H5) Empirical study on terminal water velocity of

drainage stack
(1)C.L. Cheng, Dr. (2) K.C. He, Mr. (3)C.L.Lin ,Ms.
CCL@mail.ntust.edu.tw
M9213211@mail.ntust.edu.tw
M9613011@mail.ntust.edu.tw
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Department of Architecture, 43
Keelung Road Sec.4, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Abstract
An actual discharge of vertical drainage stack has a complex phenomenon and may
consist of triple phase flow feature with incorporated solid, liquid and air. The guideline
of National Plumbing Code (NPC) of US was used to set the permit flow rate as the
regulation of building drainage system. Following initial work of the HASS 203 of
Japan in 1970s, the method of steady flow condition was merged as the provision
reference and evaluation technique. According to the importance of permit flow rate
regulation, the terminal velocity in drainage stack was also seen as one of the crucial
issues in building drainage studies. Couple theories and predictions were reported in
previous researches. This paper would also introduce a prediction method with
empirical approach by theoretical study from air pressure distribution research. A new
technology with digital high speed camera was used to validate the prediction of
terminal velocity in drainage stack in this paper. The theoretical study reveals the
practical sense and the validation also approximately responses to the prediction results.
 
 
Keywords
terminal velocity, the fluid phenomena of the water, air-pressure, drainage stack

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 List of symbols
symbols content unit
Qw Water flow rate l/s
Qa Air flow rate in stack vent m3/s
R Diameter of stack m
Vw Velocity of water flowing  m/s
   
Va Velocity of airflow  m/s 
   
Vt Terminal velocity of water  m/s 
   
ξ w × Vw The water resistance in the stack.  
   
εa ×   The air action force to falling water     
2
V a

g Gravity acceleration  m/s2

 
∆t time interval                                              sec
 
∆Χ Distance   m

SD The accumulation distance of falling water   m

 

1. Introduction
Appliance discharges to a vertical stack of drain may be described as an unsteady or
time dependent flow, and the form of the appliance discharge flow contributes to this
flow condition. An actual discharge of vertical drainage stack has a complex
phenomenon and may consist of triple phase flow feature with incorporated solid,
liquid and air. Airflow in the drainage stack is promoted by through-flow mixing as
well as the interaction of friction with the falling water and air. This mechanism
causes the negative pressure on the upper floors and the positive pressure on the lower
floors in the building vertical drainage system. Hunter1) explored the flow
phenomenon of drainage stack in1940s. Afterward, Wyly2)3) & Dawson first issued the
theory of the terminal velocity at 1960s.

The guideline of National Plumbing Code (NPC) of US was used to set the permit
flow rate as the regulation of drainage system. Following initial work of the HASS
203 of Japan in 1970s, the method of steady flow condition was merged as the
provision reference and evaluation technique; hence it conducted series researches of
steady flow method with reference to building drainage network. According to the
importance of permit flow rate regulation, the terminal velocity in drainage stack was
also seen as one of the crucial issues in these series researches. Couple theories4)5) and
predictions were reported in previous researches. However, the validation and
accuracy were still criticized so far. This paper would also introduce a prediction
method by theoretical study from air pressure distribution research. Meanwhile, a new
technology with digital high speed camera was used to validate the prediction of
terminal velocity in drainage stack in this paper.

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2. Technical Reviews
The theory of the annulated flowing in drainage stack was first issued by Wyly2) in
1960s. Afterward, some researches tried to figure out the velocity of flowing water in
the stack by the experimental method and theory, however, no results were reported in
that period. In 1980s, Tukagoshi6) conducted electricity to the salt solution in Japan,
and put the sensor of the electricity into the pipe which perpendicular to the pipe’s
section and divided into 1-25 points as observational points, when salt solution
flowing into the vertical stack and pass through the sensor would evaluated the
velocity and quantity of the water flowing. In 1994, Sakaue7) in Japan continuously
infused water into vertical stack for testing the velocity of the water flowing, and to
return to original equation for evaluated the water flowing rate in the vertical stack.
However, all these researches have not reached a clarified and validated conclusion on
the terminal velocity on drainage stack.

According to the previous researches8)9)10) on air pressure distribution, the airflow rate
(Qa) was identified as a critical parameter for a prediction model which can express
the mechanism of vertical drainage flow. Therefore, the airflow performance in
vertical drainage stack is the dominated issue and it needs to be solved. Hence while
air flow rate is dominant in the vertical drainage stack, it plays a critical role in the
subsequent operation of vertical drainage stack where the mechanism may be
assumed to be a quasi-fan machine, thus the laws of fan can be introduced to link with
the vertical drainage flow. The laws of fan can be expressed by the hydraulic
parameters such as air density, pressure, velocity, gravity, resistance coefficient, lift,
and et al. Practically, the operation energy for airflow within fan is mainly from
electric power, thus potential energy of height is the dominating power for conducting
the airflow in vertical drainage stack. This antithesis mechanism can be expressed as
quasi-fan theory, namely the initial model of vertical drainage flow was conducted
from the laws of fan machine alike.
The mechanism of flow within vertical drainage is now schematically understood. Air
pressure in vertical drainage stack is caused by series interactions between
downstream water and through-flow air in vertical pipe. Fig.1 illustrates the image of
flow state and the modified interaction, thus it conducts the main parameters with air
pressure, airflow rate, and resistance coefficients, and they are the essential factors for
prediction model of air pressure distribution in vertical drainage stack.
 
A prediction model about the air pressure distribution, which occurred in the drainage
stack by high-rise experiment tower (108m) and middle-high experiment tower (30m),
was developed in Japan from 1990, then considerable progress has been made in
predicting the air pressure distribution within vertical drainage stack.

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 Air flow
Qa Qa Negative Pressure Positive Pressure
A ZORE
Frictional

Ａ
Water inlet from
lateral drain Ｂ
Qa Qa
Peak negative
B ZONE pressure
Interaction

Air pressure

Qa Water mixes with Qa

air

C ZONE Interaction

FL Ｃ
Discharge
G height
Gravity

Negative Pressure
Ｄ
D ZONE

Positive Pressure

Main horizontal drain Hydraulic jump

 
 

Figure 1 – Mechanism of vertical drainage feature and inverted model

According to the mechanism and feature of vertical drainage flow from the theoretical
reviews, the profile of drainage stack was divided into four zones, and each zone is
individually modeled due to the corresponding characteristics. Meanwhile, the air
pressure distribution, which reveals the time average air pressure data with steady
flow condition, does not involve the instantaneous air pressure fluctuation in vertical
drainage flow

3. Theory and empirical observation

The phenomenon of drainage vertical stack can be divided by four zones (A, B, C, D)
to express their individual characters which were mentioned in previous researches.
According to the feature character observation, B zone is the most complex area
which is the acceleration area in both water flowing and airflow in the stack. Fig. 2
shows the image of complex phenomenon that water flows into the vertical stack from
the branch pipe and the interaction of water and air.

 
 
 

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ε a × Va  
2
 
 
  Q w  
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
  ξ w × Vw   g
 
                    Figure 2 – The simulate diagram of the water flowing into the stage

The velocity of the flowing water in the stack is mainly dominated by the three
interaction balance including gravity force (g) and friction drag of the pipe inside and
the air interaction toward the falling water. As the falling water in the stack becomes
the terminal velocity, that means the interaction inside the stack reaches the condition
of balance and the forces actions are totally equal and neutralized. Therefore, the
balance condition can be expressed as the following equation (1) which means the
forces of friction drag of the pipe inside and the air interaction toward the falling
water are equal to the force of gravity.

g = ξ w • Vw + ε a • Va ……………..(1) 
2

 
 
 
The velocity of the water flowing vary as speed increasing or acceleration when water
flowing into the vertical stack from the sideling stack. Thus, the velocity can be
expressed as equation (2) (3).

dVw
= g − ξ w × Vw + ε a × Va ………..(2) 
2

dt
  
dVw
t
Vw = ∫       ………..(3)
o dt

 
According to the equation (2)(3), the velocity of the water Velocity in stack flowing
between 0 sec and t sec can be gained from integration function of equation (4).

(t ) = (g + ε × Va × t )
2
a
Vw ………..(4)
1+ ξw × t

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Therefore, the water falling distance from branch pipe which accumulated between
0.001 sec and t sec can also be added up by the equation (5).

t
SD = ∑ ∆t × V
∆t = 0.001
w (t)         ………..(5)

Because there are 1000 specific gravity difference between water and air，the action of
the air toward water could be ignore temporary. Thus, the velocity of falling water can
be expressed as equation (6).

g×t
Vw = ………..(6)
1+ ξw × t
 
According to the equation (6), the gravity and water resistance would be constant
theoretically. The falling water will soon reach a constant velocity as time passes.
Therefore, as the time is setting as infinite number the approaching constant water
velocity can be seen as the terminal velocity. The function can be expressed as the
following equation (7).

g
t → ∞ ⇒ Vt = ………..(7)
ξw

 
The continuous flowing phenomenon of B zone is the most complex area in the
drainage stack. When the water flows into the stack, the initial falling velocity is zero
theoretically and the velocity is accumulated and increasing. Meanwhile, the constant
air flow rate would be instantly accumulated by the flowing section extremely
shrinking. Thus, the air velocity would be speedy than water velocity at this zone.
According to the interaction between air and water, the falling water velocity is
increasing and air velocity is decreasing. The physical phenomenon in this area causes
the increasing of negative pressure. When the velocity of water and air reach to the
equal point, the increasing negative pressure tendency will stop and change to decline.
This critical point also expresses the maximum negative pressure point. When the
water flow rate and air flow rate is constant, then the air velocity in the stack can be
calculated by the equation (8).

Qa Qa Vw × Q         ………..(8) 
Va = = = a

A − Aw A − Qw A × Vw − Qw
Vw
According to the equation (8), the velocity equal point of water and air happens in the
maximum negative pressure area. Then, the equation (8) can be substituted by the
following equation (9) at this point.
 
Qa + Qw
Va = ………..(9) 
A

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Fig. 3 shows the calculation model of air and water velocity in stack and the
accumulated distance of the falling water. According to this calculation model, the
maximum negative pressure point can be predicted and the terminal velocity of falling
water in stack can also be expressed.

 
  Velocity (m/s) 10 40 Flowing
  distance (m)
Velocity of airflow (Va)
  The cumulate distance
  of water flowing
8
  = 30
 
 
  6 Velocity of water flowing (Vw)
 
  20
 
  4

  The distance of Peak negative

  pressure occurred
10
  2 The time of Peak negative
pressure occurred
 
 
  Time (sec)
  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 
Figure 3 – The diagram of the air in the pipe and the distance of water flowing.
(Limit: the initial velocity of water flowing=0.001m/s， =2.0l/s， =40.0l/s )

Consequently, the negative pressure occurring point depends on the air flow rate in
stack. Fig. 4 and 5 shows the validation of measured data and the calculation results
by the above model.

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 Distance
(m) 計算值
Distance (m)

Distance
中心距離
to central
發生可能範圍
Possible range

 
  Airflow (l/s)
 
Figure 4 – The relation between the distance of peak negative pressure
occurred and the quantity of the air flow. ( ：2.0(l/s))

Distance
(m)

Measured Calculated
value value

 
 
Airflow (l/s)
 
Figure 5 – The relation between the distance of Peak negative pressure
occurred and the quantity of the air flow. ( ：1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0 (l/s))

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The distance of maximum negative pressure from charge floor was surveyed in
previous researches which were measured in a 100 m experiment tower in Japan. The
validation is proved to be approximately matched the calculation model. Accordingly,
the water resistance coefficient can be calculated by this validation process. When the
distance of maximum negative pressure is catch, the time is the crucial parameter for
the calculation of water resistance coefficient by equation (5). Then the air resistance
coefficient also can be calculated by equation (1). The results of the calculation are
shown in Table 1.

Table 1 – The resistance coefficient of water and air in stack

Water flow rate Qw ζw    εa

1.0 l/s 3.10 0.03454

2.0 l/s 2.20 0.01727

3.0 l/s 1.85 0.01232

4.0 l/s 1.50 0.00746

Owing to the limitation of experiment device, the measurement points are set in
interval of 3 meter, thus the data can not be precisely fit to the verification result.
However, the results approximately response to the theory and satisfy the validation.
According to the water resistance coefficient, the terminal velocity can be predicted
by equation (6) and the results are shown in Table 2.

Table 2 – The terminal velocity of water flowing in stack

Water flow rate Qw Previous researches This study Previous study
Wyly type Dowson type (Cheng) (Kurabuch) 
1.0 l/s 1.60 2.06 3.161 5.48

2.0 l/s 2.11 2.06 5.353 7.90

3.0 l/s 2.48 3.20 5.297 8.79

4.0 l/s 2.79 3.60 6.533 9.30

 
Regarding the researches of terminal velocity, Dawson (US) used the manning
equation to calculate the terminal velocity by the following equation (10).

0. 4
⎡ Q ⎤
Vt = 5.18 × ⎢ w ⎥ ………..(10)
⎣2× R⎦

Meanwhile, Wyly (US) reported the falling water in stack might be annual membrane
flow. Thus he amended the coefficient and proposed the calculation equation for the
terminal velocity as the following equation (11).

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 0. 4
⎡ Q ⎤
Vt = 4.02 × ⎢ w ⎥ ………..(11)
⎣2× R⎦

Asano (Japan) followed the theory of annual membrane flow and proposed more
precise prediction model. However, the results were similar to Wyly’s calculation. In
1990s, Kurabuchi (Japan) used the theory of air pressure gradient, proposed a new
approach to predict the terminal velocity. However, the prediction results were almost
twice or triple of the previous researches as shown in Table 3. Meanwhile, the results
were not yet be verified by experiment. Afterward, the researches of terminal velocity
stopped and no reports were presented so far.

 
4. Validation device and the process
The theory of this paper was developed almost the same age as Kurabuch in Japan.
Following the development of observation technology, this research tries to use the
digital high speed camera to validate the prediction model for terminal velocity. Table
2 is the specification of this digital high speed camera which is used to observe the
falling water velocity in stack. Fig. 6 is the picture of experiment in observation place
which shows the circumstance and condition of the operation.

Table 3 – Specification of the digital high speed camera

MEMORY

ELECTRICAL

COMPUTER LINKS

DIAPHRAGM VIDEO CAMERA

Video camera ‧ Auto Exposure Control，Color or monochrome

‧2,100 pictures per second full resolution
‧Software: Acquisition, Analytical playback, Measurements,
Image processing and File management
‧256mg RAM，for files memory

Diaphragm ‧Adjustable diaphragm.

‧Resolution of the screen

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 Fig.6 the experimental device

The pictures of the transparent pipe at each floor of the experimental tower were taken
by digital high speed camera. Water discharges are all from 12th floor with the water
flow rate of 1.0 l/s, 2.0 l/s, 3.0 l/s, 4.0 l/s, meanwhile each floor divides into 3 layers
so that each floor can be taken video with three times. This research totally got 132
video data from the observation of 33 layers. The experimental device includes digital
high speed camera, two lamps, notebook for recording the data and high resolution
image screen. Fig. 7 and 8 show the devices of this observation. And the observation
results are shown in Fig. 9~12.

  501
 
  lamp
燈
既有9F建築

 
 
  building
  lamp燈
 
  高速攝影機
  high speed camera 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Fig.7 The plan of experimental device 
 
 
 
 
  1 
 
 
  2 
 
 
高high
速攝影 機 camera 
  speed

lamp
燈 3 
lamp
燈

Fig.8 The elevation of experimental device 

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Fig. 9 Water velocity and air pressure in Fig. 10 Water velocity and air pressure in
stack (4.0 l/s) stack (3.0 l/s)

Fig. 10 Water velocity and air pressure in stack Fig. 10 Water velocity and air pressure in stack
(2.0 l/s) (1.0 l/s)

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5. Conclusion
According to the importance of permit flow rate regulation, the terminal velocity in
drainage stack was also seen as one of the crucial issues in building drainage researches.
This paper introduces a prediction method with empirical approach for terminal velocity
by theoretical study from air pressure distribution research. A new technology with
digital high speed camera was used to validate the prediction of terminal velocity in
drainage stack in this report. The theoretical study reveals the practical sense and the
validation also approximately responses to the prediction results. However, the
observation technology still remains some difficulties and the more precise verifications
are needed to be conducted in the near future.

6. Reference
1) Roy.B.Hunter；BMS 79 Water Distributing System for Building, （1941）

2) R.S.Wyly and H.N.Eaton;Capacities of Plumbing Stack in Building, BMS

Repoet,132（1952）

3) R.S. Wyly and H.N. Eaton : Capacities of Stacks in Sanitary Drainage System for
Building, N.B.S. Monograph 31, （1961）
4) B.J.Pink；A Study of Water Flow in Vertical Drainage Stacks by Means of a
Probe,CIB-W62 Semminar,（1973）
5) Yoshiharu Asano；The basic research of the specific of the velocity in vertical
stack---terminal velocity, the report of the architectural institute of Japan, 278(1979)
6) Tukagoshi；The experimental research method of the specific of the vertical stack，
Transactions of the Society of Heating, Air-Conditioning and Sanitary Engineers of
Japan (1977)
7) Sakaue: The analysis of the variation of the pressure in vertical stack, Transactions of
the Society of Heating, Air-Conditioning and Sanitary Engineers of Japan (1979)
8) Cheng, C. L., Kamata, M., Kurabuchi, T., Sakaue, K., Tanaka, T., “A Prediction
Method of Air Pressure Distribution of Drainage Stack System in Case of
Single-Point Steady Discharge”, Journal of Archit. Plann. Environ. Eng., No.481,
pp83-91. (1996).
9) Cheng, C. L., Kamata, M., Kurabuchi, T., Sakaue, K., “Study on Pressure
Distribution of Drainage Stack System in High-Rise Apartment Houses”, Journal of
Graduate School and Faculty of Engineering the University of Tokyo (B), Vol. XLIII,
No.4, pp467-489. (1996, EI)
10) C.L. Cheng, Lu, W. H., Shen, M.D., An Empirical Approach: Prediction Method
of Air Pressure Distribution on Building Vertical Drainage Stack, Journal of the
Chinese Institute of Engineers, Vol 28.(2004)

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7. Presentation of Author

Cheng-Li Cheng is the Professor at National Taiwan University of

Science and Technology, Department of Architecture. He is a
researcher and published widely on a range of water supply and
drainage in building. He has published extensively on a range of
sustainable issues, including the water and energy conservation for
green building. Currently he also acts as referee of Taiwan Green
Building Evaluation Committee and Nation Building Code Review
Committee.

Kuen-Chi He is the Ph.D student at National Taiwan University

of Science and Technology, Department of Architecture.

Chia-Li Lin is the master student at National Taiwan University

of Science and Technology, Department of Architecture.

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