REVIEW ON CAUSES OF DISTRESS AND FAILURES IN

ROOF MEMBERS
Annapoorna S Syam
Government Engineering College, Kozhikode

ABSTRACT

This paper reviews the distress of roof members due to design deficiency, material
degradation, overloading, poor maintenance etc and its causes. Insufficient structural
design causes the structural members to support loads that are above the design loads.
Professional engineers have to be aware of the main peculiarities and structural
deficiencies of structural systems affected by material degradation and the importance of
in situ periodic checks and monitoring during the life of the structures. Reviewing
experiences from various case studies provide valuable background information for
future revision of current standards and for forensic assessments of failures of structure
exposed to different conditions. Various roof loading conditions assumed can be analyzed
with the assistance of a computer structural analysis program. The main lesson that can
be learned from this case study is that poor quality construction materials, combined with
overloading, may lead to serious problems affecting the performance of a constructed
facility. Roof collapses continue to occur worldwide which suggests that further research
is required to understand their causes and to find technical solutions able to mitigate the
related risks.

Keywords: Distress of roof members, structural deficiencies, maintenance deficiencies,

corrosion of steel, water ingress into unbonded post-tensioning tendons

1. INTRODUCTION

Design and construction defects cause a structure to be improper for its proposed intent.
Approximately 40% to 60% of all structural failures are due to the deficiency in design.
Common design errors in construction arises either due to inadequate structural design or
due to poor design details. It is important for the designers to be aware of these design
faults in order to prevent concrete damage in the future. Even a slight probability of failure
can be disastrous for human life and property. Even if the design is adequate to meet the
requirements, poor design details can cause localized concentration of high stresses in

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structural members. Material deficiency is mainly due to improper material selection, lack
of knowledge about their physical properties, use of low-quality materials etc. Structural
failure can also occur when a load bearing component is unable to support/transfer loads
to another element. The material is stressed to its upper strength limit causing to rupture
or extreme deformations. The construction materials could already be damaged.
Structural failure is the loss of structural integrity.

Deterioration processes are dangerous for the useful life of a constructed building and for
its safety, even when there is a proper maintenance strategy for these constructions. In
many cases, the deterioration processes have similar patterns and evolutions and
frequently start from the building’s roof. Moreover, in both ancient and older buildings,
mistakes in the design and/or in construction techniques can seriously affect safety and/or
serviceability. This concern increases when the roof covering system starts to fail, putting
the integrity of the main roof structure at risk and affecting the normal functioning of the
building. Economical and social consequences may result from these failure scenarios.
Unfortunately, roof collapses continue to occur worldwide which suggests that further
research is required to understand their causes and to find technical solutions able to
mitigate the related risks. Regular inspection and monitoring are fundamental to
predicting and avoiding building failure scenarios, including roof collapses, which may
put people in danger. Main observed causes of structural damage were subdivided into
human errors in design, during execution and use, and insufficient code provisions as
indicated. Quality control should be exercised during the design phase of any project,
during fabrication of structural steel and joist manufacturing components, and during
construction to ensure that the building or structure has been built according to the plans.
Further the building owner has a responsibility as well to ensure that the building is being
properly maintained and that the contractors performing repairs and especially re-roofing
operations are properly supervised.

Post-tensioned concrete structures can provide efficiencies by allowing longer spans

between columns and reducing the amount of material required for construction, as
compared to conventionally reinforced structures. However, without proper detailing to
ensure that water does not enter the tendon sheath, serious and expensive structural
problems can result. These issues can be difficult to identify and remediate because they
often produce very limited visible signs of distress. Post-tensioning end anchorages in

2
newer structures located in aggressive environments are typically protected by waterproof
encapsulation; however, before the late 1980’s, end anchorages and intermediate
anchorages were left unprotected in the concrete as the tendon movement during stressing
and the anchorage geometry made them difficult to protect. Additionally, because the
grout used to fill the stressing pockets at the anchorages is often more porous than the
surrounding cast-in-place concrete and a cold joint in the concrete is required at
intermediate stressing locations, there is often a path for water to reach the interior of the
tendon sheath at these locations. Once water has accessed the tendon sheath, there is
typically no easy way for it to escape, resulting in corrosion and section loss of the tendon.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Jorge A. Sefair, Daniel Castro-Lacouture and Andres L. Medaglia conducted a study

on “Material selection in building construction using Optimal Scoring Method (OSM).”
In this study, the application of a systematic and efficient method to support the material
selection process for a building with multiple systems has been discussed. The proposed
method ranks candidate materials using multiple criteria, allowing decision makers to
easily include their preferences. It is also seen that OSM provides the user with a ranking
of materials even in situations where a large number of materials and evaluation criteria
are considered. Techniques such as clustering analysis, linear regression or multivariate
analysis can use the score generated by OSM as input for further analysis.

J. Morgado, I. Flores-Colen2, J. de Brito3 and A. Silva conducted a study on

“Maintenance Planning of Pitched Roofs in Current Buildings.” They conducted a study
which study intends to establish a maintenance plan for pitched roofs in current buildings,
considering the deterioration agents, defects, and causes that influence the durability of
the MSEs of pitched roofs. It was seen that the inspections in the first years of the
building’s lifecycle are essential to the detection of symptoms of prepathology. The
results of this study allow optimizing the maintenance works performed in pitched roofs
during their lifecycle, thus reducing the use of resources and unnecessary costs.

Stewart M. Verhulst, Marco A. Deleon and Bradley L. East conducted a study on “The
Roof Drainage Epidemic.” In this study common roof drainage issues and a set of
conditions for the oversight and approval of roofing projects are discussed. For
"Important Buildings" that have essential functions or high occupancies, an even higher

3
level of analysis and inspection to ensure proper roof drainage is recommended. They
also proposed that these increased standards should be enforced by the city or building
official of jurisdiction.

Andrea E. Shear, James P. Donnelly and Matthew E. Lewis conducted a study on

“Tendon Failure Investigation and Drying in a Two-Way Unbonded Post- Tensioned
Roof Slab.” In this study, the investigation and the rehabilitation of tendon failures in a
two-way, unbonded post-tensioned roof slab is discussed. Techniques for identifying
deficiencies with the tendons are summarized as well as the proprietary cable drying
procedure that was used for tendon rehabilitation.

Ahmed Shlash Alawneh, Abdallah I. Husein Malkawi and Osama Kh. Nusier
conducted a study on “Distress of RC structure due to poor quality control and
overloading.” This study gives a complete investigation into the cause of distress to a
four-story residential building in Irbid, Jordan, and to determine the necessary remedial
measures for the observed damages. It is seen that the damage occurred due to poor
quality of concrete in the short underground reinforced concrete columns, combined with
overloading. From this case study it is concluded that poor quality construction materials,
combined with overloading, may lead to serious problems affecting the performance of a
constructed facility.

Stewart M. Verhulst and Travis G. Ebisch conducted a study on “Foreseeable Failure:

Roof Collapses and Roof Drainage Deficiencies.” This paper discusses about the collapse
of roof caused by inadequate roof drainage. It is seen that roof collapses can frequently
be traced back to deficient drainage design or the lack of secondary drainage. Based on
the prevalence of dangerous drainage deficiencies and the repeated occurrences of
resultant roof collapses, they concluded that roof drainage should be treated as a critical
life safety issue.

M. Holicky and Miroslav Sykora conducted a study on “Failures of Roofs under Snow
Load: Causes and Reliability Analysis.” This paper presents an overview of extensive
investigations of structural failures is focused on causes and consequences of failures. It
is seen that the probabilistic reliability analysis revealed that the model for snow loads in
the Eurocodes should be modified. It also concludes that the obtained experiences provide

4
valuable background information for future revision of current standards and for forensic
assessments of failures of structures exposed to snow loads.

Hal K. Cain conducted a study on “Cantilever roof structural failure caused by excessive
constructon loads, flawed design, and poor maintenance.” This paper explores the
reasons leading up to the collapse of a busy shopping center department store. It is
concluded that the reasons of failure include overloading the roof structural support
system during reroofing operations, design errors within the building structure,
construction errors, and lack of maintenance of the building structure.

Vivian Meløysund, Kim Robert Lisø, Jan Siem and Kristoffer Apeland conducted a
study on “Increased Snow Loads and Wind Actions on Existing Buildings: Reliability of
the Norwegian Building Stock.” This paper discuss about what extent existing buildings
meet current regulatory requirements relating to safety against collapse owing to snow
loads or wind actions. It is seen that too low reliability for a considerable number of
buildings according to current building regulations when evaluating the possible
consequences of the conclusions in a national perspective.

Janet K. Yates and Edward E. Lockley conducted a study on “Documenting and

Analyzing Construction Failures.” This study deals with the construction failure
investigation techniques and processes to determine whether they were adequate and to
develop failure investigation guidelines. The construction failure case studies were
analyzed to determine how these organizations conduct their investigations and to
develop guidelines that can be used for construction failure investigations. This article
provides description of the methods used for the research, results obtained from the
industry survey, summary of the results of an investigation into case studies on
construction failures, analysis of the results, discussion on construction failure
investigative techniques, guidelines developed during the research project for
investigating and documenting failures, recommended format for reporting the findings
of failure investigations.

3. CAUSES OF FAILURES IN ROOF MEMBERS

3.1 Corrosion of steel

Steel corrosion problems are common in reinforced concrete structures around the world.
While chloride-induced corrosion is generally more harmful and expensive to repair,
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carbonation induced corrosion of reinforcement may affect a far wider range of reinforced
concrete structures. Concrete is alkaline in nature with a pore solution pH of 12–13 that
naturally passivates embedded reinforcement. The passivation of steel is broken down by
the presence of chloride ions or a reduction in alkalinity of concrete caused by
carbonation. Carbonation takes place as a result of the interaction of carbon dioxide with
the calcium hydroxide in concrete. The carbon dioxide gas dissolves in water to form
carbonic acid that reacts with calcium hydroxide and precipitates mainly as calcium
carbonate that lines the pores. Depletion of hydroxyl ions lowers the pore water pH from
above 12.5 to below 9.0 where the passive layer becomes unstable, allowing general
corrosion to occur if sufficient oxygen and water are present in the vicinity of the bar.
Carbonation-induced corrosion causes problems aesthetically and structurally due to
expansive corrosion products that cause cracking, delamination, and spalling of the
surrounding concrete. A cost-effective means of controlling reinforcing steel corrosion
and extending the service life of corrosion-affected structures is needed. Many different
approaches to concrete repair and protection exist and provide varying degrees of long-
term success. Protection systems include the use of epoxy-coated reinforcement,
protective coatings and membranes, cathodic protection, low permeability concrete, silica
fume concrete, desalination/ realkalization; and admixed corrosion inhibitors. A further
option is a repair and protection system based on treatment with penetrating corrosion
inhibitors. Such inhibitors have the advantage that they are active primarily in the zone
adjacent to steel reinforcing, and they can be applied at some point after construction to
either delay the onset of corrosion, or retard further corrosion. Penetrating corrosion
inhibitors can be effective, when applied to the surface of existing or new structures, in
extending the useful life of reinforced concrete exposed to carbonation. The main effects
of corrosion on steel and concrete that were observed here and confirmed experimentally
are reduction of steel area, yielding, ultimate stresses, and strain of longitudinal steel bars
and stirrups, compressive strength of concrete, and bond resistance between the corroded
steel bars and the surrounding concrete.

According to Zhang et al. (2016) the reduction coefficient in the yielding stresses and the
reduction coefficient of the cross-section area of the steel bars due to uniform corrosion
1−0.0123𝑋𝑝
is 𝛼= where 𝑋𝑝 = loss of mass
1−0.01𝑋𝑝

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According to Imperatore (2016) the ultimate strain 𝜀𝑢 of steel bars is reduced as the loss
of mass Xp increases in the form

The depth of corrosion attack X can be related to the loss of mass with the expression

The corrosion attack X is related to time t and to the corrosion current intensity 𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑟
expressed in μA/cm2 through a rearranged form of Faraday’s law of electrolysis
expressed as follows:

According to Coronelli and Gambarova (2004) the bond stress decreases with the loss of
mass in the form

where c = cover thickness; and 𝑓𝑐𝑡 = tensile strength of the concrete

The reduction coefficient of concrete bond strength, in the absence of stirrups, is given
by

3.2 Human errors

Knowledge not currently available and thus unavoidable can cause serious design errors.
Delayed communication of acquired knowledge between the engineers in charge of the
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design process will affect the structural integrity during its function. Ignorance of recently
acquired knowledge and misunderstanding of accepted knowledge can also cause errors
that will affect the structure in the future. Incorrect procedures while calculation or during
construction can detrimentally affect the structural component as well as the structure as
a whole. To help prevent structural accidents from happening good communications and
organization in the construction industry and regular inspection of construction by
structural engineers should be ensured. Increasing the general quality of design and
improving the structural connection design details and drawings can also help in reducing
the risk of failures.

Methods for reducing the incidence of construction failures due to human error

1. Design and detailing of critical connections by the engineer of record.

2. Design and supervision of construction of temporary structures by a professional
engineer.
3. Clear definition of responsibility among the engineer, fabricator, and contractor.
4. Constructability reviews during the design stage.
5. Full-time inspection of construction by structural engineers.
6. Education and training of construction teams.
7. Comprehensive quality assurance/quality control plan.
8. Structural redundancy in the design to avoid progressive collapse.
9. Peer review of the structural design and details by an independent professional.
10. Design engineers should review all shop drawings, shoring and formwork design.
11. Construction personnel should be certified for temporary structure
design/construction.
12. Realistic construction schedules (requires education and enlightenment of
clients/owner) should be provided.
13. Contractor’s superintendents should be educated about temporary bracing and
stability.
14. Part-time visitation should be provided by all design principles, not just the structural
ones.
15. Full-time inspection should be furnished by an independent construction professional.

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16. All construction activities should be reviewed prior to the performance of the work
by professional engineers with construction experience. This includes the selection
and positioning of cranes, concrete pumps, and truck movements.
17. Site-specific safety plans, which address specific issues that are approved by the
engineer, should be furnished. Include any dead loads during construction.
18. Contractors and subcontractors should be hired based on a prequalification system for
quality, safety, and liability.
19. In-depth inspection should be provided by local authorities rather than cursory walk-
throughs.
20. Stronger supervision should be provided on the part of the contractor to avoid ‘‘short
cuts’’ by workers.
3.3 Water ingress into unbonded post-tensioning tendons

Water ingress into unbonded post-tensioning tendons can lead to serious and expensive
structural problems. Post-tensioned concrete structures can provide efficiencies by
allowing longer spans between columns and reducing the amount of material required for
construction, as compared to conventionally reinforced structures. However, without
proper detailing to ensure that water does not enter the tendon sheath, serious and
expensive structural problems can result. These issues can be difficult to identify and
remediate because they often produce very limited visible signs of distress. Post-
tensioning end anchorages in newer structures located in aggressive environments are
typically protected by waterproof encapsulation; however, before the late 1980’s, end
anchorages and intermediate anchorages were left unprotected in the concrete as the
tendon movement during stressing and the anchorage geometry made them difficult to
protect. Additionally, because the grout used to fill the stressing pockets at the anchorages
is often more porous than the surrounding cast-in-place concrete and a cold joint in the
concrete is required at intermediate stressing locations, there is often a path for water to
reach the interior of the tendon sheath at these locations. Once water has accessed the
tendon sheath, there is typically no easy way for it to escape, resulting in corrosion and
section loss of the tendon. The inherent risks associated with tendon failures include
physical damage that could occur if tendons erupt out of the slab and reduction in load-
carrying capacity. In order to reduce the probability of future tendon failures, tendon
rehabilitation method can be adopted which include the removal of water from the tendon
sheaths. Two methods for achieving this were considered PT Cable Drying method and a

9
hydrophobic urethane grout injection system. The gas purging method is another
rehabilitation method which can be implemented as the cost per tendon was slightly less
and there was less potential for damage to the interior finishes since re-greasing of the
tendons would not be performed in the interior environment. The cable drying system
involves forcing air at a very low dew point through the tendon sheath over a period of
time to draw the existing moisture out of the sheathing. While initially expensive, this
investment had the potential to produce significant savings in construction costs by either
eliminating or deferring post-tensioning repairs. It should be noted that if tendon
corrosion is already in an advanced state, and particularly if stress corrosion cracking
exists on the strand, the drying method for tendon rehabilitation may not effectively
decrease the probability of tendon failure. Additionally, for projects where only a small
number of tendons are affected by moisture or a significant number of those tendons
affected by moisture have already failed, it would not be economical to utilize this
rehabilitation method to protect a small number of tendons. While the rehabilitation
program was intended to minimize the rate of corrosion, it is not possible to reverse the
effects of corrosion or to ensure that the rate of corrosion is stopped completely. To
monitor the banded tendons for possible subsequent failures, the installation of an
acoustical monitoring system that would detect vibrations resulting from the release of
energy during failure. Acoustic monitoring adds the benefit of detecting failures in the
distributed tendons. As an alternative, bi-annual follow-up inspections were
recommended to monitor the tendon condition. By regularly observing the tendons, the
condition of the roof structure or any structure can be monitored to ensure that it remains
structurally adequate and that the rate of tendon failures is decreasing as expected.

3.4 Poor quality of materials

Material selection is a strategic process in building companies where they choose among
a vast set of alternatives the best-performance materials under multiple (conflicting)
criteria. Construction materials have a significant impact on the environment,
contributing to greenhouse emissions through their exploitation and transportation.
Depending on the type of material, the indoor environmental quality of a building can be
influenced, thus affecting the health of their occupants. Materials can also provide safety
and are a fundamental part of the building design. As such, mechanical (e.g., specific
strength, elasticity modulus), chemical (e.g., corrosion resistance, oxidation resistance),

10
and external properties (e.g., color, texture) have to be considered in the material selection
process.

3.5 Poor roof drainage

Poor roof drainage can cause accelerated deterioration of a roofing system and in extreme
cases, roof collapse. Generally, low-slope roof assemblies consist of a roof covering or
membrane, insulation boards, and a roof substrate or decking. Insulation generally
consists of rigid boards stacked one over another to achieve a desired thermal "R" rating.
The insulation is sometimes tapered to accommodate drainage requirements. The
substrate consists of the building superstructure framing and a deck over which the
roofing assembly is installed. In some cases, the superstructure framing is sloped in lieu
of tapered insulation. The National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA) categorizes
low-slope roof coverings or membranes into six general categories: built-up, polymer-
modified bitumen, thermoplastic, thermoset, metal panels, and sprayed polyurethane
foam based. The primary waterproofing mechanism of low-slope roofing systems is
impermeability of the roofing membrane. In contrast, high-slope roofing systems rely on
gravity shedding of water over semi-impervious roof coverings. The roof designer should
select a roof membrane(s) for a particular project based on a set of criteria, as well as site
and building-specific issues. Poor roof drainage can be caused by a number of different
factors, including improper or deficient design. Typical design drainage requirements
include a minimum number of drains based on service areas and the inclusion of
secondary drains. Secondary drains are drains that will become active during an
emergency situation where the main (primary) drains are not functioning properly and/or
the design rainfall rate is exceeded. For low-slope roofs with parapet walls, secondary
drains typically consist of overflow drains or scuppers. Ponding takes place when
rainwater does not drain properly and collects at confined spaces and in deflections or
irregularities on the surface of a roof. Acceleration of ponding occurs when the weight of
the collected water causes significant deflections in the roof framing, causing
progressively more water to drain to the area and creating instability in the roof framing.
Considering structural design of roof framing, the strength and stiffness of the roof
framing and the drainage conditions must be adequate to prevent the acceleration of
ponding at the roof. However, in extreme cases, ponding instability can occur; especially
in the presence of poor roof drainage and in older structures which were not designed to

11
comply with more recent building codes. While roof failure and collapse can occur
without ponding instability, it is important to consider this mechanism when a given roof
structure is analyzed.

3.6 Lack of maintenance

A continuous and structured follow-up of the performance of the maintenance source

elements (MSEs) of a roof, associated with an appropriate planning, enables taking all
necessary actions for proactive maintenance (cleaning, minor and major interventions),
guaranteeing the control of costs during buildings’ lifecycles and the users’ satisfaction.
The absence of appropriate maintenance policies during the building’s lifecycle originates
high degrees of degradation. According to ISO 15686-1 (ISO 2011), maintenance is a
combination of all technical and administrative actions that allow a building and its
elements to play their roles during their service life. Currently, the maintenance of
housing stock entails high economic and environmental costs. According to Perret (1995),
in a building whose service life is 50 years, the costs of the design and construction stages
comprise approximately 20–25% of the total costs, while the use and maintenance stages
entail 75–85% of the total costs. Therefore, the definition of maintenance strategies is
essential to control the early stages of degradation, slowing down the continuous loss of
quality and functionality of the construction elements. The knowledge of buildings’
service life and, consequently, the implementation of effective maintenance strategies,
allow optimizing the interventions for rehabilitation or replacement of building
components during their lifecycle, thus reducing the costs and resources applied. roof is
the most vulnerable element of a building, being subjected to different deterioration
mechanisms, such as exposure to solar radiation and temperature variation during the day,
rain and eventually snow, presence of wind and biological agents, chemical agents and
pollution due to traffic, and inadequate use. Therefore, the pathology of roofs and of
roofs’ claddings must be carefully analyzed because it can compromise the roof itself and
also lead to structural problems in the rest of the building, causing damage to the goods
inside the building.

The optimization of maintenance strategies is a complex subject that depends on an

accurate evaluation of the buildings’ performance; a reliable prediction of their service
life; subjective aspects that are crucial for the decision-making process, such as the users’
perception, needs, and expectations; and the funds available (Lowry 2002). Palmer (2006)

12
organized the maintenance strategies into two major groups: proactive (preventive and
predictive) and reactive and corrective. Preventive maintenance allows establishing and
performing a set of maintenance activities at predetermined intervals. Thus, this
maintenance strategy allows avoiding the need of urgent rehabilitation actions, and
simultaneously reducing the probability of failure or degradation of the various building
elements. Predictive maintenance is similar to preventive maintenance in several respects.
This first type of maintenance differs from the other in that it is necessary to perform
inspections to assess the degradation state of the various elements of the building. Thus,
it is possible to act effectively before the occurrence of defects using a preestablished
interval of periodic inspections. Predictive maintenance is very dependent on the
diagnosis and in-service data collection made considering the in-service performance and
the decision criteria for the choice of the maintenance actions. To help prevent structural
accidents from happening good communications and organization in the construction
industry and regular inspection of construction by structural engineers should be ensured.

4. CONCLUSION

Some of the causes of distress in roof members discussed in this paper includes corrosion
of steel, human errors, water ingress into unbonded post-tensioning tendons, poor quality
of materials, poor roof drainage and lack of maintenance. All the above problems need to
be addressed and preventive measures should be taken in order to avoid the distress
caused in structural members. In the case of corrosion of reinforcement bars protection
systems include the use of epoxy-coated reinforcement, protective coatings and
membranes, cathodic protection, low permeability concrete, silica fume concrete,
desalination/ realkalization; and admixed corrosion inhibitors. By regularly observing the
tendons, the condition of the roof structure or any structure can be monitored to ensure
that it remains structurally adequate and that the rate of tendon failures is decreasing as
expected. Mechanical (e.g., specific strength, elasticity modulus), chemical (e.g.,
corrosion resistance, oxidation resistance), and external properties (e.g., color, texture)
have to be considered in the material selection process. Considering structural design of
roof framing, the strength and stiffness of the roof framing and the drainage conditions
must be adequate to prevent the acceleration of ponding at the roof. To help prevent
structural accidents from happening good communications and organization in the

13
construction industry and regular inspection of construction by structural engineers
should be ensured.

5. REFERENCES

[1] Jorge A. Sefair, Daniel Castro-Lacouture and Andres L. MedagliaB. “Material

selection in building construction using Optimal Scoring Method (OSM)” American
Society of Civil Engineers.

[2] J. Morgado, I. Flores-Colen2, J. de Brito3 and A. Silva. “Maintenance Planning of

Pitched Roofs in Current Buildings” American Society of Civil Engineers.

[3] Stewart M. Verhulst, Marco A. Deleon and Bradley L. East. “The Roof Drainage
Epidemic” American Society of Civil Engineers.

[4] Andrea E. Shear, James P. Donnelly and Matthew E. Lewis. “Tendon Failure
Investigation and Drying in a Two-Way Unbonded Post- Tensioned Roof Slab” American
Society of Civil Engineers.

[5] Ahmed Shlash Alawneh, Abdallah I. Husein Malkawi and Osama Kh. Nusier.
“Distress of RC structure due to poor quality control and overloading” American Society
of Civil Engineers.

[6] Stewart M. Verhulst and Travis G. Ebisch. “Foreseeable Failure: Roof Collapses
and Roof Drainage Deficiencies” American Society of Civil Engineers.

[7] M. Holicky and Miroslav Sykora. “Failures of Roofs under Snow Load: Causes and
Reliability Analysis” American Society of Civil Engineers.

[8] Hal K. Cain. “Cantilever roof structural failure caused by excessive constructon

loads, flawed design, and poor maintenance” American Society of Civil Engineers.

[9] Vivian Meløysund, Kim Robert Lisø, Jan Siem and Kristoffer
Apeland.“Increased Snow Loads and Wind Actions on Existing Buildings: Reliability of
the Norwegian Building Stock” American Society of Civil Engineers.

[10] Janet K. Yates and Edward E. Lockley. “Documenting and Analyzing

Construction Failures” American Society of Civil Engineers.

14