Unit - 1 (IIM) - Metrology

Unit-1 Industrial Instrumentation & Measurement (New)
METROLOGY
The word metrology actually derives from the Greek words ‘metron’ and ‘logos’
which translated means the study of measurement.
Dimensional measurement forms an important part in the modern day engineering

instrument techniques. This study confined in the aspects of measurement of
dimensions like length, width, height, diameter, thickness from which both linear
and angular parameters are known. The selection of particular device for a
particular application depends upon several factors:
1. Type of measurement-Whether linear or angular

2. Contact-Whether contacting type or proximity
3. Input-output relationship-In terms of sensitivity, precision, linearity in
addition to other specification.
4. Time dependence-Whether quantity is static or dynamic
5. Magnitude of displacement-Whether small or large.
Small magnitude range may be of Nano or micro scale and large values may
be close to mega or tera range.
Metrology involves:
• Dimensional and geometric measurements as well as technical testing and

quality control applications in industry.
• In addition, the calibration of measuring instruments and measurement
uncertainties.
STANDARDS & CALIBRATION
Measurement is an act of quantitative comparison between predefined standard
and the unknown magnitude of a physical quantity. Following two requirements
must be met in measurement.
1. The standard that is used for comparison must be well established, highly
accurate and reproducible.
2. Measurement devices and calibration procedures must have proven
reliability.
B.Tech. (E&I) V Semester IET, BU

STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT
Standards are considered as measurement references. It is defined as physical

representation of the unit of measurement. Physical properties such as length,
weight and temperature are determined by comparison with known quantities.
There are different types of standards of measurement and can be classified
according to their function and type of application.
• International Standards-Here the devices design and constructed to

the specification of international forum. These standards are
maintained by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at
France. For example-the international prototype kilogram, wavelength
of Kr 86 orange red lamp and cesium clock are the international
standards for mass, length and time respectively. These standards are
not available to an ordinary users for the purpose of day to day
comparison and calibration.
• Primary Standards- Here the devices maintained by standard
organizations/national laboratories in different parts of the world.
These devices represent the fundamental and derived quantities and
are calibrated independently by absolute measurements. These are
also not easily available to an ordinary user of instrument for checking
and calibration of working standard.
• Secondary Standards-These are the basic reference standards
employed by industrial measurement laboratories. The important
function of industrial laboratory is the maintenance and periodic
calibration of secondary standards against primary standards of the
national standards laboratory/organization. These are easily available
to the ordinary user of instruments for checking and calibration of
working standards.
• Working Standards-These are highly accuracy devices that are
commercially available and are duly checked and certified against
primary or secondary standards. For example-The widely used standard
of length are the precision gauge blocks made of steel.

CALIBRATION
It is the act or result of quantitative comparison between a known standard and the
output of the measuring system measuring the same quantity. It is a procedure
used to determine the scale of the measuring system. Calibration procedures can be
classified as:
1. Primary Calibration-When a device or system is calibrated against primary

standards, the procedure is known as primary calibration. Standard resistor or
standard cell are example of primary calibration.
2. Secondary Calibration-When the device is used to further calibrate the
device of lesser accuracy, then the procedure used is known as secondary
calibration. For example, standard cell may be used for calibrating a
voltmeter or an ammeter with suitable circuitry.
3. Direct Calibration with known input source- These devices has same order of
accuracy as primary calibration. Can also be used as secondary calibration
devices. For Example-A flow meter like turbine meter can be calibrated using
primary measurements such as weighing a certain amount of water in a tank
and recording the time taken for this quantity of water to flow through the
meter. This flow meter may be used for secondary calibration of other flow
measuring devices such as venture or orifice.
4. Indirect Calibration-It is based on the equivalence of two different devices
that can be used for measuring a certain quantity. To predict the
performance of one meter on the basis of an experiment study of another.
5. Routine Calibration-It is procedure of periodically checking the accuracy and
proper functioning of instruments with standards. Here are some usual steps
taken in the calibration procedure:
• Visual inspection of instruments for any defects
• Proper installations according to the manufacturer’s specifications
• Zero setting of all the indicators
• Levelling of the device
• Recommended operational tests to detect any major defects

LINEAR LENGTH
Line Standards
In the line standards the unit of length is defined as the distance between the
centers of engraved lines as in a steel rule.
This form of measurement is not very convenient to use. Commercial line standards
have the disadvantages that there is a limit to the accuracy with which the line can
be produced, and their employment involves the use of microscopes and other
special equipment.
Characteristics of line standards–
1. Scales are subjected to the parallax effect, a source of both positive and
negative reading errors.

2. Scales are nor convenient for close tolerance length measurement except in
conjunction with microscope.
3. Scales can be accurately engraved but it is difficult to take full advantage of
this accuracy, e.g. a steel rule can be read to about ±2 mm of true dimension.
4. A scale does not possess a ‘built in’ datum which would allow easy scale
alignment with tile axis of measurement, this leads to ‘under sizing’.
5. The scale markings are not subject to wear although significant wear on
leading end leads to ‘under sizing’, i.e. a bias towards negative component
error.
Fig: Screw gauge and Caliper
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘

Least count =
𝑵𝒐.𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆
END STANDARDS
When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between two surfaces,
this is referred to as end standard.
For all the important works in the shop, the users prefer end standards e.g. slip
gauges, length bars, the ends of micrometer anvils, gap gauges etc.
The distance between the end faces directly determines the length.
The end faces are hardened, lapped, flat and parallel to a very high degree of
accuracy.
A modern end standard consists of a block or bar of steel, generally hardened
whose end faces are lapped flat and parallel to within a few tenths of a micrometer.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dTT9Z49LSeg
Characteristics of end standards -
1. They are time consuming in use and prove only one dimension at a time.
2. End standards are highly accurate and are well suited to measurements of
close tolerance.
3. They are subjected to wear on their measuring faces.
4. Dimensional tolerance as small as 0.0005 mm can be obtained.
5. End standards have a ‘built in’ datum because their measuring faces are flat
and parallel and can be positively located on a datum surface.
6. They are not subjected to parallax effect as their use depends on “feel”.
7. Groups of blocks are ‘wrung’ together to provide a given size, fault wringing
leads to damage.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LINE STANDARDS AND END STANDARDS
The differences between line standards and end standards are given as follows:
Line standard End standard
1. Line standards do not provide high 1. End standards more suited to
accuracy. accuracy requirements of higher order.
2. They are quick and easy to use over a 2. They are time consuming in use, and
wide range. prove only one dimension at a time.
3. They are not subjected to wear 3. They are subjected to wear on their
although significant wear on leading measuring faces.
end leads to under-sizing.
4. They are subjected to the parallax 4. They are not subjected to parallax
effect, a source of both positive and effect as their use depends on ‘feel’.
negative reading errors.

GAUGE & GAUGE BLOCK
Gauge is an inspection tool used to rectify errors in terms of linear measurements

or to measure tolerance limit of a component. Linear measurements comprises
measuring length, height, diameter etc. Gauges are mainly used in order to sort the
appropriate dimension of work piece.
The major dimensional standard of engineering workshop is the gauge block. A

gauge block is a length standard having flat and parallel opposing surfaces made up
of steel. The cross- sectional shape is not very important, although the standard
does give suggested dimensions for rectangular, square and circular cross-sections.
Gauge blocks are classified by NIST (National institute of Standards and Technology)
and other National laboratories using interferometers with given tolerance limits.
Gauge blocks have nominal lengths defined in either the metric system (millimeters)
or in the English system (1 inch = 25.4 mm).The length of gauge block at standard
reference conditions:
Temperature = 200C (680F)
Barometric Pressure=101,325Pa (1 atmosphere)
Water vapor Pressure=1,333 Pa (10 mm of Hg)
Co2 content of air=0.03%
Several standard blocks made in different steps are available. These blocks are
available in sets. The more accurate set available has 81 pieces consisting of
increments in inches as shown in table.
Table: Gauge block of 81 pieces
No of blocks Range (in) Increments
9 0.1001 to 0.1009 0.0001
49 0.101 to 0.149 0.001
19 0.050 to 0.99 0.050
4 1 to 4 1

COMPARATORS
A comparator is a precision instrument employed to compare the dimension of a

given component with a working standard (usually slip gauges). It thus does not
measure the actual dimension but indicate how much it differs from the basic
dimension .It is used for measuring or comparing linear dimensions to an accuracy
within one in a thousand to one in ten thousands with a stand or bench type design.
The common variety is a dial gauge provided with a stand. Comparators are often
calibrated using gauge blocks. Displacement sensor like strain gauge types, LVDTs
etc. can be used.
In mass production identical components are produced on a very large scale.

Micrometer and vernier caliper are not more feasible because skill involve and time
required to meet the dimension. In such case comparator is more suitable for
measurement.
Working Principle
Fig: Principle of working of comparator
1. Comparator is first checked or adjusted to zero on its dial with a gauge block
(standard) in position.
2. Reading H1 is taken with the plunger.
3. The work piece to be checked is then placed in position, reading H2 is taken.
4. If there is a change in dimension, it will be shown on the dial.
Comparators consists of-
• A Sensing device
• An Amplifying system (to increase the signal to suitable magnitude)
• A Display system (scale or pointer)
Types of commercial comparators
(1) Mechanical
(2) Pneumatic
(3) Electrical and Electronic
(4) Optical
[1] MECHANICAL COMPARATOR / MICROKATOR

These are mostly used for inspection of small parts machined to close limits.
In these comparators the magnification is achieved by various mechanical devices
and mechanical linkages.
The magnification of the stylus movement is obtained by means of levers, gear
trains, rack and pinion or a combination.
The magnification obtained by these comparators from 300 to 5000 to 1.
Types of mechanical comparator
1.1 Dial Indicator type Comparator
1.2 Reed type Comparator
1.3 Johansson Microkator
1.4 Sigma Comparator

[1.1] DIAL INDICATOR
It is very simple in use.

Consists of a base with rigid column.
Arm mounting on column and carries
a dial gauge.
The part to be checked is placed
below the plunger.
Generally used for inspection of small
precision machine parts.
Ideal for checking components of
tolerances +/-0.005 mm.
Working
When plunger set to mid When plunger moves out When the plunger moves
position the dial reads of the case the needle into the case the needle
zero. moves counter clockwise moves clockwise
direction and gives direction and gives
negative reading. positive reading.

[1.2] REED TYPE MECHANICAL COMPARATOR
It is a frictionless device for

magnifying small motions of a
spindle.
The gauging head is sensitive, high
quality, dial indicator mounted on a
base supported by column.
Does not require any external source
of supply.
More inertia so prone to vibrational
effect.
Working
A fixed block A is connected to the

gauge head case.
The floating block B carries the
gauging spindle and is connected
horizontally to the fixed block A with
reed C (horizontal reed).
The vertical reed D is attached to
each block with upper end joined
together with a pointer.
The amount of target swing is
proportional to the distance the
floating block B has moved.

[1.3] JOHANSSON MICROKATOR
Invented By C E Johansson in 1938.
It is an instrument used for
measuring differences in length.
Best finest mechanical comparator.
It provide many feature which are
not available in any other measuring
instrument.
It magnifies any deviation in size so
that even small deviation produces
large deflections of the pointer over
the scale.
The transfer of movement from
measuring tip to the pointer is
mechanical, completely frictionless.
Working
The unique twisted strip principle
on which all microkators are based.
Thin metal strip at the center
carries a light pointer made up of
glass.
One end of the strip is attached to
the adjustable cantilever strip and
other to the bell crank lever which
pivoted at the frame of the comparator and other ends contact with the plunger.
Plunger move upwards due to contact with the work piece, the bell crank lever pulls
the twisted strip and causes strip to rotate thereby the strip start to untwist
resulting in the movement of the pointer.
The spring ensures that the plunger returns when the contact is removed.
Length of cantilever can be used to adjust the magnification.

[2]PNEUMATIC COMPARATOR/NON-CONTACT COMPARATOR
Components of pneumatic
comparators
1. Precision air regulator
2. Tooling: plugs, rings, other shapes
3. Amplifier: Dial type meter, flow
meter tube, air electronic column
Working
When the nozzle is open to atmosphere,
there is a maximum air flow and a
minimum pressure between the
restriction and the nozzle.
When an obstruction (work piece) is
brought increasingly close to the nozzle
(measuring orifice), air flow from the
nozzle reduces and back pressure builds.
When the nozzle is completely
obstructed, air flow is zero and back
pressure reaches the pressure of the
regulator air supply.

[3]ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC COMPARATOR
Also known as electromechanical

measuring system as they employ
electromechanical device which
converts a mechanical displacement
into electrical signal.
No moving parts.
High degree of reliability.
Working
These comparators works on ac
Wheatstone bridge circuit principle.
Here the plunger is a sensing element
which on movement displaces an
armature inside a pair of coil.
Displacement of armature causes
change in inductance in the two coils
resulting in a net change of
inductance.
This change causes imbalance in the
bridge circuit and gives an output.
The display device is calibrated to show
readings in the units of length.

[4]OPTICAL COMPARATOR
This comparator gives high degree of
magnification due to reduction of moving
members.
Having smaller number of moving parts
and hence give a higher accuracy.
It is a part mechanical and part optical
comparator.
It is especially used in tool room
applications.
Working
These comparators are based on the principle of projection of image.
The arrangement consists of mechanical system which causes a plane reflector to

tilt about an axis so that the image of an index is projected on scale on the inner
surface of ground glass screen.
The actual difference between the two dimensions is amplified by a lever to give an
angular displacement α of a pivoted mirror.
The reflected ray is deflected through an angle 2α from the original line and gives a
reading on screen.

INTERFERROMETRY
Interferrometric measurements of
surface shape are relative measurement
techniques in which the shape of a
known surface is compared with that of
an unknown surface, and the difference
is displayed as a series of interference
fringes.
This displacement measuring

interferometry is extensively used for
calibration and mechanical stage
motion control in precision machining.
MICHELSON INTERFERROMETER
Michelson interferometer is a typical

configuration for optical interferometry.
The Michelson interferometer produces

interference fringes by splitting a beam of
light so that one beam strikes a fixed mirror
and the other a movable mirror.
When the reflected beams are brought back

together, an interference pattern results.
Precise distance measurements can be

made with the Michelson interferometer by moving the mirror and counting the
interference fringes which move by a reference point. The distance d associated
with m fringes is d = m λ/2.

Flats
Optical flats can be described as an

optical grade glass, which is polished
and made extremely flat on both
surfaces.
They are used for determining the
flatness of various optical surfaces.
Optical flats are usually disc shaped
with parallel, or nearly parallel,
surfaces, one of which is given an
optical finish.
Materials used for optical flats need to have a very small coefficient of thermal
expansion.
Working
Interference is the principle behind the

working of optical flats.
An optical flat is placed on a surface,

in order to measure its flatness, before
a monochromatic light is made to pass
through the area of contact.
In cases where the test surface is

perfectly flat, there will be no gap
between the two surfaces.
In cases where the test surface is not flat, interference fringes will be formed, and
will be visible in the form of dark and light bands.
The elevation of the surface is determined by counting the fringe differences.
That flatness measure is normally at least λ/10, and sometimes even substantially
better – e.g. down to a few nanometers.
The surface roughness is also usually very low.

SINE BAR
A sine bar is used in conjunction with slip

gauge blocks for precise angular
measurement.
Sine bars are made from a high chromium
corrosion resistant steel, and is hardened,
precision ground, and stabilized.
Accuracy up to 0.01mm/m of length of the
sine bar can be obtained.
Working
A sine bar is generally used with slip
gauge blocks.
Two cylinders of equal diameter are
placed at the ends of the bar.
The axes of these two cylinders are
mutually parallel to each other, and are
also parallel to, and at equal distance
from, the upper surface of the sine bar.
The sine bar forms the hypotenuse of a
right triangle, while the slip gauge blocks forms the opposite side.
The height of the slip gauge block is found by trigonometry principle
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒉
Sin θ = = h→height of slip gauge
𝑯𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝑳
Angle θ=Sin-1(h/L) L→Length of sine bar (between centres)
Limitations
Reliable to angle less than 15
Slight errors in sine bar cause linear angular errors.
Physically difficult to hold in position.

VELOCITY AND SPEED MEASUREMENT
Several nomenclatures are used for speed and velocity.

In measurement, speed and velocity are not separately identified.
Velocity (or speed) is a first derivative of displacement.
As displacement, velocity (or speed) is also linear and angular.
Linear speed expressed in meters per second (m/s), and the angular speed of a
rotating machine usually expressed in radians per second (rad/s) or revolutions
per minute (rpm).
LINEAR VELOCITY (OR SPEED) MEASUREMENT

It consists of a moving coil suspended in
the magnetic field of a permanent magnet.
The velocity is given as the input, which
causes the movement of the coil in the
magnetic field.
This causes an emf to be generated in the coil.
This induced emf will be proportional to the
input velocity and thus, is a measure of the
velocity.
The instantaneous voltage (output) Vo
produced is given by the equation
Vo =B A n v
Where n →No of turns of the coil
A→Coil Area
v→velocity
B→Flux density of magnet
ANGULAR VELOCITY (OR SPEED) MEASUREMENT/TACHOMETER
Angular speed is often used in the measurement

of shaft speed.
Angular measurements are made with a device
called tachometer.
Tachometer is an instrument used to measure
angular velocity as of shaft, either by
registering the number of rotations during the
period of contact or by indicating directly the
number of rotation per minute.
Tachometers may be classified into two categories:
1. Mechanical tachometers 2. Electrical tachometers 3.Contactless tachometers
1.MECHANICAL TACHOMETER
These tachometers used only mechanical parts and mechanical movements for the
measurement of speed.They may be of different type:
1.1 Revolution counter
1.2 Hand Held speed indicator
1.3 Centrifugal force/Fly Ball Tachometer
1.4 Vibrating reed Tachometer

[1.1]Revolution counter
These are used to measure speed when

continuous electric output signals are
not required.
Such speed counters are limited to
low speed engines which permit
reading the counter at definite time
intervals.
A properly designed and
manufactured revolution counter
would give a satisfactory speed
measure up to 50 rps.
Working
It consists of a worm gear which is also the
shaft attachment and is driven by the
speed source.
The worm drives the spur gear which in

turn actuates the pointer on a calibrated
dial.
The pointer indicates the number of

revolutions turned by the input shaft in a
certain length of time.
This unit requires a separate timer to

measure the time interval.
The revolution counter, thus, gives an average rotational speed rather than an
instantaneous rotational speed.

[1.2]Hand held speed indicator
This an automated version of revolution

counter.
The indicator has an integral stop watch
and counter with automatic disconnect.
The instrument indicates the average
speed over the short interval.
The dial is designed to indicate the
rotational speed directly in rpm.
These speed measuring units have an
accuracy of about 1% of the full scale and
have been used for speeds within the
range 500 rps.
Working
It consist of a counter and stop watch

arranged in such a way that automatic
disconnection occurs.
The spindle operates when brought in
contact with the shaft, but the counter
does not function until the start and wind
button is pressed to start the watch and
engage the automatic clutch.
Depressing of the starting button also
serves to wind the starting watch.
After a fixed time-interval (usually 3 or 6 seconds), the revolution counter
automatically gets disengaged.

[1.3] Centrifugal Force Tachometer/Fly- Ball
The device operates on the principle that

centrifugal force is proportional to the speed
of rotation.
Certain attachments can be mounted onto

the spindle to use these tachometers for the
measurement of linear speed.
It can measure speed upto 750 rps.
Generally used to make or break circuit for

speed control.
Working
Two fly balls (small weights) are arranged

about a central spindle.
As shaft rotates,centrifugal force

developed by the rotating balls works to
compress the spring as function of speed
and accordingly position a pointer on a
scale(velocity calibrated)
𝑀𝑣 2
Centripetal force = Ma =
𝑟

[1.4]Vibrating Reed Tachometer
Vibrating reed tachometers utilize the fact that speed and vibration in a body are
interrelated.
This consists of a set of vertical reeds of different masses.
Each reed is having its own natural frequency of vibration.
The reeds are fastened to a base plate at one end, with the other end free to vibrate.
When the tachometer base plate is placed in mechanical contact with the frame of a
rotating machine, a reed tuned to resonance with the machine vibrations responds
most frequently.
The indicated reed vibration frequency can be calibrated to indicate the speed of the
rotating machine.

[2]ELECTRICAL TACHOMETER
An electrical tachometer depends for its

indications upon an electrical' signal generated in
proportion to the rotational speed of the shaft.
Depending on the type of the transducer,
electrical tachometers have been constructed in a
variety of different designs.
2.1 Eddy- Current/Drag cup type

2.2 DC Tachogenerator
2.3 AC Tachogenerator
[2.1]Drag cup /Eddy- Current Type Tachometer
The test shaft rotates a permanent magnet and this induces eddy currents in an
aluminum drag cup or disc held close to the magnet.
The eddy currents produce a torque which rotates the cup against the torque of a
spiral spring.
The disc turns in the direction of the rotating magnetic field until the torque
developed equals that of the spring.
A pointer attached to the cup indicates the rotational speed on a calibrated scale.
The automobile speedometers operate on this principle and measure the angular
speed of the wheels. The linear speed is calculated by multiplying with a factor in
terms of wheel diameter.
Eddy current tachometers are used for measuring rotational speeds up to 200 rps
with an accuracy of ±3%.

[2.2] DC Tachogenerator
This consists of a pair of permanent
magnet.
A rotor is wound with a coil in the field
of magnet.
Rotor is connected to the shaft of the
machine whose speed is to be
measured.
As the shaft rotates, a pulsating voltage
proportional to the speed is produced
and measured with the help of a moving coil voltmeter calibrated in terms of speed.
The tachometer is sensitive to the direction of rotation caused by a change in
polarity and thus can be used to indicate this direction of rotation.
[2.3] AC Tachogenerator
A squirrel cage induction motor is used

as an AC tachogenerator.
There are two mutually
perpendicular winding on the stator.
One winding is excited at a carrier
frequency.
The magnetic field in the air gap
rotates at a synchronous speed
corresponding to the carrier frequency.
The emf (voltage) induced in the second stator winding is always the carrier
frequency and the amplitude is proportional to the speed.
This emf is rectified and measured with a permanent magnet moving coil
instrument.
The instrument can also be used to measure a difference in speed of two
sources by differentially connecting the stator coils.
These are employed for continuous measurement of speeds up to 500 rpm
with an accuracy of ±1%.

[3] CONTACTLESS TACHOMETER

These tachometers produce pulse from a rotating shaft without any physical
contact between the speed transducer and the shaft. The advantage of these
tachometer is that no load is applied to the machine.
These are of various types:
3.1 Inductive pick up Tachometer 3.2 Capacitive Pick up Tachometer

3.3 Photoelectric 3.4 Stroboscope
[3.1]Inductive Pickup Tachometer
It is a variable reluctance type tachometer.
When the gear wheel rotates with n number of

teeth on its periphery, the pickup coil gives pulses
as each tooth comes closest with it.
Each revolution gives n number of pulse.
These pulses are then shaped and amplified with

proper circuitry and counted by a counter and
timer assembly.
If the number of pulses counted per second is N then rotation per second is given by
nr =N/n
Where nr → number of rotation per second
N →Number of pulses per second
n→number of teeth
If number of teeth are 60 in any rotor, the pulse counted in second will directly give
rpm value.

[3.2]Capacitive Pick up Tachometer

This device consists of a vane
which is attached to one end of
the rotating machine shaft.
When shaft rotates between the
fixed capacitive plates, there will
be a change in the capacitance.
The capacitor forms a part of an
oscillator tank so that number of
frequency changes per unit of time is a measure of the shaft speed.
The pulses then shaped, amplified and given to a digital counter so as to provide a
measure of the shaft rotation.
[3.3]Photoelectric Tachometer
This tachometer consist of a light

source and a light sensor (photo
detector).
A mechanical interrupter like a
perforated disc or reflecting (white)
and non-reflecting (black) surface is
used which is mounted on a rotating
shaft.
When a beam of light hits the
reflecting surface on the rotating shaft, light pulses are obtained and the reflected
light is focused onto the photo detector (photo electric cell).
The pulses so obtained are shaped and amplified which fed to the counter circuit.
The frequency of light pulses is proportional to the shaft speed which is same as the
output from photo detector.

[3.4]Stroboscope
The stroboscopic principle of speed measurement depends on the dynamic vision of

the human eye.
If a moving (rotating) object is being incident with strong flashes of light of fixed
frequency the object appears to loose or gain the speed.
The frequency of the light flashes is adjusted until the rotating member appears
motionless.
At this time the frequency of lamp and rotating object is same and numerical value
can be read from the calibrated dial.

ACCELERATION PICK UP
Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity or speed divided by time.

An accelerometer is widely used to measure vibrations and shock.
These are the electromechanical devices which measures acceleration forces.
These forces may be static like constant force of gravity pulling at our feet or it may
be dynamic caused by moving or vibrating the accelerometer.
By measuring the amount of static acceleration due to gravity one can find the
angle at which the device is tilted with respect to earth.
By sensing the amount of dynamic acceleration one can analyze the way the device
is moving.
For example:
1.Accelerometers in laptop protect hard drives from damages.if the laptop were to
suddenly drop while in use,the accelerometer detect the sudden free fall and
immediately turn off the hard drive .
2.In cars as the industry method of detecting car crashes and deploying air bags
instantaneously.
3.Using compass in smartphonesshows which direction the phone is pointing.Smart
phones and other mobile technology identify their orientation through the use of an
accelerator,a small device made up of axis based motion sensing.
Accelerometers can be classified on the following effects.
1. Peizoelectric Accelerometer
2. Capacitive Accelerometer

[1]Peizoelectric Accelerometer
Working Principle
The unit contains sensor of a piezo-electric crystal sandwiched, between two

electrodes and has a seismic mass (test mass; known quantity of mass used in a
measuring instrument as a reference for the measurement of unknown quantity)
placed on it.
The unit is fastened to the base whose acceleration characteristics are to be
obtained.
Mass exerts a force on the crystal and a certain output voltage is generated.
If the base is now accelerated downward, inertial reaction force on the base acts
upward against the top of the housing.
This relieves stress on the crystal.
From Newton's second law
Force = mass × acceleration
[2]Capacitive Accelerometer
Working Principle
If two microstructure next to each other having certain capacitance between them.
Acceleration force move one of the structure, the capacitance will change.

VIBRATION PICK UP
Vibratory motion is measured by finding the displacement, velocity and

acceleration of the test object.
Commonly used vibration pick up is seismic instrument.
It is also known as seismic acceleration pickup.
The basic configuration consists

of a spring supported mass
mounted in a suitable enclosure,
with a sensing element provided
to detect the relative motion
between the mass and the
enclosure.
In steady state, the mass is at
rest relative to the enclosure.
If the mass accelerates, there
must be some force to cause
this acceleration and if the mass does not move relative to the enclosure, the
force is generated only from the spring.
This is because spring deflection is proportional to the force, which in turn
proportional to the acceleration.
These are classified as either deflection type or null balance type.
Deflection type accelerometers used for the measurement of vibrations and
shocks.
Measurement of acceleration of vehicles such as aircraft, submarines and
spacecraft may be carried out by null-balance type accelerometers.

References:
1. Instrumentation, Measurement and Analysis by Chaudhary Nakra (z-

lib.org)
2. PRINCIPLE OF INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTATION by PATRANABIS (z-lib.org)
3. Instrumentation and Control Systems by W. Bolton (Auth.) (z-lib.org)

Unit - 1 (IIM) - Metrology

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Unit-1 Industrial Instrumentation & Measurement (New)

Dimensional measurement forms an important part in the modern day engineering

1. Type of measurement-Whether linear or angular

• Dimensional and geometric measurements as well as technical testing and

B.Tech. (E&I) V Semester IET, BU

Standards are considered as measurement references. It is defined as physical

• International Standards-Here the devices design and constructed to

B.Tech. (E&I) V Semester IET, BU

1. Primary Calibration-When a device or system is calibrated against primary

B.Tech. (E&I) V Semester IET, BU

negative reading errors.

Fig: Screw gauge and Caliper

𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘

Characteristics of end standards -

B.Tech. (E&I) V Semester IET, BU

Line standard End standard

1. Line standards do not provide high 1. End standards more suited to

accuracy. accuracy requirements of higher order.

wide range. prove only one dimension at a time.

although significant wear on leading measuring faces.

end leads to under-sizing.

negative reading errors.

B.Tech. (E&I) V Semester IET, BU

Gauge is an inspection tool used to rectify errors in terms of linear measurements

The major dimensional standard of engineering workshop is the gauge block. A

B.Tech. (E&I) V Semester IET, BU

A comparator is a precision instrument employed to compare the dimension of a

In mass production identical components are produced on a very large scale.

Fig: Principle of working of comparator

(3) Electrical and Electronic

[1] MECHANICAL COMPARATOR / MICROKATOR

Types of mechanical comparator

1.1 Dial Indicator type Comparator

1.2 Reed type Comparator

1.3 Johansson Microkator

1.4 Sigma Comparator

B.Tech. (E&I) V Semester IET, BU

It is very simple in use.

B.Tech. (E&I) V Semester IET, BU

It is a frictionless device for

A fixed block A is connected to the

B.Tech. (E&I) V Semester IET, BU

B.Tech. (E&I) V Semester IET, BU

B.Tech. (E&I) V Semester IET, BU

Also known as electromechanical

B.Tech. (E&I) V Semester IET, BU

These comparators are based on the principle of projection of image.

The arrangement consists of mechanical system which causes a plane reflector to

B.Tech. (E&I) V Semester IET, BU

This displacement measuring

Michelson interferometer is a typical

The Michelson interferometer produces

When the reflected beams are brought back

Precise distance measurements can be

B.Tech. (E&I) V Semester IET, BU

Optical flats can be described as an

Interference is the principle behind the

An optical flat is placed on a surface,

In cases where the test surface is

The surface roughness is also usually very low.

A sine bar is used in conjunction with slip

Angle θ=Sin-1(h/L) L→Length of sine bar (between centres)