Lesson 2.

4 Chemical Reactions and

Enzymes
VOCABULARY
Chemical Reactions: is a process that changes or transforms one set of compounds
to another.
Reactants: The elements or compounds that engage in a chemical reaction are
known as reactants.
Product: The elements or compounds produced by chemical reaction are known as
products
Activation energy: The energy that is needed to get a reaction started is called its
activation energy.
Catalyst: is a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction without being
consumed by the reaction.
Enzymes: are biological catalysts. Most enzymes are proteins
Substrates: the reactants of enzyme-catalysed reactions are known as substrates.

NEW WORDS
Spontaneously:
● as a result of a sudden impulse and without premeditation.
● without apparent external cause or stimulus.
● kendiliğinden
Peak:
● the pointed top of a mountain.
● a projecting pointed part or shape.
● at the highest level; maximum.
● zirve
Blood Stream:
● the blood circulating through the body of a person or animal.
● Kan dolaşımı
Collide:
● hit by accident when moving.
● come into conflict or opposition.
● çarpışmak
Bind:
● tie or fasten (something) tightly together.
● stick together or cause to stick together in a single mass.
● a problematic situation.
 ● a statutory constraint.
● Bağlamak
● ciltleme
● bağlayan şey
● bağlı nota işareti
Constraint:
● a limitation or restriction.
● stiffness of manner and inhibition in relations between people.
● Sınırlama
● Zorlama
● Baskı
● Zor
● Kendini tutma
● Çekinme
● Alıkoyma
Conserve:
● protect (something, especially something of environmental or cultural
importance) from harm or destruction.
○ "the funds raised will help conserve endangered meadowlands"
● a sweet food made by preserving fruit with sugar; jam or marmalade.
○ "pork tenderloin with onion and raisin conserve"
‫■ حفظ‬
‫■ صان‬

Rust:
● a reddish- or yellowish-brown flaking coating of iron oxide that is formed on iron
or steel by oxidation, especially in the presence of moisture.
○ "paint protects your car from rust"
● a fungal disease of plants which results in reddish or brownish patches.
● a reddish-brown colour.
○ "her rust-coloured coat"
● be affected with rust.
○ "the blades had rusted away"
‫○ صدأ‬
‫○ صدأ الحبوب‬
‫○ صدأ أصاب بصدأ الحبوب‬
‫○ جعله بلون الصدأ‬

Regardless:
● despite the prevailing circumstances.
○ "they were determined to carry on regardless"
 ● without regard or consideration for.
○ "the allowance is paid regardless of age or income"
‫ يغض النظر‬.1 ■

SUMMARY
1. Everything that happens in an organism is based on chemical reaction
2. Mass and energy are conserved during chemical transformations
3. Some chemical reactions occur :
a. Slowly such as the combination of iron and oxygen ➡️iron oxide called
rust.
b. Quickly.
4. Chemical reactions involve changes in the chemical bonds that join atoms in
compounds.
5. Energy is released or absorbed whenever chemical bonds are formed or
broken.This means that chemical reactions also involve changes in energy.
6. Energy changes are one of the most important factors in determining whether a
chemical reaction will occur.
7. Chemical reactions that release energy often occur on their own or
spontaneously. Chemical reactions that absorb energy require a source of
energy.
a. An example of an energy releasing reaction is the burning of hydrogen
gas, in which hydrogen reacts with the oxygen to produce water vapour
2H2 + O2 ➡️2H2O
b. The reverse reaction, in which water is changed into hydrogen and
oxygen gas, absorbs so much energy that it generally doesn't occur by
itself. In fact, the only practical way to reverse the reaction is to pass an
electrical current through water.
8. Thus in One Direction the reaction release energy and in the other direction the
reaction requires energy
9.
a. Plants get the energy by trapping and storing the energy from sunlight in
energy-rich compounds.
b. Animals consume plants or other animals for food then chemical reactions
break apart the food and capture its energy.
10. Catalysts work by lowering a reactions activation energy
11. The role of enzymes is to speed up chemical reactions that take place in
cells.
12. lowering the activation energy has a dramatic effect on how quickly the
reaction is completed
a. An enzyme catalysed reaction:
 Carbonic anhydrase binds both substrates carbon dioxide and water. The
substrates react to form carbonic acid
Left itself this reaction is so slow that carbon dioxide might build up in the
body faster than the bloodstream could remove it. Fortunately the
bloodstream contains an enzyme called Carbonic and hydrase that
speeds up the reaction by a factor of 10 million. with Carbonic anhydrase,
the reaction takes place immediately and carbon dioxide is removed from
the blood quickly

13. For a chemical reaction to occur, the reactants must collide with each
other with sufficient energy that existing bonds will be broken as new bonds will
be formed. If the reactants do not have enough energy, they will be unchanged
after the collision.
14. Enzymes reduce the energy needed by providing sites where reactants
can be brought together.The substrates bind to a part of the enzyme called the
active site. They have complementary shapes, which fit together like a lock and
key. The substrates and the active site may be kept together by weak
interactions such as hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces.
15. Enzymes play an essential role in chemical reactions. Anything that
changes the structure of the protein can change the shape of the active site.
High temperature and very high or low pH can change the active site and cause
the enzyme to not work well. Enzymes produced by human cells generally work
best at temperatures close to 37°C, the normal temperature of the human body.
Enzymes activity can be changed or turned on and off by molecules that carry
chemical signals.

KEY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

❖ What happens to chemical bonds during chemical reactions?
➢ Chemical reactions involve changes in the chemical bonds that join atoms
in compounds.
❖ How do energy changes affect whether a chemical reaction will occur?
➢ Chemical reactions that release energy often occur on their own or
spontaneously. Chemical reactions that absorb energy will not occur
without a source of energy.
❖ What role do enzymes play in living things, and what affects their function?
➢ The role of enzymes is to speed up chemical reactions that take place in
cells
❖ What changes occur to chemical bounds draining a chemical reaction?
 ➢ During chemical reactions, the chemical bonds between atoms are
changed. They can be broken in order for atom rearrangement and
formation of new bonds.
❖ How does the change in energy of a chemical reaction predict whether or not
the reaction will occur?
➢ There can be two outcomes in the matter of energy releasing. There are
chemical reactions that release energy and they mostly occur
spontaneously. But, when chemical reactions absorb energy, there is
dependence on the outer energy source. However, there are some
chemical reactions where reaction between reactants releases so much
energy that it happens spontaneously. But, their product in reverse
reaction won't have enough energy to begin with chemical reaction
because it absorbs energy. So, if you want this reverse chemical reaction
to happen, you'll have to provide an outer source of energy.
❖ Explain the role of enzymes and how they affect the chemical reactions of living
things
➢ Enzymes are biological catalysts (accelerators of chemical reaction
without possibility to be consumed by chemical process. Their role is to
expedite cells' chemical reactions by lowering activation energy which is
vital for proper functioning of an organism.
❖ Explain why a key that fits into a lock is a useful model for the function of
enzymes.
➢ Every enzyme has a specific name due to the acceleration of a specific
reaction. If one enzyme would have an effect on several chemical
reactions, it would result in uncontrolled speeding of a process that
shouldn’t happen. For example if enzyme carbonic anhydrase could affect
other reactions in the organism, its regulation of carbon dioxide
concentration in blood would be missed out and that would lead to
hypercarbia, suffocation and death.
❖ Explain how consuming an acid-neutralising antacid might affect protein
digestion. Apply the concept of activation energy to support your explanation.
➢ There is a very significant enzyme in the stomach that breaks proteins into
smaller components- so called polypeptides. But, that enzyme is
synthesised and secreted in inactive form-pepsinogen. Pepsinogen
activation demands energy usage. Activation energy releases in the acidic
matrix (pH 1-3). Thanks to stomach lining cells obtaining an acid
environment is possible and pepsinogen is transferred to pepsin.
Consuming acid neutralising antacid affects activation of pepsin by
alkalizing the stomach environment and reduction of hydrochloric acid
secreting. Therefore, consumption of acid neutralising antacid leads to
decreasing transfer of pepsinogen to pepsin, so digestion of proteins is
affected.
❖ Predict which temperature—20°C, 39°C, or 50°C—you would expect a human
enzyme to function best. Plan a simple investigation to test your hypothesis.
 ➢ Human enzymes would function best at a temperature of 39 degrees
Celsius because it is the closest to human's body temperature. The
optimal temperature of most enzymes is between 35 and 40 degrees of
Celsius. Moderate increasing of temperature will excite molecules and the
rate of collided enzymes-reactants will increase so making of product
would be faster. On the other hand, excessive escalation of temperature
would cause denaturation of enzymes before adequate outcome. You can
do a little experiment to test your theory. In a small container with a lid, put
a little concentration of sugar (reactant) and amylase (enzyme) which is
present in saliva. Then you should put the thermometer in to follow the
change of temperature. Make two identical samples .One sample will be at
room temperature- 25 degrees Celsius and other will be heated till 40
degrees Celsius. Determine the concentration of your product at each
temperature. While observing a heated sample, you'll notice that at some
point (above 40 degrees) the rate where substrate is converted to product
is decreased because of enzyme denaturation and reaction will be
stopped. Optimal temperature would be the one in which the product is
being produced at the maximal rate.
❖ Which are the catalysts of reactions in living things?
➢ A. enzymes
➢ B. lipids
➢ C. carbohydrates
➢ D. substrates
■ Catalyst means to speed up the rate of chemical reaction bringing
change to the whole solution without it being affected. Enzymes are
such substances. Substrates are the substances on which the
enzymes act upon. An example of an enzyme is pepsin which
digests protein in the stomach. This speeds up the process of
digestion.
■ Enzymes
❖ What changes during a chemical reaction between two compounds?
➢ A. number of atoms
➢ B. chemical bonds
➢ C. total mass
➢ D. total energy
■ chemical bonds
❖ Which type of chemical reaction tends to occur on its own, or spontaneously?
■ Exothermic reaction (heat-releasing) tends to occur spontaneously
as energy in the form of heat is released. It does not require high
activation energy to occur unlike an energy-absorbing reaction or
endothermic reaction.
■ Endothermic reaction (heat-absorbing) does not occur
spontaneously most of the time unlike exothermic because the
energy it requires must be met first.
■ Energy-releasing reaction or exothermic reaction
❖ What is the name for the amount of energy that a reaction needs to get started?
 ■ The amount of energy needed for starting a reaction is called
activation energy.
❖ How do enzymes act as catalysts in a chemical reaction?
■ Enzymes act as catalysts by lowering activation energy and in that
manner speed up reactions. In other words, they accelerate a
chemical reaction without interfering with its equilibrium.
❖ What changes to the environment can affect the activity of enzymes?
➢ Activity of enzymes is sensitive to environmental changes. Factors that
affect the quality of enzymatic reactions are temperature, pH, enzyme
concentration, substrate concentration and presence of inhibitors or
activators.
❖ Two students are developing a computer simulation of a chemical reaction that
forms amino acids. Their simulation uses coloured spheres to represent atoms
of different elements. It uses lines connecting the spheres to represent chemical
bonds. For the simulation to be accurate, which of these features should be
included?
➢ Lines that break and reform between the spheres
➢ Spheres that break apart into small pieces
➢ Spheres that disappear during the simulation of the reaction
➢ Spheres that appear during the simulation of the reaction
➢ Lines that never break once they are placed
■ A. lines that break and reform between the spheres
Lesson 8.1 Life Is Cellular
VOCABULARY
Cells: are the basic units of all living things.
Cell Theory: The discoveries, confirmed by many biologists, are summarised in the cell
theory, a fundamental concept of biology.
Cell Membrane: all cells are surrounded by a thin flexible barrier (The cell membrane is
sometimes called the plasma membrane, because many cells in the body are in direct
contact with the fluid portion of the blood—the plasma.)
Nucleus: (plural: nuclei) is a large membrane-enclosed structure that contains genetic
material in the form of DNA.
Eukaryote: (yoo kar ee ohts) are cells that enclose their DNA in nuclei
Prokaryote: (pro kar ee ohts) are cells that do not enclose DNA in nuclei.

NEW WORDS
Cork: Mantar
Chambers: Odalar
Beam: ışın
Specimen: sample
Diffracted: dağılmış
Scattered: messy
Micrograph: a photograph taken by means of a microscope.
Photosynthetic: a photograph taken by means of a microscope.
Solitary: done or existing alone.

SUMMARY
● In 1665, Robert Hooke, an Englishman, used an early microscope to look at a
nonliving thin slice of cork, a plant material.
● cork seemed to be made of thousands of tiny empty chambers. Hooke called the
chambers“cells,” because they reminded him of a monastery’s tiny rooms. That term,
cell, is used in biology to this day.
● In Holland around the same time, Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a single-lens
microscope to observe pond water and other things.
● In 1838, German botanist Matthias Schleiden concluded that all plants are made of
cells.
● The next year, German biologist Theodor Schwann stated that all animals are made
of cells.
● In 1855, German physician Rudolf Virchow published the idea that new cells can be
produced only from the division of existing cells.
● The cell theory states:
○ All living things are made up of cells.
○ Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things.
○ New cells are produced from existing cells.
● Microscopes work by using beams of light or electrons to produce magnified images.
● A typical light microscope allows light to pass through a specimen and uses two
lenses to form an image.
○ The first lens, called the objective lens, is located just above the specimen. This
lens enlarges the image of the specimen.
○ The second lens, called the ocular lens, magnifies this image still further.
● Light itself limits the detail, or resolution, of images in a microscope. Like all forms of
radiation, light waves are diffracted, or scattered, as they pass through matter.
Because of this, light microscopes can produce clear images of objects only to a
magnification of about 1000 times.
● Since most living cells are nearly transparent, chemical stains or dyes are used to
help make cells and their parts visible.
● a property called fluorescence. Fluorescent labels of different colours can be attached
to certain molecules within the cell. These labels make it possible to locate and even
watch molecules move around in a living cell.
● What if scientists want to study something smaller than that, such as a virus or a DNA
molecule? For that, they need electron microscopes. Instead of using light, electron
microscopes use beams of electrons focused by magnetic fields. Electron
microscopes offer much higher resolution than light microscopes. Some types of
electron microscopes can be used to study cellular structures that are 1 billionth of a
metre in size.
● Electrons are easily scattered by molecules in the air, which means samples must be
placed in a vacuum to be studied with an electron microscope. As a result,
researchers must chemically preserve their samples. This means that electron
microscopy, despite its higher resolution, can be used to examine only non living cells
and tissues. The two major types of electron microscopes are transmission and
scanning.
● Beams of electrons can only pass through thin samples, so cells and tissues must be
cut into extremely thin slices before they can be examined. This is the reason that
such images often appear flat and two dimensional.
● The scanning electron microscope produces stunning three-dimensional images of
the specimen’s surface.
● The colours in light micrographs come from the cells themselves or from the stains
and dyes used to highlight them. Electron micrographs, however, are actually black
and white. Electrons, unlike light, don’t come in colours. So scientists often use
computer techniques to add “false colour” to make certain structures stand out.
● Typical cells range from 5 to 50 micrometres (µm) in diameter. The smallest
Mycoplasma bacteria, which are only 0.2 micrometre across
 ● In contrast, the giant amoeba Chaos chaos can be 1000 micrometres (1 millimetre) in
diameter
● all cells, at some point in their lives, contain DNA, the molecule that carries biological
information.
● Prokaryotic cells are generally smaller and simpler when compared with eukaryotic
cells, although there are many exceptions to this rule.
● Prokaryotic cells do not enclose their genetic material within a nucleus.
● Eukaryotic cells are generally larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells. Most
eukaryotic cells contain dozens of structures and internal membranes, and many are
highly specialised.
● In eukaryotic cells, the nucleus separates the genetic material from the rest of the
cell.
● the cells of multicellular organisms cannot survive individually. They work together to
complete the tasks of life.

KEY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

● What are the main points of the cell theory?

○ All living things are made up of cells.
○ Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things.
○ New cells are produced from existing cells.
● How do microscopes work?
○ Microscopes work by using beams of light or electrons to produce
magnified images.
● How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ?
○ In eukaryotic cells, the nucleus separates the genetic material from the
rest of the cell.
● Despite differences in size and shape, at some point all cells have DNA and a
○ cell wall.
○ cell membrane.
○ mitochondrion.
○ Nucleus.
■ B
● German scientists Schleiden and Schwann determined that the basic unit of structure
and function in living things is the
○ atom.
○ molecule.
○ cell.
○ Nucleus.
■ C
● What basic concept of biology includes the idea that new cells can be produced only
by the division of existing cells?
○ The cell theory states that all the living things are composed of cells, which are
their basic functional and structural units, and that all cells originate from the
 ones that already exist. Cell theory is one of the fundamental principles of
biology.
● How does a light microscope work?
○ The light microscope uses light waves that pass through the magnifying lenses
to the specimen. Since the light waves diffract, we can observe thin specimens
that are magnified up to 1000 times. These specimens must be very thin and
they are usually transparent, so sometimes chemical colours must bind to the
examined structure, so it would be visible.
● Why are microscopes useful tools in biology?
○ A microscope is a very important device in biology because it allows us to see
the magnified specimens and to understand them better. Robert Hooke was an
English scientist who was the first one to see a cell under a microscope, which
was a significant discovery in biology.
● Identify evidence that this micrograph is from a scanning electron microscope.

○ There are two types of an electron microscope - transmission (TEM) and

scanning electron microscopes (SEM). We can observe extremely thin slices of
the specimen under a TEM, which gives us a black and white picture. In order
to make certain structures visible, colours are added by the computer, which is
known as "false colouring". They give us a two-dimensional image. However,
an electron beam of the SEM passes over the surface of the observed
specimen, so we get a three-dimensional image, as it is shown in the picture.

● If you wanted to observe a living organism—an amoeba for example—which type of

microscope would you use?
○ Since some of the amoebas can be visible by the human eye, we could see its
structure under a light microscope. The light microscope uses light waves that
pass through the magnifying lenses to the specimen. Since the light waves
diffract, we can observe thin specimens that are magnified up to 1000 times.
These specimens must be very thin and they are usually transparent, so
sometimes chemical colours must bind to the examined structure, so it would
be visible.
● In what important way are prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells different?
○ Every eukaryotic cell has two major parts - nucleus and the cytoplasm with its
organelles. The nucleus contains the genetic material of an organism. However,
prokaryotes are simpler organisms than eukaryotes. They don't have the
nucleus, so their DNA is located in the cytoplasm.