gum

Simple sugars are the building blocks of more complex polysaccharides, disaccharides, and tri-
saccharides, the dextrins, which are intermediate in chain length, on up to the starches, celluloses,
and hemicelluloses

Molecules of these latter substances may contain several hundred or more simple sugar units

Chemical derivatives of the simple sugars linked together in long chains likewise yield the pectins
and carbo gums

Disaccharides, dextrins, starches, celluloses, hemicelluloses, pectins, and carbohydrate gums are
composed of simple sugars, or their derivatives so they can be broken down/ hydrolyzed into smaller
units including their simple sugars

Ex: amylose, a straight chain fraction of starch/ amylopectin, a branched chain fraction yields
dextrins of varying intermediate chain length, the disaccharide maltose, and the monosaccharide
glucose

Acid or specific enzymes can breakdown or digest polysaccharides- microorganism, germinating

grain and in human digestive system

This breakdown. Digestion can be accomplished with acid / by specific enzymes, which are biological
catalysts

Microorganisms, germinating grain, and man possess various such enzymes

The chemically reactive groups of sugars are the hydroxyl grous (-OH) around the ring structure, and
upon opening of the ring

reducing sugars: sugars that possess free aldehyde/ ketone groups

all monosaccharides are reducing sugars, aldoses and ketoses known as reducing sugar

nonreducing sugars: where 2 or more monosaccharides are linked together through their aldehyde/
ketone groups so that these reducing groups are not free
reducing sugars particularly can react with other food constituents such as amino acids of proteins to
form compounds that affect the color, flavor, and other properties of foods

the reactive groups of long-chain sugar polymer can combine in a cross-linking fashion, the long
chain can align and form fibers, films, and three-dimensional gel-like networks

this is the basic for the production of edible films from starch as a unique coating and packaging
material

carbo produced by photosynthesis in green plants

carbo may serve as structural components as in the case of cellulose, be stored as energy reserves as
in the case of starch in plants and liver glycogen in animals, function as essential components of
nucleic acids as in the case of ribose, and as components of vitamins such as the ribose of riboflavin

carbo can be oxidized to furnish energy

glucose in the blood is a ready source of energy for animals

fermentation of carbo by yeast and other microorganisms can yield carbon dioxide, alcohol, organic
acids, and a host of other compounds

function of carbo:

 Structural component: cellulose

 Energy source: starch (plant) and glycogen (animal)
 Genetic information
 Vitamin component
 Food: fermentation produce (yeast and other microorganism)

some properties of sugars

glucose (葡萄糖), fructose (果糖), maltose (麥芽糖), sucrose (蔗糖), and lactose(乳糖) all share the
same characteristic:

o Usually used for their sweetness

o Soluble in water and readily form syrups
o Form crystals when water is evaporated from their solutions (this is the way sucrose is recovered
from sugar cane juice)
o Supply energy
o Readily fermented by microorganisms
o Prevent the growth of microorganisms in high concentration so can be used as a preservative
o Darken in color / caramelize on heating
o Some of them combine with proteins to give dark colors known as browning reaction
o Give body and mouth feel to solutions in addition to sweetness

Advance in sugar technology is the development of enzymatic processes for the conversion of
glucose to isomer fructose

Fructose is sweeter than glucose or sucrose, this made the production of sugar syrups possible with
the sweetness and certain other properties of sucrose starting from starch

Commonly corn starch is hydrolyzed to provide the glucose the isomerized

Because US produce great amount of corn, this technology make US less dependent upon imported
sucrose and availability and price can fluctuate greatly

Some properties of starches

Starches important in foods primarily of plant origin and exhibit following properties:

o Not sweet
o Not readily soluble in cold water
o Form pastes and gels in hot water
o Provide a reserve energy source in plants and supply energy in nutrition
o Occur in seeds and tubers as characteristic starch granules

When suspension of starch granules in water is heated, the granules swell/ gelatinize, this increases
the viscosity of the suspension and finally a paste is formed which on cooling can form a gel

Starch pastes used to thicken foods because their viscosity and starch gels that can be modified by
sugar/acid used in puddings

Both pastes and gels can revert / retrograde back to the insoluble form on freezing/ ageing, causing
food defects

Partial breakdown of starches yields dextrins, which are intermediate in chain length between
starches and sugars and exhibit other properties intermediate between these two classes of
compounds

Modifying the properties of natural starches by physical and chemical means increased the range of
uses for starch as food ingredient

Modification techniques include reduction of starch viscosity by chemically/ enzymatically breaking

the molecules at the glucosidic linkages / by oxidation of some of the hydroxyl groups

Swelling properties of starch heated in water can be slowed down by cross-linking reagents that
react with hydroxyl groups on adjacent starch molecules to form chemical bridges between linear
chains

The viscosity if cross-linked starch less likely to break down in acid foods and at high temperatures as
in cooking and canning

Starch further may be modified by reacting its hydroxyl groups with a range of reagents that form
ester, ether, acetal and other derivatives

Major effect of this modification is interfere with the tendency of linear molecules to associate /
retrograde to the insoluble form on freeing and ageing

Starch granules may be precooked to produce a starch that will swell in cold water

Properties of celluloses and hemicelluloses

Polymeric celluloses and hemicelluloses are abundant in the plant kingdom and act primarily as
supporting structures in plant tissues, are relatively resistant to breakdown

They’re insoluble in cold and hot water, and not digested by man so don’t yield energy

Long cellulose chains may be held together in bundles forming fibers as in cotton and flask
This structure make celery “stringy” and often ruptured by the growth of ice crystals when
vegetables such as lettuce are frozen

Fiber in food that produces necessary roughage is largely cellulose and the hard parts of coffee
beans and nut shells contain cellulose and hemicellulose (supporting structures in plant tissues such
as coffee beans and nut shells)

These materials can be broken down to glucose units by certain enzymes and microorganisms

Ex: cellulose from plants and from waste paper can be enzymatically converted to glucose,
supplemented with nitrogen, and used for the growth of yeast and other microorganism as an
animal feed supplement or as source of protein for man

Properties of pectins and carbohydrate gums

Pectins and carbo gums—sugar derivatives usually present in plants in lesser amounts than other
carbohydrates, exhibit characteristic:

o Like starches and celluloses, pectins are made up of chains of repeating units(but the units are
sugar acids rather than simple sugars
o Pectins are common in fruits and vegetables and are gumlike (they’re found in and between cell
walls and help hold the plant cells together
o Pectins are soluble in water, especially hot water
o Pectins in colloidal solution contribute viscosity to tomato paste and stabilize the fine particles in
orange juice from settling out
o Pectins in solution form gels when sugar and acid are added and this is the basis of jelly
manufacture

Other carbo gums from plants include gum Arabic, gum karaya, and gum tragacanth (seaweeds yield
the gyms agar-agar, carrageenan, and algin)

Pectins and gums ae added to foods as thickeners and stabilizers

Proteins

Molecule of proteins are made up principally of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

Most protein contain some sulfur and traces of phosphorus and other elements

Protein in animals help form supporting and protective structures such as cartilage, skin nails, hair,
and muscle

Protein are major constituent of enzymes, antibodies, and body fluids such as blood, milk, and egg
white

Like carbohydrates, proteins are built up of smaller units called amino acids that polymerized to
form long chains

Typical amino acids have following chemical formulas:

Amino acids have the -NH2 or amino group and the -COOH or carboxyl group attached to the same
carbon atom
These groups are chemically active and can combine with acids, bases, and a wide range of other
reagents

The amino and carboxyl group themselves are basic and acidic, respectively, the amino group of one
amino acid readily combines with the carboxyl group of another

The results is the elimination of a molecule of water and formation of a peptide bond, which has the
following chemical representation

When 2 amino acids have reacted, a dipeptide is formed with the peptide bond at the center

The remaining free amino and carboxyl groups at the ends can react in like fashion with other amino
acids forming polypeptides

These and other reactive groups on the chains of different amino acids can enter into a wide range
of reactions with many other food constituents

There are 20 different amino acids that make up human tissues, blood proteins, hormones, and
enzymes

8 of these are designated essential amino acids since they cannot be synthesized by man at an
adequate rate to sustain growth and health and must be supplied by the foods consumed

The remaining amino acids also are necessary for health but can be synthesized by man from other
amino acids and nitrogenous compounds and so are designated as nonessential

The essential amino acids (for human) are leucine, isoleucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine,
threonine, tryptophan, and valine

Besides 8 of them, added histidine to meet the demands of growth during childhood

Nonessential amino acids are alanine, arginine, aspartic acid, cysteine, cystine, glutamic acid, glycine,
hydroxyproline, proline, serine, and tyrosine

List of essential amino acids differs somewhat for other animal species

Variation among proteins because combinations of different amino acids, from differences in the
shapes the chain assume whether they’re straight, coiled, or folded and the differences largely
responsible for the differences in the taste and texture of chicken muscle, beef muscle, and milk
curd

Protein in solution can be converted to a gel or precipitate like happens to egg white when its
coagulated by heat

The process can be reversed: a precipitate transformed to a gel/ solution as in the case of dissolving
animal hoofs with acid / alkali to make glue

This referred in the producing texturized foods from soybean protein

Protein denatured: when the organized molecular / spatial configuration of protein is disorganized

Can be done with heat, chemicals, excessive stirring of protein solutions, and acid or alkali

Steak shrinks on cooking because when meat is heated, the protein chains shrink
When milk is coagulated by acid and heat, protein precipitates forming cheese curd, if the heat or
acid is excessive, the precipitated curd shrinks and becomes tough and rubbery

Egg white can be whipped because protein solutions can form films that hold entrapped air, but if
overwhip the protein denature, the films break and the foam collapses

proteins can be broken down with acids, alkalis, and enzymes

Products of protein degradation in order of decreasing size and complexity are protein, proteoses,
peptones, polypeptides, peptides, amino acids, NH 3, and elemental nitrogen

Highly odorous compounds like mercaptans, skatole, putrescine, and H2S may form during
decomposition

Controlled cheese ripening involves a desirable degree of protein breakdown

Putrefaction of meat is the result of excessive protein breakdown accompanying other changes

Functions of protein:

 Supporting and protective structure

 Protein in solution can be converted to a gel or precipitate
 Denatured x
 Nutritional value, solubility, water sorption, viscosity, cohesion, elasticity, emulsifying
effects, foamability, foam stability, and fiber formation

Fats

Difference between carbo and protein:

They’re not polymers of repeating molecular units, not form ling molecular chains, and not
contribute structural strength to plant and animal tissues

Fats are smooth, greasy substances that are insoluble in water

Fats mainly a fuel source for the animal or plant in which its found or for the animal that eats it

Fats contain about 2¼ times the calories found in an equal dry weight of protein or carbohydrate

Fats has other substances associated with it in natural foods like fat soluble vitamins A,D,E,K, the
sterols, cholesterol in animal fats and ergosterol in vegetable fats, and certain natural lipid
emulsifiers designated phospholipids because of the presence of phosphoric acid in their molecules

Typical fat molecule consists of glycerol combined with 3 fatty acids

Common fatty acid found in butter glycerol and butyric acid have chemical formulas:

Glycerol has 3 reactive hydroxyl groups and fatty acids have one reactive carboxyl group

3 fatty acid molecules can combine with each glycerol molecule, eliminating 3 molecules of water

There’re about 20 diffeent fatty acids that may be connected to glycerol in natural fats

These fatty acids differ in length and in the number of hydrogen atoms they contain
Formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid (CH3COOH), and propionic acid (CH3CH2COOH), are the shortest of
the fatty acids

Stearic acid (C17H35COOH) is one of the longer common fatty acids

Fat molecules can differ with respect to the length of their fatty acids, the degree of unsaturation of
their fatty acids, the position of specific fatty acids with respect to the 3 carbon atoms of glycerol,
orientation in the chains of unsaturated fatty acids to produce spatial variation within these chains
and in other way

Triglyceride: have all 3 hydroxyl groups of glycerol reacted with fatty acids

Diglyceride: when 2 are reacted

Monoglyceride: when glycerol combine with only one fatty acid molecule

Diglyceride and monoglyceride have special emulsifying properties

Natural fats: not made up of one type of fat molecule but mixtures of many type

The longer fatty acids yield harder fats, the shorter fatty acids contributes to softer fats

Oil: fat that’s liquid at room temperature

Hydrogenation: process when hydrogen is added to saturate highly unsaturated fatty acids

Natural emulsifiers

Emulsifiers: material that keep fat globules dispersed in water or water droplets dispersed in fat

Without this mayonnaise would separate into water and oil layer, stabilize by the presence of egg
yolk, but the active ingredient in egg yolk stabilizing the emulsion are phospholipids (lecithin)

Lecithin: structurally like fats but contain phosphoric acid, have an electrically charged or polar end
(the + and – at the bottom) and a noncharged or nonpolar end at the top

Organic acid

Natural acid = give the fruits tartness and slow down bacterial spoilage

Citric acid: orange and lemon

Malic acid: apples

Tartaric acid: grapes

Deliberately ferment some foods with desirable bacteria to produce acid and give the food flavor
and keeping quality:

 fermentation of cabbage= produce lactic acid and yield sauerkraut

 fermentation of apple juice= produce first alcohol and acetic acid to obtain vinegar
 manufacture of cheese= bacterial starter culture added to milk to produce lactic acid, aids in
curd formation and in the subsequent preservation of the curd against undesirable bacterial
spoilage

organic acid imparting flavor and aiding in food preservation. Have a wide range of textural
effects in food system due to their reactions with proteins, starches, pectins. Gums, and other
food constituents

the rubbery / crumbly condition of cheddar cheese depends upon acid concentration and pH, as
does the stretchability of bread dough, the firmness of pudding, the viscosity of sugar syrup, the
spreadability of jellies and jams, and the mouth feel of certain beverage

organic acid influence the color of foods since many plant and animal pigment are natural pH
indicators

help lowering food pH as under anaerobic condition and slightly above a pH of 4.6, Clostridium
botulinum can grow and produce lethal toxin

oxidant and antioxidant

fats become rancid on excessive exposure to air

carotene (vit a) and ascorbic acid (vit c) are diminished in vitamin activity by oxygen

oxygen is oxidant, it caused oxidation of these materials, always present in and around food
though it may be minimized by nitrogen / vacuum packaging

Cu and Fe are strong promoter / catalyst of oxidation, that’s why they’ve largely been replaced
in food processing equipment by stainless steel

Fenton rxn

Antioxidant: tends to prevent oxidation

Natural antioxidant in food: lecithin (also emulsifier), vit e, certain sulfur containing amino acid

Synthetic chemicals are the most effective antioxidant approved by Food and Drug
Administration for addition to foods
Major source energy for man: carbohydrates, fats, proteins

Calories:

 energy value of foods measured in heat units

 The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree
Celsius (from 14.5o o 15.5oC)

Kilocalorie (1000 calories):

 unit commonly used in expressing energy values of foods

 international system of units (SI) use kilojoule (kilocalories x 4.2 = kilojoules)

total potential energy of foods and food components determined by burning the food in a steel
bomb calorimeter under oxygen pressure, the bomb and water that immersed in, rise in
temperature to an extent that’s directly related to gross energy content of food

 common averages from calorimeter studies in kcal/g generally are given as 4.1 carbohydrates,
9.5 fats, 5.7 proteins
 carbohydrates (sugar, starch) generally about 98% digested and fully oxidized by man
provide about 4 kcal/g
 fats generally digested to the extent of 95% yielding 9 kcal/g
 proteins due to incomplete digestion and oxidation generally yield energy equivalent to 4
kcal/g
 thus on equal weight basis, fat generally yields 2.25 times as many calories as protein / carbo

o calories needed to satisfy body’s energy requirements for production of body heat, synthesis of
body tissue, performance of work
o when body performs little work, a greater proportion of this energy is conserved and stored in
the form of fat
o when energy demands exceed the intake of calories, fat and other tissues are oxidized to
provide this energy and the body loses weight

adult male’s daily requirement can range from 2500 to 5000 kcal

fats are the most concentrated source of food calories, carbohydrates are the cheapest source and
proteins the most expensive

the body can fulfill its energy and carbon requirements from proteins and fats, also can synthesize
blood glucose, liver glycogen, the ribose sugar components of nucleic acids, and other carbohydrates
from proteins and fats

carbohydrates from the foods consumed help the body use fat efficiently by supplying an organic
acid formed as an intermediate in the oxidation of carbohydrates. Organic acid required for the
complete oxidation of fat to CO2 and water

ketosis: when fats isn’t efficiently oxidized and ketone bodies can accumulate in the blood

carbo exert a protein-sparing effect, when carbo are depleted and needs additional energy, it gets
this energy by oxidizing fats and proteins, energy requirement of proteins satisfied at the expense of
the body requirement for proteins and amino acids as components of body tissues, enzymes,
antibodies, and other essential nitrogen-containing substances but if carbohydrates are supplied, the
body oxidizes the for energy iin preference to protein and thus the protein is spared
role of carbohydrates such as cellulose and hemicellulose in providing fiber and bulk is essential to a
healthy condition of the intestine

the microflora of the intestine are influenced by the nature of carbo in the diet

when carbo are comparatively slow to dissolve like starch and lactose, they remain in the intestinal
tract for longer periods than the more highly soluble sugars so they serve as readily available
nutrients for growth of microorganisms that synthesize several vitamins of the B complex

slow rate of absorption of lactose from the intestine can cause diarrhea in some adults consuming
excessive amounts of this sugar

lactose can increase calcium retention in children

protein roles in supplying the nitrogenous matter for the synthesis pf body tissues and other
constituents of life and in providing those essential amino acids that the body cannot itself
synthesize

true comparative value of different proteins depends upon their different amino acid compositions

complete protein:

contains all of the essential amino acids in amounts and proportions to maintain life and support
growth when used as the sole source of protein

have high biological value like anime protein found in meat, poultry, fish, milk, and eggs

an exception is gelatin which contains limited amounts of isoleucine, threonine, and methionine, and
no tryptophan

plant proteins generally not as high in biological value as animal proteins because of amino acid
limitations like most varieties of wheat, rice, corn lack lysine, corn also lacks tryptophan, legumes are
of somewhat higher protein quality but have limited amounts of methionine

incomplete proteins can be supplemented with the missing essential amino acids either in the form
of synthetic compounds or as protein concentrates from natural sources

blends of plant and animal products can overcome essential amino acid limitations and produce
nutritional adequacy, but complementary components should best be given at the same feeding
since the bod has very limited protein storage capacity and all amono acids are needed for daily
protein synthesis

amount of protein required daily which beyond early childhood may range from 40 to 80 g depends
upon the body demand (greatest during growth, pregnancy, and lactation)

one of the severest needs for protein on a world population basis is in infants after weaning and in
young children

protein shortage / protein malnutrition can be dramatically reversed by proper diet

in instances where adequate protein and proper diet are withheld too long, recovery may not be
complete due to irreversible damage and possible mental retardation
fats supply calories for energy and also supply polyunsaturated fatty acids, at least one of which
linoleic acid is termed an essential fatty acid

linoleic acid is called essential fatty acid because animals cannot adequately synthesize it so it must
be supplied by the diet as such

in rats and in human infants absence of linoleic acid interferes with normal growth rates and results
in skin disorders

two other polyunsaturated fatty acids, linolenic acid and arachidonic acid, formerly also were listed
as essential fatty acids but since the body can convert linoleic acid to arachidonic acid and since
linolenic acid can only partially replace linoleic acid, the newer literature regards only linoleic acid as
an essential fatty acid

good sources of linoleic acid: grain and seed oils, fats from nuts, and fats from poultry

linoleic and other unsaturated fatty acids when present in high proportion of dietary fats can lower
blood cholesterol levels under certain dietary conditions

vitamins A,D,E,K are fat soluble and so are to be found associated with the fat fractions of natural
foods

phospholipids, which are organic esters of fatty acids and also contain phosphoric acid and usually a
nitrogenous base are partially soluble in fats

the emulsifying properties of lecithin were discussed om ch 3

lecithin, cephalin, and other phospholipids are found in brain, nerve, liver, kidney, heart, blood and
other tissues in addition to their presence in egg yolk

because of their strong affinity for water, the facilitate the passage of fats in and out of the cells and
play a role in fat absorption from the intestine and the transport of fats from the liver

fat physically insulates the body from rapid changes in temperature and helps cushion organs from
sudden injury

excess dietary fat is stored in the body’s adipose (fatty) tissue, as are fats formed from the
metabolism of excess carbo and proteins

these stored fats can be drawn upon as a reserve source of energy

in excessive amounts they contribute to obesity