University of Venda

Department of Biological Sciences

Practical Manual
BIO 1141
First Term
2023
Table of Contents
ACTIVITY
7Registration
Introduction The diversity of life practical’s
1. Introduction
2. General working procedure in the laboratory
3. Laboratory safety
4. Laboratory rules
5. Practical reports
Practical 1: Biological Drawings and Graphs
1. Biological drawings
2. Biological Graphs (Line and Bar graphs)
Practical 2: The compound light microscope
1. Introduction
2. Compound microscope parts and functions
3. Magnification
4. Resolution
5. The field of view
Practical 3: Use of the light compound microscope
1) Locating an object under the microscope
2) Preparation of a temporary wet mount
Practical 4: Taxonomy, Classification and Naming Organisms
1) Constructing a dichotomous key
2) Animal classification
Practical 5: Survey of some Animal Phyla I
- Phylum Porifera (Sponges)
- Phylum Cnidaria (e.g. Hydra)
- Phylum Platyhelminthes (e.g. Dugesia)

Practical 6: Survey of some Animal Phyla II

1) Phylum Mollusca
2) Phylum Arthropoda
3) Phylum Echinodermata

REFERENCES
Jones, A; Reed, R and Jonathan, W. 1994. Practical skills in Biology. Harlow, Essex: Longman
(574.078 JON)
Mader, S.S. 1996. Biology: Laboratory manual. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown (574.078 MAD)
Morgan, G.M and Carter, ME. 1999. Investigating Biology. The Benjamin/Cumming Publishing
Company Inc. (574.072 MOR).
Perry, J.W; Morton, D and Perry, J.B. 2009. Laboratory Manual for Majors General Biology.
Brooks/Cole. Cengage Learning. USA (Available on Moodle)
Van Rensburg, C.A.J., Thandar, A.S., Moodley, L.G. 1980. Practical Animal Anatomy.
Butterworth, Durban (591.4 VAN).

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 THE DIVERSITY OF LIFE PRACTICALS
Date:2023

Introduction
Welcome! You are about to embark on a journey through the universe of life. You will learn things
about yourself and your surroundings that will broaden and enrich your life. You will have the
opportunity to wonder at the microscopic world, to be fascinated by the cellular events occurring
in your body at this very moment, and to gain an appreciation for the environment, including the
stunning diversity of the plant and animal world.
The laboratory portion of this module is designed to study anatomical details of animals in general
or common examples of specific phyla more thoroughly than it is presented in lectures. This
method of ‘hands on’ learning should also enhance and strengthen the knowledge you gain in
lectures. Most of the time you will be working individually or in pairs. There is sometimes not
enough time in laboratory to go over each item that you are assigned. The laboratory is designated
for you to have access to materials that are not available during home study time. Some of the
information assigned in laboratory can learned at home, other items, particularly microscopic
details viewed with a microscope and parts of microscope can only be learned adequately in the
lab room.
The laboratory period will begin with a short introduction and orientation to the material to be
studied. We will assume that you have read the exercise before you come to laboratory. Models,
preserved animals and slides that will be used for the lesson will be pointed out as well as any
changes to the procedures of the practical. The rest of the laboratory time is yours to begin learning
the material, view any assigned slides and perform any activity that is required. Please read these
'General Laboratory Practices' carefully and be sure you understand each one. If you aren't sure,
ASK!!! Please ensure that you have a copy of the practical manual. Note that the practical manual
is available on Moodle, you can download it from there. To enhance your biology education, take
the initiative to give yourself the best possible advantage. Don’t miss class. Read your text
assignment routinely, and read the laboratory exercise before you come to the lab.

General working procedure in the laboratory

Experience is the best teacher. Working in the laboratory throughout the course of the semester
can be an enjoyable part of your biology experience. Many facts and ideas are learnt from lectures,
but the knowledge is only truly internalized once it has been verified through personal
observations. In this laboratory course the student gets the opportunity to study animals or parts of
animal and to link the observed images to that which is learned in the theory classes.

Accurate observation is one of the most important requirements of the biologist. The coursework
is designed to provide the student with a wide range of information about living organisms and
systems. The experiments contained in this laboratory manual accompany the lecture information
in such a way as to illustrate and demonstrate. In this laboratory course you will study and observe
organisms which we will have already been discussed in lectures or which you will have read of
in the theoretical before you come to the practical to obtain the most benefit from this course.

The accent is on observation and recording what you see not what is in the textbook or your notes.
If you do not see what you expect, please ask or investigate further yourself. Each student must

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learn to work independently of his fellow-students. During a practical it is expected that problems
experienced about the work, be discussed with the demonstrator immediately. Information in the
textbook should, however, not be sought from the instructions, as the student must learn to consult
textbooks independently. All textbooks which should be used with the practical work must be
brought along to the practical class.

Laboratory investigations will give you first-hand experience on how scientists work. You will be
presented with a problem. Then, through use of the scientific method, you will seek answers
through experimentation. Your conclusions (answers to problems) will be based on your
interpretation of what the data and observations mean. During a practical class the lecturer will
give a clear indication of the method of work that must be followed and will also cast light on
problems which may occur. Instructions given must be followed explicitly. It is expected of each
student, to do a thorough preparatory study of the topic (s) intended for the specific practical
session. That is, it is important that you are familiar with the theory before you come to the practical
to obtain the most benefit from this course. In the laboratory, it is also desirable, as soon as the
practical work has been completed, to study the theory linked to that section again. It is expected
of each student to work in a quiet and orderly fashion in the laboratory.

The laboratory exercises are designed to introduce students to the basic biological information,
processes, skills, and concepts. In addition to the general science skills that will be developed in
several modules, students will also develop the following biological skills:
- Make accurate and relevant observations of biological materials;
- Prepare accurate, annotated drawings;
- Draw and annotate well-proportioned plan diagrams;
- Use microscopes and prepare slides;
- Calculate real size and magnification of microscopic material, drawings and micrographs;
- Understand and interpret the relationship between structure and function;
- Classify and identify organisms, and understand the evolutionary relationships between
them;
- Interpret and /or create diagrams, tables and graphs;
- Investigate texts, research, and gain insight into biological topics;
- Understand and follow the scientific method, generate hypotheses, design and conduct
reliable experiments, present and discuss results, form conclusions and prepare laboratory
reports;
- Choose the appropriate graphs and tables to present data

Each class will be the responsibility of the senior technician who is assisted by demonstrators.
They are there to assist you and it will be to your benefit to take full advantage of their presence.
Demonstrators will help you with technique, and gladly discuss the significance of the practical
exercise. Demonstrators should be quizzed on any aspect of the current, or previous, practical of
which you are uncertain. However, it is in your own interest that you first try to solve a problem
yourself. Also, consult with your neighbor. DO NOT COPY DRAWINGS FROM TEXTBOOKS.
Copying drawings into your practical workbook from textbooks is a waste of time: the textbook is
always there, but your laboratory specimen isn’t. Nonetheless, the authors of textbooks don’t need
marks – you do! THINK AS YOU WORK. Try to deduce the significance of organism structure
from your observations and records. What does its structure say about the life of the organism, or

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group of organisms? Discuss these aspects with the demonstrators and make notes of your
conclusion.

Laboratory Safety
None of the exercises in this manual are inherently dangerous. Some of the chemicals are corrosive
(causing burns to the skin) and others are poisonous if ingested or inhaled in large amounts.
Contact with your eyes by otherwise innocuous substances may result in permanent eye injury.
Remember, once your sight is lost, it’s probably lost forever. Safety is one of the concerns in any
laboratory. Safety for humans is always a primary concern. The location of some of safety
equipment should be common knowledge to anyone working in the laboratory.

Laboratory rules
1. Do not eat, drink, or smoke in the laboratory.
2. Wash your hands with soap and water before leaving the laboratory.
3. Always wear shoes that cover the foot in the laboratory (No open feet shoes).
4. Keep extra books and clothing in designated places so your work area is as uncluttered as
possible.
5. If you have long hair, tie it back when in the laboratory.
6. Read labels carefully before removing substances from a container. Never return a substance
to a container unless directed to do so by your instructor.
7. Discard used chemicals and materials into appropriately labeled containers. Certain chemicals
should not be washed down the sink; these will be indicated by your instructor.
8. At the end of the practical ALL APPARATUS MUST BE CLEANED AND PUT AWAY
AND THE BENCH TOP MUST BE WIPED DOW.

Practical reports
Each student will complete a laboratory report for the work covered in each of laboratory exercises.
Laboratory exercises are at the end of each practical activity. Each laboratory report will include
answers to specific questions from individual laboratory activities as well as general questions in
biology. You will also be asked to make sketches of observations from the slides and preserved
materials that you were studying. You are free to also include materials that you think might be
helpful to learn the information presented in the lab exercises and prepare yourself for the practical.
NB: The practical reports will be collected for marking at the end of each practical class.

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 PRACTICAL 1: BIOLOGICAL DRAWINGS AND GRAPHS
Date:2023

OBJECTIVES
After completing this exercise, you will be able to:
1. Describe similarities in skills sets between scientific illustration and biology.
2. Compare conceptual and perceptual drawings
3. Generate accurate illustrations that incorporate observational data, drawing skills, and
biological understanding.
4. Use observational skills to collect visual data and make conclusions about anatomy/function
and evolutionary relationships.
5. Define and collect data.
6. Understand what a graph is and know the different types of graph mostly used in biology.
7. Know the parts of a graphs, interpret a graph, and describe the procedure for constructing of
graphs.

Biological drawings
Why draw? It is not the objective of this course to “make you into an artist” or even to have you
produce drawings of professional quality, even though many of you are capable of such work. It is
expected, however, that each student will produce clear and accurate drawings of the organisms and
structures that she/he observes. Drawing is a tool that will help you focus on what you are seeing at
deeper level that maybe you have seen before. Making accurate diagrams is a very important
component of the work of the biologist. Making good diagram also demands very special attention
and accurate perception. Fully labelled diagrams must be made of all objects that are studied.
Diagrams are evaluated based on their accuracy, and not based on their artistic merit. The lecturer
and the demonstrators know the basic ability to sketch will differ from student to student, but the
instructor will soon notice if a student is copying a sketch from a textbook – this is not permissible
and is of no value to the student.

Scientific drawings are an important part of the science of biology and all biologists must be able to
produce good quality scientific drawings regardless of your artistic ability. Drawings not only allow
you to record an image of the specimen observed, but more importantly, they help you to remember
the specimen as well as the important features of the specimen. You will be required to look at many
specimens during this course and you are much more likely to remember them if you must draw
each one. Drawing a specimen requires you to pay attention to detail so that you can re-create it on
the sheet. While doing this, your brain is recording these same features in such a way that you can
recall them if necessary (for example in an examination). Simply observing pictures of specimens
in a book or on a computer screen is less effective when it comes to remembering and understanding
what you observed.

All drawings done for this course must adhere to standard rules of scientific illustration. When
making sketches, it is important to give attention to the following guidelines:
a) The object is first studied meticulously, and all parts identified. Always use distinct, single lines
when drawing. Do not sketch.

6
b) The object should be drawn directly as observed.
c) The diagrams should be large and clear, but simple. Indicate all details but note that it is not
necessary to repeat similar things over and over. Rather draw in a few of these similar parts in
full detail.
d) All the different diagrams should be placed symmetrically on the page.
e) All diagrams are done with a sharp pencil (HB) and never in ink.
f) Labelling the diagrams is done in ink. All labelling is printed. To illustrate darker areas on a
specimen, use stippling or dots. Do not shade in any area of your drawing.

The label lines should be ruled, and each label line must be straight and should not overlap. Each
diagram should be supplied with:
 A heading or caption and should be constantly beneath every diagram. The caption should be
complete. It should specify which part of the organism is being drawn (e.g. the kidney; the bone;
etc.), the selection plane (e.g. T.S or L.S), and what it is (e.g.). The magnification of the object
(example below).

 Parts which cannot be observed in the specimen should still be added to the diagram. The label
for such a part should be in brackets to indicate that it was not actually observed.
 Be sure to underline scientific names. All scientific names must be written as follows: Genus
(beginning with a capital letter) species (small letters) e.g. Amoeba proteus.
 When making scientific drawings, use the following checklist to make sure your drawings have
all the required components (dos and don'ts):

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 i) Drawing title
ii) Magnification
iii) Labels and annotations
iv) No shading, only stippling (dotting)
v) No sketchy lines, only single lines
vi) All scientific names underlined and all drawing neat and clean

EXERCISE 1
1.1 Identify five features of the image below that make it a bad biological drawing. (5)

1.2 Refer to the illustrations of the cell found on pages 84 and 85 of the prescribed text book
(Solomon et al, 2011). Select an Animal cell to draw. Draw a 15 x 10 cm box in the center
of the page of your report sheet using a pencil. (Length =15 cm & length =10 cm).

Make a drawing of a cell at the center of this box using the HB pencil. Label your drawing
following the rules for creating a biological drawing. The labels should be written inside
the box template. (5)

Biological Graphs
There are different types of data that can be collected in an experiment. Typically, we try to design
experiments that collect objective and quantitative data. Objective data is fact-based, measurable,
and observable. This means that if two people made the same measurement with the same tool, they
would get the same answer. The measurement is determined by the object that is being measured.
The length of a worm measured with a ruler is an objective measurement. The observation that a
chemical reaction in a test tube changed color is an objective measurement. Both are observable
facts. Subjective data is based on opinions, points of view, or emotional judgment. Subjective data
might give two different answers when collected by two different people. The measurement is
determined by the subject who is doing the measuring. Surveying people about which of two
chemicals smells worse is a subjective measurement. Grading the quality of a presentation is a
subjective measurement. Rating your relative happiness on a scale of 1-5 is a subjective

8
measurement. These depend on the observer – someone else might make these measurements
differently. Quantitative measurements gather numerical data. For example, measuring a worm as
being 5cm in length is a quantitative measurement. Qualitative measurements describe a quality,
rather than a numerical value. Saying that one worm is longer than another worm is a qualitative
measurement.
Data are the information gained from observing and testing an experiment. After you have collected
data in an experiment, you need to figure out the best way to present that data in a meaningful way.
Depending on the type of data, and the story that you are trying to tell using that data, you may
present your data in different ways. Some skill in mathematics is necessary in the performance of
biological experiments and in the analyses of experimental data. Graphing is an important procedure
used by scientists to display data collected during a controlled experiment. An ability to graph the
data collected in experimental work is often needed, because when a graph is put together
incorrectly, it detracts the reader from understanding what you are trying to present. Graphs are
logical, simplified illustrations of research results. They represent a set of data, which usually is
captured in a table. Graphs provide a visual summary of the results. Often, characteristics of the data
are not apparent in a table but may become clear in a graph. By merely looking at a graph, one can
visualize the effect that a certain variable has. For a graph to be useful, the data collected must be
as accurate and precise as possible and must be plotted accurately as well. A well-constructed graph
allows you to make reliable predictions. A graph can be difficult to interpret unless certain rules are
followed in its preparation. Line and bar graphs are frequently used in the presentation of biological
data. Most graphs contain 5 major parts:

a) Title - depicts what the graph is about. Reading the title gives the reader an understanding about
the graph. A good title is closer to a sentence than a phrase and is usually found at the top of
the graph.
b) The independent variable - the variable that can be controlled by the experimenter. Common
independent variables include time (date, minutes, hours, seconds, years, generations),
length/depth (meters, centimeters), or temperature (Celsius) to name a few. This variable is put
on the X-axis
c) The dependent variable - the variable that is affected directly by the independent variable. It is
the result of what happens because of the independent variable. Example, how many oxygen
bubbles are produced by a plant located a different depth below water. The number of oxygen
bubbles will depend on the depth of the water. This variable is put on the Y-axis.
d) Scale - before you can plot your data points, you must figure out how much each box on your
graph paper is worth. Scale doesn’t always have to start at zero, but is must be consistent. If
you start off making each box worth 5cm, each subsequent box must also be 5cm. Always make
sure your scale is labeled with what it is and what it is measured in.
e) Legend - a short description about the graph’s data. Most often used to show what different
patterns or colors stand for on your graph.

How to plot a graph

 Identify your independent and dependent variables.
 Choose the correct type of graph by determining whether each variable is continuous or not.
 Determine the values that are going to go on the X and Y axis. If the values are continuous,
they need to be evenly spaced based on the value.
 Label the X and Y axis, including units.

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  Graph your data.
 Add a descriptive caption to your graph. Note that data tables are titled above the figure and
graphs are captioned below the Figure.

a) Line Graphs
Line graphs are the best type of graph to use when you are displaying a change in something over a
continuous range. For example, you could use a line graph to display a change in temperature over
time. Therefore, line graphs compare two variables. Time is a continuous variable because it can
have any value between two given measurements. Between 1 minute and 2 minutes are an infinite
number of values, such as 1.1 minute or 1.93456 minutes. Each variable is plotted along an axis.
For example, if you want to graph the height of a ball after you have thrown it, you would put time
along the horizontal, or X-axis, and height along the vertical, or Y-axis. Line graphs are important
in science for several reasons such as:
- showing specific values of data. If one variable is known, the other can be determined.
- showing trends and relationships in data clearly. They visibly depict how one variable is
affected by the other as it increases or decreases.
- allowing the viewer to make predictions about data not yet recorded. This is called
extrapolation.

To plot a line graph:

 Identify the variables & label the axes
- Independent variable, a factor that is varied in an experiment and specifically controlled by
the experimenter. Label it along the x-axis (horizontal) and include units. Typically found
on the left side of a data table.
- Dependent variable, a factor that is measured in an experiment and will change because of
the independent variable. Label it along the y-axis (vertical) and include units. Typically
found on the right side of a data table.
 Determine the graph scale
- Determine the magnitude (numeric value) of each variable
- Establish a scale that best fits the range of each variable
- Spread the graph to the MOST of the available space.
- Be consistent throughout each axes’ scale. (Each grid on the graph paper MUST equal the
same quantity of each variable).
 Plot the Data Points
- Plot each data value on the graph with a dot.
- If multiple sets of data are being drawn, use different colored lines (or different line styles)
and include a key.
 Draw the graph
- Draw one of the following types of graphs:
 Best fit straight line
 Best fit curved line
 Best fit peak line
- DO NOT connect the dots unless specifically told to do so.
 Title the Graph
- Titles are used to clearly portray what the graph is about.
- Titles are typically written as the “Y-axis vs. the X-axis.”

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EXERCISE 2
2.1 The graph indicated below is a bad graph. What parts of the graph are missing? List them. (3)

2.2 Use the information from the data table below.

pH of water Number of tadpoles

5.5 45
6.0 69
6.5 78
7.0 88
7.5 43
8.0 23

2.2.1 Create a proper scientific graph using the data provided and label all its parts. (4)
2.2.2 What is the dependent variable? (1)
2.2.3 What is the independent variable? (1)
2.2.4 What is the mean (average) pH in this experiment? (1)
2.2.5 What is the average number of tadpoles per sample? (1)
2.2.6 Between which two pH readings is there the greatest change in tadpole number? (1)

EXERCISE 3
3.1 Use the following data to create an appropriate graph and label all its parts. (6)

Depth (in meters) Bubbles per minutes Plant A Bubbles per minute Plant B
2 29 21
5 36 27
10 45 40
16 32 50
25 20 34
30 10 20

EXERCISE 4
4.1 Diabetes is a disease affecting insulin producing glands of the pancreas. If there is not
enough insulin being produced by these cells, the amount of glucose in the blood will remain
high. A blood glucose level above 140 for an extended period is not normal. This disease,

11
 if not brought under control, can lead to severe complications and even death. Use the
following data to create an appropriate graph and answer the questions. (6)

Time after eating Glucose in mg/dL Glucose in mg/dL

(in hours) Person A Person B
0.5 170 180
1.0 155 195
1.5 140 230
2.0 135 245
2.5 140 235
3.0 135 225
4.0 130 200

4.2 Which individual would you potentially diagnose as a diabetic? (1)

4.3 What evidence do you have that supports your answer to 4.2? (1)
4.4 If the period was extended to 6 hours, what would be the expected blood glucose
level for Person A and Person B? (2)

b) Bar graphs
Bar graphs are used to compare measurements between different groups. Bar graphs should be used
when your data is not continuous, but rather is divided into different categories. If you counted the
number of birds of different species, each species of bird would be its own category. There is no
value between “robin” and “eagle”, so this data is not continuous. Bar graphs have the following
features:
- The data are plotted as columns (or bars) that do not touch each other as each deal with a
different characteristic.
- The bars must be the same width and be the same distance apart from each other.
- A bar graph can be displayed vertically or horizontally.
- A bar graph must have a clear, descriptive title, which is written beneath the graph.

EXERCISE 5
The information displayed in the following graphs indicate how many days of snow there were for
the month of December, January, February, and March. For example, in December there were two
days of snow and in February, there were fourteen days of snow. If the bar does not extend to the
next line on the scale, just approximate the value. For the month of March, the bar does not extend
all the way to four. However, a close look shows that the bar is between 2 and 4. Therefore, a good
approximation is 3, or 3 days of snow in March.

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5.1 Four groups of patients were found to have high systolic blood pressure. It was decided to test the
effectiveness of four medications in reducing blood pressure by giving each group of subjects one of
four medications for a period of three months. The mean systolic blood pressure for each group was
determined at the end of the experiment. Use the data provided in the table below to plot a bar graph
illustrating the effectiveness. (10)

Initial Mean Blood Final Mean Blood

Pressure (mmHg) Pressure (mmHg)
Group Drug Initial Final
1 A 163 138
2 B 172 132
3 C 168 135
4 D 170 137

5.2 The bar graph below represents the declared majors of freshman enrolling at a university.

5.2.1 What is the total freshman enrollment of the college? (1)

5.2.2 What percent of the students are majoring in physics? (1)
5.2.3 How many students are majoring in economics? (1)
5.2.4 How many more students major in poly sci than in psych? (1)

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PRACTICAL 2: THE COMPOUND LIGHT

MICROSCOPE Date: 2023

OBJECTIVES:
After completing this exercise, you will be able to:
1. Describe how to care for a compound light microscope;
2. Recognize and give function of parts of a compound light microscope;
3. Define magnification, total magnification, working distance, field of view;
4. Correctly use a compound light microscope

MATERIALS:
 Compound light microscope

Introduction
Possibly the most important instrument that assists biologists is the microscope. A microscope is an
instrument used to see objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. A microscope is
referred to as a compound light microscope because light transmits the image to your eye. The term
compound refers to the microscope having more than one lens (Study the figure below), and micro"
refers to tiny, "scope" refers to view or look at. A microscope allows scientists to investigate worlds
that are otherwise too small to be seen. An opportunity to learn and use this valuable instrument is
now yours.
Light microscopes contain transparent glass lenses, which focus light rays emanating from a source
which is on the opposite side of the specimen, to the objective lens. Generally, the light is passed
through a condenser which maximizes brightness on the specimen. After the light, has passed
through the specimen, it goes through the objective lens that magnifies the image of the specimen
and then to the oculars, where the enlarged image is viewed.

Early microscopes, like Leeuwenhoek's, were called simple because they only had one lens. Simple
scopes work like magnifying glasses that you have seen and/or used. These early microscopes had

14
limitations to the amount of magnification no matter how they were constructed. The creation of the
compound microscope by the Janssen’s helped to advance the field of microbiology light years
ahead of where it had been only just a few years earlier. The Janssen’s added a second lens to
magnify the image of the primary (or first) lens. Simple light microscopes of the past could magnify
an object to 266X as in the case of Leeuwenhoek's microscope. Modern compound light
microscopes, under optimal conditions, can magnify an object from 1000X to 2000X (times) the
specimen’s original diameter.

Compound Microscope Parts and Functions

Although of many designs, all compound microscopes consist of the same basic parts and function
on the same principle. The microscope is constructed of several mechanical parts which support and
facilitate the manipulation of the optical components which produce the visual image. The
mechanical parts include the base, arm, stage, body tube, revolving nosepiece and adjustment
screws. The optical parts which include lenses, condenser and light source are designed to align the
light in an optical axis to produce an enlarged image of the specimen.
Microscopes are extremely expensive and delicate instruments, so make sure you handle them
properly. As various parts of the course involve looking at cellular structures, this practical is
specifically designed to familiarize students with the operation and handling of this instrument. A
typical example of the microscope you will be using is shown in the Figure below. Microscopes can
be damaged and broken through misuse and mishandling. A large part of learning how to use the
microscopes properly involves learning how to avoid damaging it. To do that, you must first know
the different parts that make up this instrument. The figure below identifies the key parts that you
need to be familiar with. To use this instrument properly, familiarize yourself with this Figure to
identify the various parts of your microscope. Read each step below and manipulate the parts only
where indicated.

The Compound Light Microscope

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OCULAR LENS or EYEPIECE
The magnifying lens you look-into is called an ocular/eyepiece. Oculars are generally having a
magnifying power of 10X. On a binocular scope, there are two ocular lenses, one for each eye.
They magnifying the object by the power of 10X.

MICROSCOPE STAND
Structural element that connects the head (The upper part of the microscope that houses the optical
elements of the unit) of the microscope to the base. It supports the microscope and serves as a
convenient carrying handle.

FOCUSSING CONTROLS
Located on the sides of the stand. The coarse-focus adjustment knob is the bigger of the two, it is
used only with the lower-power objective. Its purpose is for initial focusing. The fine adjustment,
the smaller of the two, used with all the objectives. It moves very slow used to fine focus the image.

REVOLVING NOSEPIECE
A circular plate with 4 objective lenses that can be rotated into position for different magnifications.
Holds the objective lenses and rotates 360º. You will be able to change the magnification by turning
it until the lens you want to use “clicks” into place. Four separate objectives magnify the image (4X,
10X, 40X and 100X).
 Scanning objective, magnifies the object by a factor of 4X. It is referred to as the “scanning
objective” since it is used to scan the slide to locate the specimen before viewing it at higher
magnification. It has the red color ring.
 Low-power objective (10X), magnifies the object by a factor of 10 and is referred to as the “low
power” objective. It has an orange color ring
 High-power objective (40X), magnifies the object by a factor of 40. Referred to as the high-
power objective. It has a blue color ring.
 Oil immersion (100X), magnifies the image by a factor of 100. It is referred to as the “oil
immersion objective” since it requires a drop of immersion oil on the slide to provide good
resolution. You will not be using this objective lens. It has a white color ring.

STAGE AND SLIDE HOLDER

The flat platform that supports the slides. Stage clips hold the slides in place. If your microscope
has a mechanical stage, the slide is controlled by turning two knobs instead of having to move it
manually. A mechanical stage is a mechanism mounted underneath the stage of the microscope. It
has two knobs and allows the user to move the slide in the X or Y direction very smoothly and
slowly by turning these knobs. That is, one knob moves the slide left and right, the other moves it
forward and backward. The top knob moves the slide back and forth on the mechanical stage. The
lower knob moves the slide sideways on the mechanical stage. This can be very useful at higher

16
magnifications because the slide must be moved in very small amounts and in the opposite direction,
or the specimen being viewed will shoot out of the viewing field. Moving a slide by hand at 400x
and above can take a lot of practice to get it right!

CONDENSER
At the center of the stage is an aperture through which light passes from the condenser to the
specimen. A condenser is a lens that concentrates or directs the light onto the slide. Condenser lenses
focus the light that shines up through the slide, and are useful for attaining sharp images at
magnifications of 400X and above. If the maximum power of your microscope is 400X, a stage
mounted 0.65 NA (or greater) condenser is ideal since it give you greater clarity without having to
be focused separately. However, if your microscope goes to 1000X or above, focusable condenser
lens with an N.A. of 1.25 or greater is needed. Most microscopes that go up to 1000X come equipped
with an Abbe condenser, which can be focused by moving it up and down. The Abbe condenser
should be set closest to the slide at 1000X, and moved further away as the magnification level gets
lower.

IRIS DIAPHRAGM CONTROL

A lever (or rotating disk) that adjusts the amount of light illuminating the slide. Use just enough
light to illuminate the object on the slide and give good contrast.

ILLUMINATING FIELD DIAPHRAGM

The field diaphragm (light source) is in the base of the microscope controls only the width of the
bundle of light rays reaching the condenser. This variable aperture does not affect the optical
resolution, numerical aperture, or the intensity of illumination.

ILLUMINATION-ITENSITY INDICATORS
They indicate light intensity

EXERCISE 1
1.1 Label the parts of the microscope of the diagram provided in your work sheet. (13)
1.2 Match the parts of the microscope with their function. Put the letter next to the part of
the microscope that fits the description. (11)

Magnification
To use the microscope efficiently and with minimal frustration, you should understand the basic
principles of microscopy. Magnification is the ability of the microscope to create an enlarged view
of an object such that we can observe details not otherwise possible with the human eye. It is the
amount that the image of an object is enlarged (e.g., 100X). It is usually indicated by a number
followed by “X”, which stands for “times life size” (e.g. 10X, means 10 times life size). It is the
ability of a microscope to magnify a specimen.

Total Magnification
The ocular lens of your microscope gives 10X magnification of the image. The objective lenses
magnify objects by 4X, 10X, 40X, and 100X respectively. Total magnification of a microscope is
determined by multiplying the magnification capability of the eyepiece lens by that of the objective

17
lens. To get the total magnification take the power of the objective (4X, 10X, 40x) and multiply it
by the power of the eyepiece, which is usually 10X. Use the following formula:

Total Magnification = Ocular Magnification X Objective Magnification

Many students make the mistake of adding the two magnifications, so remember that total
magnification is the product (multiplication) of the ocular and objective lens magnifications.

Example:
Calculate the total magnification of the microscope when using 10X objective
Total magnification = ocular magnification x objective magnification
= (10X) (10X)
= 100X
EXERCISE 2
2.1 Define magnification. (1)
2.2 Fill in the following table: (16)

Name of objective Objective Ocular Total

Lens magnification magnification magnification
1. Scanning ________ ________ ______

2. Low power ________ ________ ______

3. High power ________ ________ _______

4. Oil-immersion ________ ________ ________

Resolution
Resolution is the amount of detail you can see in an image. You can enlarge a photograph indefinitely
using more powerful lenses, but the image will blur together and be unreadable. Therefore, increasing
the magnification will not improve the resolution. This is also known as the resolving power.
Resolution can also be thought of as the minimum distance between two distinct points that can be
distinguished by the observer. For example, imagine you had plant specimen on your slide under your
microscope for examination and when you look at two plant cells side by side unresolved they just look
like a blurry mass but when you focus the microscope they now become clear and you can clearly
distinguish one cell from another.
Numerical aperture determines the resolving power of an objective, but the total resolution of the entire
microscope optical train is also dependent upon the numerical aperture of the sub-stage condenser. The
higher the numerical aperture of the total system, the better the resolution. In microscopy, numerical
aperture is the ability of an objective lens to collect and accept incoming light condensed into a cone
of light from the condenser. Numerical aperture is just a way of expressing the ability of an objective
lens to gather light information, which is information about our specimen, and resolve details at some
given working distance. If you remember, the way a microscope works is light shines up from a light
source, through a condenser lens, through a hole is in the stage, through the slide, and through the small
holes and the surroundings of the specimen and diffracts the light which ends up making an upside-

18
down cone of light. The degree to which the objective lens can capture or gather this light is what we
are talking about with numerical aperture.

EXERCISE 3
3.1 Define the resolution of an optical microscope. (2)
3.2 How does wavelength affect resolution of a microscope? (2)

The Field of View

Working distance is the distance between the stage and objective lens (see the Figure below). Because
the objective lenses vary in lengths, the working distance will change as you switch from one objective
lens to the next. In a microscope, as magnification increases, working distance decreases.

Increase the magnification Decrease of Field of View

The field of view (FOV) is the bright “circle” you see when looking in the microscope (study the Figure
below). When you into a microscope the “Field of view” is the visible circular area.

Although this circular field appears to be the same no matter which objective lens you are using,
this is not the case. What happens to the field of view when you increase the power of the objective
lens? The field of view will DECREASE as you INCREASE the magnification. How is the field of
view of a microscope calculated? There are various ways to calculate the field of view. The simplest
is to use the numbers that are provided on the microscope. To calculate field of view, you need to
know the magnification of the objective lenses and field number (FN) of the microscope’s lens
currently in use. The microscope’s eyepiece should be labeled with a sequence of numbers, such as
10X/18. These numbers are the ocular lens, for example from the figure below the numbers are
10X/20. That means the magnification of ocular lens is 10X and the field number is 20, respectively.
Also, take note of the magnification of your objective lenses at the bottom of the microscope,
generally 4X, 10X, 40X or 100X

19
To calculate the field of view, divide the field number by the total magnification of the instrument.
For example, if the eyepiece reads 10X/18, and the total magnification objective lens is 40X,
multiply 10 by 40 to get the total magnification, which would be 400. Then divide 18 (which is the
field number) by 400 to get an FOV diameter of 0.045 millimeters. When dealing with objects
observed at higher magnifications, it may be useful to convert your measurements from millimeters
to micrometers. To do so, multiply the FOV diameter by 1000 to convert millimeters to
micrometers, which is 0,000045 µm.

EXERCISE 4
If the eye piece has the sequence of numbers 10x/18, calculate the field of view in micrometers for
each objective provided in the table below. NB: calculations should be done separately, only
indicate the answer in the report sheet. (6)

Objective lens Total Magnification FOV (µm)

Scanning
Low power
High power

20
PRACTICAL 3: USE OF THE LIGHT COMPOUND

MICROSCOPE Date: 7 – 11 March 2023

OBJECTIVES
After completing this exercise, you will be able to:
1. accurately align a compound light microscope;
2. correctly use a compound light microscope;
3. make wet mounts;
4. use your skills to enjoy a fascinating world unavailable to the unaided eye.

MATERIALS
 Compound microscope
 Glass slides
 Cover slips
 Dropper
 Newspaper print
 Onion leaf
 Scalpel/razor blade
 Forceps
 Iodine solution
 Pipette/dropper
 Paper towel

This lab is designed as an introduction to microscope use. One of them is an activity that uses slides
that the students create themselves using newsprint with the letter "e". Getting the students
comfortable with microscope usage is often the most difficult part of this activity. It is very important
that they understand how to use the microscope and how it works.

A. Locating and focusing using newspaper print with letter “e”

All microscope observations begin with the Scanning (4X) objective. Three reasons for beginning
with the scanning objective are:
1. The lower the power, the easier to focus.
2. The lower the power, the greater the field (area) of view.
3. Once the object has been found at scanning power with the coarse adjustment knob, there is no
need to change the coarse adjustment again. Even after switching to another objective, all further
focusing is done with the fine adjustment knob.
When looking at paper under a microscope, it's a straightforward experiment. Essentially, paper
consists of a network of plant fibers that have been laid down to form a flat sheet. Different types
of trees (e.g. hemlock, larch, fir, etc.) among other components are used for paper production with
the quantity of these components varying depending on the type of paper and intended use.

PROCEDURE
 Be sure that the scanning objective (4X) is in place
 Plug in the microscope and turn on the lamp
 Cut a piece of newsprint that contains the letter “e”.

21
 Place the letter “e” in the center of the glass slide.
 Using a dropper, place a drop of water on the letter “e”
 Place a coverslip at about a 45° angle over the drop of water. Gently lower the coverslip onto
the slide. Tap the coverslip gently to remove air bubbles.
 Place the wet mount glass slide of the letter “e” on the stage of the microscope with the “e”
facing you as you would read it.
 Adjust the “e” so that it is over the opening in the stage.
 Raise the stage of the microscope while looking at the slide from the side until it locks.
 Now look into the eyepiece and use the coarse adjustment to lower the stage of the microscope
to bring the “e” into focus.
 Once the image is located, use the fine adjustment to further sharpen the focus.
 Observe the letter “e” using the low power (10X) on your microscope
 Make some general observations of the letter “e”

EXERCISE 1
1.1 Draw the letter “e” in the space provided as observed under the microscope. (4)
1.2 When you move the slide to the right what direction does it appear to move under the
microscope? (1)
1.3 When you move the slide to the left on the stage, in what direction does the "e"
appear to move when viewed through the microscope? (1)
1.4 What happened to the image when you switched objectives? (1)

B. Preparation of a temporary wet mount using onion epidermal cells

Living specimens do not survive long in the heat from an intense microscope illuminator bulb,
usually because the specimen dries up. Wet mounts specimens are those that you make fresh in
laboratory. A wet mount is made by placing a fluid solution on a slide, suspending a specimen in
a solution, and then covering the specimen and the solution with a cover slide. It is used to increase
the specimen translucency and to make it easier to stain. Using a wet mount slide has the tendency
to flatten the specimen making it easier to view. Wet mounts are useful for speed and easy
preparation, but they do not usually allow detail to be observed.

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PROCEDURE
 Set aside a clean microscope slide.
 Carefully cut away a small, single layered piece of onion (1-2 cm wide).
 Peel the thin layer of skin (membrane) from the inside surface of your piece of onion. Forceps
may help with this. The membrane looks a bit like soft Scotch tape and should separate
relatively easily from the inside surface of the onion slice.
 Place section of membrane carefully on the microscope slide, trying to keep it as flat as possible
 Place a drop of water on top of the onion peel and study under microscope, note observations

 Remove the slide from the microscope and add a couple of drops of iodine solution to the
section, do not remove the cover slip but put a drop of stain on an outer edge of the cover slip
 To remove excess iodine solution use tissue paper and place it on the edge of the cover slip
 Wait 2 minutes for the stain to diffuse under the coverslip
 Place the slide back on the stage and study the preparation

EXERCISE 2
2.3 Use the space provided in your lab report book to draw a biological diagram of onion (NB: not
more than three epidermal cells) as seen under the light compound microscope. Label the
diagram, provide the title at the bottom of the diagram as well as the magnification (no
calculations should be shown, indicate ONLY the total magnification). (5)
2.2 What is the general shape of onion epidermal cells? (1)
2.3 Why is it easier to view onion epidermal cells when stained with iodine? (1)

23
EXERCISE 3
3.1 How can you distinguish a plant cell from an animal cell? Be specific. (1)
3.2 What are the major differences between plants and animals. (2)

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PRACTICAL 4: TAXONOMY, CLASSIFICATION AND NAMING

ORGANISMS Date:2023

OBJECTIVES
After completing this exercise, you will be able to:
1. Define common name, scientific name, binomial, genus, specific epithet, species, taxonomy,
phylogenetic system, and dichotomous key
2. Distinguish common names from scientific names
3. Explain why scientific names are preferred over common names in biology
4. Identify the genus and specific epithet in a scientific binomial
5. Write out scientific binomials in the form appropriate to the Linnaean system
6. Construct a dichotomous key;

INTRODUCTION
Systematics, or systematic biology, is a broad area of study that deals with topics such as
classification, taxonomy, and nomenclature. The term taxonomy is used when referring specifically
to the process of naming. Nomenclature refers to the actual names or word structure used in names.
Classification of animals is a way to group them based on similar traits. This is an important way to
see how animals are related to each other. They are separated into groups using traits or
characteristics (like whether they have a backbone or not). The way we classify animals and plants
was created by a scientist named Linnaeus. The Linnaeus system classifies plants and animals on
seven levels, using Latin and Greek words. With the development of genome science, the biological
connection between animals is beginning to alter and animals are being more accurately classified.
The classic Linnaeus system which can be shown in the following way. All living things are
classified on the seven levels:
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
(Note that the term phylum is used mostly for animal groups whereas botanists tend to use the term
division to indicate the same level).
Remember that the genus name is underlined and is used as part of the species name. The species
name is a binomial; that is, it has 2 parts or words: the genus name and a modifier word. Both parts
of the species name are underlined (or italicized in print). The first word of the scientific name is
always capitalized, and the second word is always lower case. The advantage of scientific names
should be clear when you consider the variety of common names that most species have in various
places. The panther, for example, is called mountain lion or cougar in some parts of its range, yet
all three names refer to the same species. The value of a classification system to science is threefold.
First, it shows relationships among organisms by grouping together living things that have similar
characteristics. Second, the last two levels of the classification system give the scientific name for
each organism. Third, the two-word name of an organism in the classification system is worldwide.
Classification is a way of separating a large group of closely related organisms into smaller

25
subgroups. With a classification system, identification of an organism is easy. The scientific names
of organisms are based on the classification systems of living organisms.

Using a dichotomous key to identify organism

To identify organisms, scientists assemble taxonomic information, and arrange it in a logical form
called a key. Although there are dozens of types of keys, we will use a dichotomous key: dich
meaning two parts, and tomous, to divide. Therefore, a dichotomous key is a tool used by biologists
to identify organisms in a group through a process of answering yes or no questions about the
organism. Dichotomous means ‘divided into two parts’, as each question about an organism has two
choices. There are dichotomous keys to identify animals, insects, plants and many other things.
When a question is answered, then two more choices are presented until there are no more choices
to be made and you have identified the organism. Thus, each step in a dichotomous key requires the
observer to choose between two alternatives, each associated with other alternatives. Keys are
usually written to particular group of organisms. Thus, while you will not likely find a key to all the
beetles, you will find keys to families of beetles or perhaps a key to species of beetles that occur in
the same family, subfamily, or genus. It is very important to use the proper key so that you correctly
identify the organism in question. A silly example would be an attempt to identify a snake by using
a key to the trees!
A key is a listing of specific characteristics, such as structure and behavior, in such a way that an
organism can be identified. Group names have been established to simplify the complex process of
classifying living things. For example, the largest group is referred to as a kingdom. Each kingdom
is divided into several smaller groups called phyla (singular, phylum). After successive divisions
into smaller and smaller groups, the genus and species are reached. Each living thing is named by
its genus and species. When using a key, always read both choices, even though the first appears to
describe the subject. Since living organisms vary in their characteristics, don’t base your conclusion
on a single specimen if more are available.

Dichotomous key using geometric shapes

PROCEDURE
1. Suppose the geometric shapes below have unfamiliar names.

Look at the dichotomous key in Table 1. Notice there is a 1a and 1b. Start with 1a. If the
description in 1a fits the Figure you are observing better than description 1b, then proceed to the
choices listed under 2, as shown at the end of line 1a. If 1a does not describe the figure in
question, 1b does. Looking at the end of line 1b, you see that the figure would be called an elcric.

26
 Table: 1

Key Choice
1a Figure with distinct corners 2
1b Figure without distinct corners Elcric
2a Figure with 3 sides 3
2b Figure with 4 or more sides 4
3a All sides of equal length Legnairt
3b Only two sides equal Legnairtosi
4a Figure with only right angles Eraqus
4b Figure with other than right angles Nogatco

EXERCISE 1
1.1 Using the key provided from the Table 1 above, determine the hypothetical name for each
object. Write the name beneath the object and then check with the demonstrator to see if you
have made the correct choices. (5)

Dichotomous key using Animal phyla

PROCEDURE
1. Study the twelve animals pictured at the end of this exercise.
2. Use the Dichotomous Key below to identify each of the twelve animals in the pictures.
- Start with question 1 and answer the question about the animal. Based upon your answer to
question 1, you will go to another question.
- Once you go to the next question you are directed to, answer that question.
- Continue this process until you have identified the animal.
- Return to Question 1 and repeat process to identify each new picture/animal

EXERCISE 2
2.1 Write the name of the animal on your report book next to its corresponding number. (12)

Key
1. Do you have a backbone? Yes - Go to number 3
No - you are an insect – Go to number 2
2. Do you change (metamorphosis) from a caterpillar to your adult form?
Yes -you are a butterfly!
No -you are a grasshopper!
3. Do you have gills and scales? Yes -you are a fish!
No – Go to number 4
4. Do you lay eggs? Yes – Go to number 5
No – Go to number 10
5. Do you have feathers? Yes -you are a bird!
No – Go to number 6
6. Do you lay eggs in the water? Yes – Go to number 7
No –Go to number 8

27
7. Do you live on land but come back to the water to lay your eggs?
Yes – Go to number 9
No -you are a pickerel frog!
8. Do you have a protective shell? Yes -you are a turtle!
No -you are a snake!
9. Do you have lots of warty bumps and no tail? Yes -you are a toad!
No -you are a newt (red eft)
10. Are you a carnivore (eat meat)? Yes -you are a fox
No, Go to number 11
11. Are you an omnivore? Yes -you are a raccoon!
No -you are an herbivore – Go to number 12
12. Are you a rodent? Yes -you are a squirrel!
No -you are a moose!

28
Dichotomous key: Animal classification using numbers
The purpose of this exercise is to familiarize you with methods of classifying animals and of
identifying animals whose names are already in existence. In this study, we should also become
familiar with the great diversity within the animal kingdom and come to appreciate some of the
relationships between the various groups of animals. Animal classification relies principally on
external morphology. Review in your resource book the relationship of the terms homology,
implying evolutionary similarity and a common embryonic origin, and the word analogy, which
implies superficial resemblance. In classification, the greater the number of homologous structures
two animals have in common, the more closely they are regarded as related. In this exercise, while
we will not attempt to give names to animals, we will attempt to find names that have already been
given by using numbers. The simplest method of locating the name of an unknown animal is using
an appropriate key.

PROCEDURE
1. All the organisms provided in the Figure below belong to the animal kingdom.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6 9 10 11 12 13

2. Design a classification grouping of animals from the outline provided below.

29
 Kingdom Animalia
(Numbers: 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13)

Phylum ___________________ Phylum ___________________ Phylum ________________

(Numbers: ) (Number ) (Numbers )

Class ____________ Class _________ Class __________ Class _______ Class _________
(Numbers ) (Numbers ) (Numbers ) (Numbers ) (Numbers )

EXERCISE 3
3.1
3.1.1 Using numbers of each animal indicated in the Kingdom Animalia, write those numbers
belonging to same Phylum in the space marked numbers. (3)
3.1.2 Choose a suitable name for each Phylum that helps to show the trait you can use for grouping
the animals. Write the name on the blank space where Phylum is indicated. (3)
1.1.3 Using numbers of each animal, list those animals belonging to the same class in the space
indicated numbers. (5)
3.1.4 Choose a suitable name for each class that helps to show the trait you used for your grouping.
Write the name in the blank space indicated class. (5)
3.2 According to the classification scheme above:
3.2.1 Must each phylum contain equal numbers of organisms? (1)
3.2.2 Must each phylum be separated into the same number of classes? (1)
3.3 A student grouped the animals the above animals into the following two Phyla:
Phylum I: 1, 4, 5, 10, 12
Phylum II: 2, 3, 6, 7, 8 9, 11,13
What may have been the basis for grouping the animals in this way? (1)
3.4 In the Animal Kingdom, one Phylum is the Chordata. Humans, birds, snakes, and frogs
belong to this phylum. List one trait that is used to describe this phylum? (1)

30
 PRACTICAL 5: SURVEY OF SOME ANIMAL PHYLA I

Date:2023

OBJECTIVES:

After completing this exercise, you will be able to

1. define larva, asymmetry, radial symmetry, bilateral symmetry, cephalization, coelom,
pseudocoelom, monoecious, dioecious, invertebrates, spongocoel, osculum, spicules,
choanocyte (collar cell), budding, spongin, polyp, tentacles, medusa, nematocyst,
gastrovascular cavity, epidermis, gastrodermis, mesoglea;
2. list the characteristics of animals;
3. describe how the phyla Porifera and Cnidaria respectively show the cell-specialization and tissue
levels of organization;
4. explain the basic body plan of members of the phyla Porifera and Cnidaria;
5. identify structures (and indicate associated functions) of representatives of phyla
6. describe the tissue and organ-system levels of organization;
7. explain the basic body plan of members of the phyla Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, and arthropoda

INTRODUCTION
Animals are multicellular, oxygen-consuming, heterotrophic organisms that exhibit considerable
motility. Most animals are diploid and reproduce sexually, although asexual reproduction is also
common. The life cycle includes a period of embryonic development, often with a larva – sexually
immature, free-living form that grows and transforms into an adult or equivalent stage. During the
embryonic development of most animals, three primary germ layers – ectoderm, mesoderm, and
endoderm form and give rise to the adult tissues. Evidence accumulated from centuries of study
supports the notion that animals evolved from a group of protistan-like ancestor distinct from those
that gave rise to the plants and fungi

PHYLUM: PORIFERA (Sponges)

Sponges arose early from the main line of animal evolution (Figure below). Most sponges are
marine, and all forms are aquatic. As adults, sponges are sessile, but many disperse as free-
swimming larvae. Although sponges possess a variety of different types of cells, they are atypical
animals in their lack of definite tissues. They exhibit the cell-specialization level of organization, as
there is a division of labor among the different cell types. Cells are organized into layers, but these
associations of cells do not show all the characteristics of tissues. Sponges have a crude radial
symmetry or are asymmetrical. Sponges along with the animals of most phyla are invertebrates-
animals that do not possess a backbone or vertebral column.

31
 Presumed family tree for animals

Three body plans exist in sponges. They are referred to as asconoid, syconoid, and leuconoid and
increase in the complexity of their structure in this order.

Water enters a vase-shaped asconoid sponge through incurrent pores; flows directly to a large central
internal cavity, the spongocoel; and exits through a larger opening, the osculum. A syconoid sponge
is similar, except that the inner side of the body wall pockets in to form radial canals into which
branches of the incurrent canals drain. In a leuconoid sponge, the radial canals are internalized as
chambers within the wall of the sponge. These chambers empty into excurrent canals that in turn
lead to the osculum. Concurrent with the development of increasingly complex patterns of water
flow, the area lined with collar cells, which in asconoid sponges is the inner wall of the spongocoel,
also becomes internalized, first lining the radial canals of syconoid sponges and then the chambers
of leuconoid sponges.

PROCEDURE
Scypha, also called sycon, genus of marine sponges of the class Calcarea (calcareous sponges),
characterized by a fingerlike body shape known as the syconoid type of structure. In the syconoid
sponges, each “finger,” known as a radial canal, is perforated by many tiny pores through which
water passes into a single central cavity. The water exits through an oscule, or larger opening, at the
tip. Water is driven through the sponge by the beating of many hair-like cilia lining the central
cavity.
 With a hand lens examine the general morphology of Scypha (Figure below).
 Identify the osculum.
 Note the pores in the body wall.
 Observe the long spicules surrounding the osculum and the shorter spicules
protruding from the surface of the sponge

32
 Examine a prepared slide of Scypha spicules with your compound microscope, using the
medium-power objective. Spicules are the structural components of a sponge, or the "bricks,"
and the shapes, sizes, and composition are unique for each species. Spicules are composed of
either Calcium or Silica. These sparkling sponge spicules are microscopic needle-like structures
that many sponges use as a structural skeleton and as a defense against predators. When such a
sponge dies, it crumbles into tiny spicules, which become part of the sand in coral reefs. Spicules
are found in a range of symmetry types, monaxons, triaxons, tetraxons, etc.
 Examine a longitudinal section of Scypha (Figure below).

 Trace the path of water as it flowed into and through the sponge in nature.
 Identify each of the following structures:

33
 - Collar cells, which appear as numerous small, dark bodies lining the spongocoel.
Each bears a flagellum
- Pinacoderm, with its flat protective cells (pinacocytes). It covers the outer surface
and incurrent canals, and lines the spongocoel
- Mesohyl, note that between the outer epidermis and inner epidermis lies a region of
gelatinous material sometimes called the mesohyl, embedded in which are amoeboid
cells and spicules.
- Spicules, structural elements found in most sponges. They provide structural support
and deter predators. They are located in the mesohyl.
- Spongocoel, is the large, central cavity of sponges. Depending on the body plan of
the sponge (which can be asconoid, syconoid, or leuconoid), the spongocoel could
be a simple interior space of the sponge or a complexly branched inner structure.
Regardless of body plan or class, the spongocoel is lined with choanocytes, which
have flagella that push water through the spongocoel, creating a current.
- Osculum, is an excretory structure in the living sponge, a large opening to the outside
through which the current of water exits after passing through the spongocoel.
- Porocytes, are tubular cells which make up the pores of a sponge known as ostia. The
lumen of the tube forms the ostium, and the outer end of the cell can be closed or
opened by contraction.

EXERCISE 1
1.1 Complete the Summary Table provided in the report book by filling in all information for
sponge (Scypha) characteristics. (3)
1.2 Define cell specialization and indicate how sponges exhibit this phenomenon. (2)

PHYLUM: CNIDARIA (Cnidarians)

This phylum contains some of the most beautiful organisms in the seas. Adult bodies are sac- or
bell-shaped and their mouths are surrounded with tentacles that move in response to water currents.
Many are brightly colored and look like plants or flowers. Cnidarians branched early from the
Protistan-like ancestors that gave rise to the main line of evolution from which other animals sprang.
These animals are aquatic and found mostly in shallow marine environments, with the notable
exception of the freshwater hydras. Cnidarians have definite tissues and thus show a tissue level of
organization. They are mostly radially symmetrical. Members of this phylum have guts and definite
nerve nets. Two main body forms exist in cnidarians (Figure below): a polyp that is cylindrical in
shape, with the oral end and tentacles directed upward and the aboral (away from the mouth) surface
attached to the sea floor or freshwater bed and a free-swimming medusa (jellyfish) that is bell or
umbrella shaped, with the oral end and tentacles directed downward. Either or both body forms may
be present in the Cnidarian life cycle. Also, found throughout the group is a larval form called a
planula.

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Cnidarians are efficient predators. All are carnivores that use their tentacles to capture unwary
invertebrate and vertebrate prey. Food is captured with the aid of stinging elements called
nematocysts (Figure below). The nematocysts are discharged by a combination of mechanical and
chemical stimuli. The prey is either pierced by the nematocyst or entangled in its filament and pulled
toward the mouth by the tentacles. In some species, nematocysts discharge a toxin that paralyzes
the prey. The mouth opens to receive the food, which is deposited in the gut. Digestion is started in
the gut cavity by enzymes secreted by its lining. It is completed inside the lining cells after they
engulf the partially digested food

Most species in this phylum are marine; however, there are a few freshwater species, including the
microscopic solitary organism Hydra. The phylum is divided into four (4) classes:
1. Class Hydrozoa - most with polyp and medusa stage with polyp dominant; many colonials;
examples, Hydra and Obelia.
2. Class Scyphozoa (Jellyfish) - most with polyp and medusa stage with medusa dominant;
example, Aurelia.
3. Class Cubozoa (Box Jellyfish) - box like shape, the most poisonous jellyfish; example, Chironex
4. Class Anthozoa - polyp stage only; many colonials; calcium carbonate exoskeleton; example,
sea anemone.

PROCEDURE
 Hydra will be used as an example in this investigation.
 Use Solomon et, al (2015, 10th Ed.), page 638, Figure 31-2 and 640 Figure 31- 4, as a reference,
examine a model of Hydra and note its structure.
 Study a prepared slide of Hydra under a microscope, using LOW POWER, compare your
observations with the model and textbook Figures. It will be necessary to move the slide around
to see the entire animal.
 Locate the epidermis, gastrodermis, mesoglea, gastrovascular cavity, tentacles, mouth, and basal
disc.

EXERCISE 2
2.1 Draw and label following parts of the Hydra: epidermis, gastrovascular cavity, basal disc,
mouth, and tentacles. Draw what you observed but not what is in the textbook (6)

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2.2 What is the function of tentacles? (1)
2.3 What are nematocysts? (1)
2.4 List the functions of the gastrovascular cavity? (1)
2.5 Complete the summary Table for Hydra characteristics in the report book. (3)

PHYLUM: PLATYHELMINTHES
Species in the phylum Platyhelminthes, the flatworms, exhibit several structural advances over the
cnidarians. The nonparasitic forms contain well-developed organ systems including digestive,
excretory, reproductive, nervous, and muscular systems. In the parasitic species, many of these
systems have been reduced or modified through adaptation to a parasitic way of life. For example,
the neuromuscular system is reduced in parasitic flatworms so that only limited movement is
possible. In tapeworms, the digestive system is absent since nutrients are obtained from the host's
intestine by absorption. the greatly enlarged reproductive system of parasitic species produces
enormous numbers of eggs, insuring that the species will infect other hosts and continue to thrive.
Planarians are free-living flatworms; that is, they are not parasitic, and their body is dorsoventrally
flattened. They are found under rocks, leaves, and debris in freshwater pods and creeks. They move
over these surfaces using a combination of muscles in their body wall and cilia on their ventral sides.
The phylum is divided into three classes:
1. Class: Turbellaria - free living, mostly aquatic; Dugesia, Bipalium
2. Class: Trematoda - parasitic liver and blood flukes; Fasciola and Schistosoma
3. Class: Cestoda- tapeworms; Taenia

PROCEDURE
 Observe the prepared slide of Planaria whole mount and compare your observations with those
in your textbook (Solomon, et al. 2015. Figure 31-8, page 644.
 Note the obvious bilateral symmetry and flattened body of the animal.
 Distinguish the broad anterior and somewhat pointed posterior. Also, distinguish between dorsal
and ventral surfaces.
 Locate these structures: eyespot, auricles, mouth, pharynx, anterior and posterior branches of
intestines, and reproductive organs.

EXERCISE 3
3.1 Label the diagram of Planaria (Dugesia) provided in your laboratory report book. (4)
3.2 Which cells found in flatworms help remove excess water from the body? (1)
3.3 Complete the summary Table for Planarian characteristics provided in the report workbook.
(3)

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PRACTICAL 6: SURVEY OF THE ANIMAL PHYLA

Date: 2023

PHYLUM: MOLLUSCA
Second only to the phylum Arthropoda in numbers of species, the phylum Mollusca includes
thousands of species living in many diverse habitats. Most are marine. Others live in freshwater or
on land. Many mollusks are of economic importance, being favorite human foods. The term
"mollusk" means soft-bodied. Besides being soft-bodied, most mollusks share four characteristic
features: (1) a hard-external shell for protection; (2) a thin structure called the mantle, which secretes
the shell; (3) a visceral mass in which most organs are located; and (4) a muscular foot used for
locomotion. The phylum is divided into four classes:
1. Class Polyplacophora: Shell composed of eight separates; marine; example Chiton
2. Class Gastropoda: Includes snails, slugs, conchs, sea slugs; spirally coiled shell; head with
tentacles; simple eyes; torsion.
3. Class Bivalvia: Includes clams, oysters, mussels, scallops; two-part shell;
4. Class Cephalopoda: Includes octopods, squids, cuttlefish, nautilus; Fast-swimming predators
with mouths surrounded by tentacles and a large head with complex eyes

PROCEDURE
 In this investigation, you will examine a Cephalopoda called the Squid. The foot of these
mollusks is divided into arms and tentacles around the mouth, which are used to capture prey.
Cephalopods can move through their environment with jet propulsion, drawing water into and
out of the mantle cavity through a siphon.
 Study the whole preserved specimen and a model of a squid. Referencing your textbook, note
the head, tentacles, and two large eyes. The orientation of the squid is unusual. The head and
tentacles represent the ventral surface and the opposite end bearing two fins is the dorsal surface.
 The body is covered by a mantle that forms a sheath around the visceral mass. At the junction
of the mantle and the head, on the posterior surface, find the siphon. Water is drawn into the
mantle cavity through the siphon by contraction of muscles in the mantle. This allows the animal
to swim rapidly by jet propulsion. Steering is accomplished by varying the direction of discharge
from the funnel, by movement of the arms, and by movement of the fins. The squid's body is
stiffened by a longitudinal skeleton, the quill/pen (gladius). It consists of chitin, a complex
polysaccharide. Feel the quill embedded in the anterior mantle (side opposite that bearing the
siphon).
 Locate the eight arms and two tentacles ("grasping arms") found attached to the head. Compare
the two body parts.
 Locate the eyes. Describe their location. (Dorsal, ventral, lateral, anterior, posterior)
 Locate the Mouth. It is found in-between the arms of the squid.
 On the Ventral surface locate the siphon or funnel. What is this structure's function?
 At the posterior end of the squid, locate the two fins. What are these used for?
 Look centrally in the body cavity for the ink sac. It is black in colour and has a tube leading to
the siphon. When disturbed, a pigment is released from the sac into the water in the mantle
cavity. The cloudy suspension leaves the siphon, forming a confusing cloud that allows the squid
to escape predators

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EXERCISE 1
1.1 Label the diagram of a squid provided in your report book. (8)
1.2 To what kingdom does a squid belong? (1)
1.3 To what phylum does a squid belong? (1)
1.4 How many arms does the squid have? (1)
1.5 How is the squid’s eye like that of vertebrates? (1)

PHYLUM: ARTHROPODA
The arthropods are animals that have jointed legs. This group of animals is the most successful on
Earth because of the number of species, and how well they can adapt to their environment. Evidence
indicates that arthropods may have lived on Earth half a million years ago. They may be found in
almost every imaginable habitat: marine waters, fresh water, and almost every terrestrial niche.
Many species are directly beneficial to humans, serving as a source of food. Others make humans
miserable by eating their homes, infesting their domestic animals, eating their food, and biting their
bodies. All the animals in a specific phylum have many similar characteristics. An examination of
representative animals of phylum Arthropoda would reveal certain similar characteristics. A list of
these characteristics would form the basis for deciding if other animals should or should not be
classified as arthropods. Within a phylum, however, are a few smaller groups called classes. Certain
differences among members of Arthropoda can be used to group this large phylum into different
classes.

PROCEDURE
 Use the specific characteristics in the word box as a guide for completing the following exercise.
Some characteristics can be used more than once.
 Examine the diagram of each animal and decide if the animal do or do not show the trait being
provided.

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 Rounded Flat
Two pairs of legs per segment Gills
One pair of legs per segment Two pairs of antennae
No antennae Three pairs of legs
Segmented body One pair of antennae
Flexible exoskeleton Hard exoskeleton
Four pairs of legs Three body sections
Two body sections

EXERCISE 2
2.1 Use the word box above as a guide to characterize the following classes of animals. (10)

Diplopoda Chilopoda

The Crustaceans Arachnida The Insects

CLASS: INSECTA
Insects are invertebrates with jointed legs, segmented bodies, and an exoskeleton. There are more
than twenty-five different orders of insects. Many orders are of minor importance. Scientists
sometimes disagree on the number of orders and their names, so there can be some variation. Each
of the Classes of arthropods, including the insects, are split into several smaller groups, which reflect
progressively more detailed structural similarities between the group members. These smaller
groups follow a strict hierarchy. You will only consider seven of the more common orders in this
investigation.

PROCEDURE
 In this investigation, common names of animals are provided in the word box.
 Each name is associated with a specific order of a taxonomic group.
 Study the orders of Insecta supplied below.

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 Coleoptera Diptera Hemiptera

Orthoptera

Lepidoptera Hymenoptera Odonata

Stag beetle Honeybee

Ladybug Mosquito
Ant Back swimmer
Giant water bug Dragon fly
Damselfly Butterfly
Grasshopper Silkworm moth
Praying mantis house fly

EXERCISE 3
3.1 Use the terms in the word box to complete the chart. (7)
3.2 List the four major groups of arthropods. (2)
3.3 What happens to the exoskeleton when an arthropod grows? (1)
3.4 Write the common name for each of the following Arachnids. (3)

A B C

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PHYLUM: ECHINODERMATA
Echinoderms are solitary, marine, coelomates with a generally pentamerous radial symmetry; part
of the coelom is converted into a system of channels called the water vascular system, usually
communicating with the external medium through a sieve-like calcareous plate, the madreporite;
thin-walled extensions of the water vascular system (podia) carried on special modified tracts of the
body wall; endoskeleton of separate calcareous plates or ossicles, often provided with external
spines. The phylum is divided into five classes:
- Class Crinoidea: Includes feather stars and sea lilies. Feather stars are motile; sea lilies are
sessile. They are filter feeders.
- Class Asteroidea: Includes sea stars and sea daisies. Bodies have a central disc with arms.
Under each arm are many pairs of tube feet.
- Class Ophiuroidea: Includes basket stars and brittle stars. They use their arms for
locomotion.
- Class Echinoidea: Includes sand dollars and sea urchins. Have no arms; skeletal plates are
flattened and fused to form a solid shell (test). Sand dollars have small spines, but sea
urchins have long
- Class Holothuroidea: Include the sea cucumbers. Mouth surrounded by modified tube feet.

PROCEDURE
 The star fish will be used as an example. The class constitute a large class with some 2000
species. They are often referred to as spiny-skinned animals because their bodies are covered
by hundreds of spines. All starfishes inhabit rocky or sandy bottoms mainly in the littoral zone
where there is an abundance of bivalve molluscs – its main diet.
 Making use of both the preserved specimen and model study the external structure of the
starfish. Put the sea star, top surface up, in the dissecting trap. Notice that the sea star’s body
has five arms radiating from a central disk.

 Using a hand lens, examine the skin on the top surface. Notice the many coarse spines that cover
the entire top surface. The skin is spiny and irregular because parts of the endoskeleton protrude
through the skin. Around the base of the spines are jaw-like structures. They capture small
animals and keep the skin free of foreign objects.
 Study the dorsal surface. Locate the following parts:

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 - Central disc; centre of animal, part of which “arms” are attached
- Rays; large “arms” numbering five
- Madreporite plate; small yellow or red structure on the central disc
- Anus; opening in centre of central disc, difficult to observe. The anus, which opens out from
the intestine, lets solid wastes escape from the body.
- Eye spot; structure at the tip end of each arm
 Turn the sea star over so that its bottom surface is visible. With the hand lens, examine the
mouth, an opening in the middle of the central disc. Notice the small spines that surround the
mouth. Many types of sea stars feed by pushing part of the stomach through the mouth. The
stomach secretes enzymes that digest prey.
 Find the grooves (ambulacral grooves) that begin at the mouth and extend down the centre of
each arm. Find the small tube feet that line the grooves. The tube feet are part of the water
vascular system. A tube foot is a hollow, thin-walled cylinder with a bulb-like structure at one
end and a sucker at the tip.

EXERCISE 4
4.1 Provide the Kingdom, Phylum and Class of the Starfish. (3)
4.2 Explain why members of this phylum are called spiny-skinned animals? (1)
4.3 On which surface is the mouth located? (1)
4.4 Label the parts of the diagram provided in the report book. (7)
4.5 What kind of symmetry does a sea star have? (1)

OOooOO

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